Cryolite

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Cryolite (Na3AlF6, sodium hexafluoroaluminate) is an uncommon mineral identified with the
once large deposit at Ivigtt on the west coast of Greenland, depleted by 1987.

The cryolite mine Ivigtut, Greenland, summer 1940

It was historically used as an ore of aluminium and later in the electrolytic processing of the
aluminium-rich oxide ore bauxite (itself a combination of aluminium oxide minerals such as
gibbsite, boehmite and diaspore). The difficulty of separating aluminium from oxygen in the
oxide ores was overcome by the use of cryolite as a flux to dissolve the oxide mineral(s). Pure
cryolite itself melts at 1012 C (1285 K), and it can dissolve the aluminium oxides sufficiently
well to allow easy extraction of the aluminium by electrolysis. Substantial energy is still needed
for both heating the materials and the electrolysis, but it is much more energy-efficient than
melting the oxides themselves. Now, as natural cryolite is too rare to be used for this purpose,
synthetic sodium aluminium fluoride is produced from the common mineral fluorite.

Cryolite's unit cell

Cryolite occurs as glassy, colorless, white-reddish to gray-black prismatic monoclinic crystals. It
has a Mohs hardness of 2.5 to 3 and a specific gravity of about 2.95 to 3.0. It is translucent to
transparent with a very low refractive index of about 1.34, which is very close to that of water;
thus if immersed in water, cryolite becomes essentially invisible.[5]
Cryolite has also been reported at Pikes Peak, Colorado; Mont Saint-Hilaire, Quebec; and at
Miass, Russia. It is also known in small quantities in Brazil, the Czech Republic, Namibia,
Norway, Ukraine, and several American states.
Cryolite was first described in 1799 from a deposit of it in Ivigtut and Arksukfiord, West
Greenland. The name is derived from the Greek language words cry = chill, and liths = stone.
[2]
The Pennsylvania Salt Manufacturing Company used large amounts of cryolite to make caustic
soda at its Natrona, Pennsylvania works during the 19th and 20th centuries.

Pesticide and insecticide

Cryolite is used as a insecticide and a pesticide.[6]

References
1.

^ Gaines, Richard V., et al (1997) Danas New Mineralogy, Wiley, 8th, ISBN 9780-471-19310-4

2.

^ a b Cryolite: Cryolite mineral information and data. Mindat.org (2010-10-03).

Retrieved on 2010-10-25.

3.

^ Cryolite Mineral Data. Webmineral.com. Retrieved on 2010-10-25.

4.

^ Cryolite, Handbook of Mineralogy. Retrieved on 2010-10-25.

5.

^ a b Hurlbut, Cornelius S.; Klein, Cornelis, 1985, Manual of Mineralogy, 20th

ed., John Wiley and Sons, New York ISBN 0-471-80580-7

6.

^ EPA R.E.D. FACTS Cryolite

http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/REDs/factsheets/0087fact.pdf

Phase transitions and volumetric properties of cryolite, Na3AlF6: Differential thermal

analysis to 100 MPa; American Mineralogist; January 2006; v. 91; no. 1; p. 97-103;
doi:10.2138/am.2006.1772

Dolomite
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the rock and mineral. For other uses, see Dolomite
(disambiguation).

Dolomite

Dolomite and magnesite Spain

General
Category

Carbonate mineral

Formula

(CaMg)(CO3)2

(repeating
unit)

Strunz
05.AB.10
classification
Crystal
symmetry

Trigonal rhombohedral, 3

Unit cell

a = 4.8012(1) , c = 16.002 ;
Z=3
Identification

Color

White, gray to pink

Tabular crystals, often with

Crystal habit curved faces, also columnar,
stalactitic, granular, massive.
Crystal
system

Trigonal

Twinning

Common as simple contact

twins

Cleavage

Perfect on {1011},
rhombohedral cleavage

Fracture

Conchoidal

Tenacity

Brittle

Mohs scale
hardness

3.5 to 4

Luster

Vitreous to pearly

Streak

White

Specific
gravity

2.842.86

Optical
properties

Uniaxial (-)

Refractive
index

n = 1.6791.681 n = 1.500

Birefringence = 0.1790.181

Poorly soluble in dilute HCl

unless powdered.

Solubility

Other
May fluoresce white to pink
characteristi
under UV; triboluminescent.
cs
[1][2][3][4]

References

Dolomite ( /dlmat/) is a carbonate mineral composed of calcium magnesium carbonate

CaMg(CO3)2. The term is also used to describe the sedimentary carbonate rock dolostone.
Dolostone (dolomite rock) is composed predominantly of the mineral dolomite with a
stoichiometric ratio of 50% or greater content of magnesium replacing calcium, often as a result
of diagenesis. Limestone that is partially replaced by dolomite is referred to as dolomitic
limestone, or in old U.S. geologic literature as magnesian limestone.
Contents

1 History

2 Properties

3 Formation
o

3.1 Coral atolls

4 Uses

5 See also

6 References

History

Dolomite was first described by the Austrian naturalist Belsazar Hacquet as the "stinking stone"
(German: Stinkstein, Latin: lapis suillus in 1778).[5][6] In 1791, it was described as a rock by the
French naturalist and geologist, Dodat Gratet de Dolomieu (17501801) from exposures in
what are now known as the Dolomite Alps of northern Italy. The mineral was given its name in
March 1792 by Nicolas de Saussure.[7] Hacquet and Dolomieu met in Laibach (Ljubljana) in
1784,[8] which may have contributed to Dolomieu's work.[6]
Properties

The mineral dolomite crystallizes in the trigonal-rhombohedral system. It forms white, gray to
pink, commonly curved (saddle shape) crystals, although it is usually massive. Unlike calcite,
dolomite is a double carbonate, having a different structural arrangement, and it does not rapidly
dissolve or effervesce (fizz) in dilute hydrochloric acid unless it is scratched or in powdered
form. Crystal twinning is common. A solid solution series exists between dolomite and iron rich
ankerite. Small amounts of iron in the structure give the crystals a yellow to brown tint.
Manganese substitutes in the structure also up to about three percent MnO. A high manganese
content gives the crystals a rosy pink color noted in the image above. A series with the
manganese rich kutnohorite may exist. Lead and zinc also substitute in the structure for
magnesium. It is also related to huntite Mg3Ca(CO3)4.
Formation

Vast deposits are present in the geological record, but the mineral is relatively rare in modern
environments. Laboratory synthesis of stoichiometric dolomite has been carried out only at
temperatures of greater than 100 C (conditions typical of burial in sedimentary basins), even
though much dolomite in the rock record appears to have formed in low-temperature conditions.
The high temperature is likely to speed up the movement of calcium and magnesium ions so that
they can find their places in the ordered structure within a reasonable amount of time. This
suggests that the lack of dolomite that is being formed today is likely due to kinetic factors, i.e.
due to the lack of kinetic energy or temperature.

Dolomite druse from Lawrence County, Arkansas, USA (size: 24188 cm)

Modern dolomite does occur as a precipitating mineral in specialized environments on the

surface of the earth today. In the 1950s and 60s, dolomite was found to be forming in highly
saline lakes in the Coorong region of South Australia. Dolomite crystals also occur in deep-sea
sediments, where organic matter content is high. This dolomite is termed "organogenic"
dolomite.
Recent research has found modern dolomite formation under anaerobic conditions in
supersaturated saline lagoons along the Rio de Janeiro coast of Brazil, namely, Lagoa Vermelha

and Brejo do Espinho. One interesting reported case was the formation of dolomite in the
kidneys of a Dalmatian dog.[9] This was believed to be due to chemical processes triggered by
bacteria. Dolomite has been speculated to develop under these conditions with the help of
sulfate-reducing bacteria (e.g. Desulfovibrio brasiliensis).[10][11]

Dolomite.

The actual role of bacteria in the low-temperature formation of dolomite remains to be

demonstrated. The specific mechanism of dolomitization, involving sulfate-reducing bacteria,
has not yet been demonstrated.[12]
Dolomite appears to form in many different types of environment and can have varying
structural, textural and chemical characteristics. Some researchers have stated "there are
dolomites and dolomites", meaning that there may not be one single mechanism by which
dolomite can form. Much modern dolomite differs significantly from the bulk of the dolomite
found in the rock record, leading researchers to speculate that environments where dolomite
formed in the geologic past differ significantly from those where it forms today.

Dolomite bedrock underneath a Bristlecone Pine, White Mountains, California.

Reproducible laboratory syntheses of dolomite (and magnesite) leads first to the initial
precipitation of a metastable "precursor" (such as magnesium calcite), to be changed gradually
into more and more of the stable phase (such as dolomite or magnesite) during periodical

intervals of dissolution and reprecipitation. The general principle governing the course of this
irreversible geochemical reaction has been coined Ostwald's step rule.
For a very long time scientists had difficulties synthesizing dolomite. However, in a 1999 study,
through a process of dissolution alternating with intervals of precipitation, measurable levels of
dolomite were synthesized at low temperatures and pressures.[13]
Coral atolls

Dolomitization of calcite also occurs at certain depths of coral atolls where water is
undersaturated in calcium carbonate but saturated in dolomite. Convection created by tides and
sea currents enhance this change. Hydrothermal currents created by volcanoes under the atoll
may also play an important role.
Uses

Dolomite with chalcopyrite from the Tri-state district, Cherokee County, Kansas
(size: 11.47.24.6 cm)

Dolomite is used as an ornamental stone, a concrete aggregate, a source of magnesium oxide and
in the Pidgeon process for the production of magnesium. It is an important petroleum reservoir
rock, and serves as the host rock for large strata-bound Mississippi Valley-Type (MVT) ore
deposits of base metals such as lead, zinc, and copper. Where calcite limestone is uncommon or
too costly, dolomite is sometimes used in its place as a flux for the smelting of iron and steel.
Large quantities of processed dolomite are used in the production of float glass.
In horticulture, dolomite and dolomitic limestone are added to soils and soilless potting mixes to
lower their acidity and as a magnesium source. Home and container gardening are common
examples of this use.
Dolomite is also used as the substrate in marine (saltwater) aquariums to help buffer changes in
pH of the water.

Particle physics researchers prefer to build particle detectors under layers of dolomite to enable
the detectors to detect the highest possible number of exotic particles. Because dolomite contains
relatively minor quantities of radioactive materials, it can insulate against interference from
cosmic rays without adding to background radiation levels.[14]
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Dolomite

List of minerals

Evaporite

References
1.

^ Deer, W. A., R. A. Howie and J. Zussman (1966) An Introduction to

the Rock Forming Minerals, Longman, pp. 489493. ISBN 0-582-44210-9.

2.

^ Dolomite. Handbook of Mineralogy. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2011-10-10.

3.

^ Dolomite. Webmineral. Retrieved on 2011-10-10.

4.

^ Dolomite. Mindat.org. Retrieved on 2011-10-10.

5.

^ Felizardo, Alexandre. "Baltazar Hacquet (17391815}" (in Spanish).

Cavernas em Foco. Bookess. p. 119. ISBN 9788562418938.

6.

^ a b Kranjc, Andrej (2006). "Balthasar Hacquet (1739/40-1815), the

Pionneer of Karst Geomorphologists". Acta Carsologica (Institute for the Karst
Research, Scientific Research Centre, Slovenian Academy of Sciences and
Arts) 35 (2). ISSN 0583-6050.

7.

^ Gardien, Guy (2002). "Introduction" (in French). Dodat Gratet de

Dolomieu. Editions Publibook. p. 9. ISBN 9782748312386.

8.

^ umrada, Janez (2001). "iga Zois in Dodat de Dolomieu" (in

Slovene, with an English abstract). Kronika: asopis za slovensko krajevno
zgodovino [The Chronicle: the Newspaper for the Slovenian History of Places]
(Association of Slovenian Historical Societies, Section for the History of
Places) 49 (1/2): 65-72. ISSN 0023-4923.

9.

^ Mansfield, Charles F. (1980). "A urolith of biogenic dolomite another

clue in the dolomite mystery". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta (6): 829
839. doi:10.1016/0016-7037(80)90264-1.

10.

^ Vasconcelos C., McKenzie J. A., Bernasconi S., Grujic D., Tien A. J.

(1995). "Microbial mediation as a possible mechanism for natural dolomite
formation at low temperatures". Nature 337: 220222.
doi:10.1038/377220a0.

11.

^ Warthmann R., van Lith Y., Vasconcelos C., McKenzie J. A., Karpoff A.
M. (2000). "Bacterially induced dolomite precipitation in anoxic culture
experiments". Geology 28: 10911094. doi:10.1130/00917613(2000)28<1091:BIDPIA>2.0.CO;2.

12.

^ Yvonne van Lith et al. (2000). "Role of Sulfate Reducing Bacteria

During Microbial Dolomite Precipitation as Deduced from Culture
Experiments". Journal of Conference Abstracts 5 (2): 1038.

13.

^ Deelman, J.C. (1999): "Low-temperature nucleation of magnesite and

dolomite", Neues Jahrbuch fr Mineralogie, Monatshefte, pp. 289302.

14.

^ Short Sharp Science: Particle quest: Hunting for Italian WIMPs

underground. Newscientist.com (2011-09-05). Retrieved on 2011-10-10.

Magnesite
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

Magnesite

Category
Formula
(repeating unit)

General
Carbonate mineral
MgCO3

Strunz
classification
Color
Crystal habit
Crystal system
Cleavage
Fracture
Tenacity
Mohs scale
hardness
Luster
Streak
Diaphaneity
Specific gravity
Optical
properties
Refractive index
Fusibility
Solubility
Other
characteristics
References

05.AB.05
Identification
Colorless, white, pale yellow, pale
brown, faintly pink, lilac-rose
Usually massive, rarely as
rhombohedrons or hexagonal
prisms
Trigonal - Hexagonal
Scalenohedral H-M Symbol 32/m
Space Group: R3c
[1011] perfect
Conchoidal
Brittle
3.5 - 4.5
Vitreous
white
Transparent to translucent
3.0 - 3.2
Uniaxial (-)
n=1.508 - 1.510 n=1.700
infusible
Effervesces in hot HCl
May exhibit pale green to pale blue
fluorescence and phosphorescence
under UV; triboluminescent
[1][2][3][4]

Magnesite is magnesium carbonate, MgCO3. Iron (as Fe2+) substitutes for magnesium (Mg) with
a complete solution series with siderite, FeCO3. Calcium, manganese, cobalt, and nickel may also
occur in small amounts. Dolomite, (Mg,Ca)CO3, is almost indistinguishable from magnesite.

Contents

1 Occurrence

2 Formation

3 Uses

4 References

Occurrence
Magnesite occurs as veins in and an alteration product of ultramafic rocks, serpentinite and other
magnesium rich rock types in both contact and regional metamorphic terranes. These magnesites
often are cryptocrystalline and contain silica as opal or chert.
Magnesite is also present within the regolith above ultramafic rocks as a secondary carbonate
within soil and subsoil, where it is deposited as a consequence of dissolution of magnesiumbearing minerals by carbon dioxide within groundwaters.

Formation
Magnesite can be formed via talc carbonate metasomatism of peridotite and other ultrabasic
rocks. Magnesite is formed via carbonation of olivine in the presence of water and carbon
dioxide, and is favored at moderate temperatures and pressures typical of greenschist facies;
Magnesite can also be formed via the carbonation of magnesian serpentine (lizardite) via the
following reaction:
Serpentine + carbon dioxide Talc + magnesite + Water
2Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 + 3CO2 Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 + 3MgCO3 + H2O
Forsterite magnesia-rich olivine compositions favor production of magnesite from peridotite.
Fayalitic (iron-rich) olivine favors production of magnetite-magnesite-silica compositions.
Magnesite can also be formed from metasomatism in skarn deposits, in dolomitic limestones,
associated with wollastonite, periclase, and talc.
Magnesite is also found in a number of Precambrian carbonate hosted sediments, and is thought
to have formed as an evaporite.

Uses

Dyed and polished magnesite beads

Magnesite can be used as a slag former in steelmaking furnaces, in conjunction with lime, to
protect the magnesium oxide lining. It can also be used as a catalyst and filler in the production
of synthetic rubber and in the preparation of magnesium chemicals and fertilizers.
Similar to the production of lime, magnesite can be burned in the presence of charcoal to
produce MgO, otherwise known as periclase. Such periclase is an important product in refractory
materials.
Magnesite can also be used as a binder in flooring material.
In fire assay, magnesite cupels can be used for cupellation as the magnesite cupel will resist the
high temperatures involved.
It is dyed to make beads, as is howlite.

References
1.

^ http://rruff.geo.arizona.edu/doclib/hom/magnesite.pdf Handbook of Mineralogy

2.

^ http://www.mindat.org/min-2482.html Mindat.org

3.

^ http://webmineral.com/data/Magnesite.shtml Webmineral data

4.

^ Klein, Cornelis and Cornelius S. Hurlbut, Jr., Manual of Mineralogy, Wiley,

20th ed., p. 332 ISBN 0-471-80580-7

Smithsonian Rock and Gem ISBN 0-7566-0962-3

Sphalerite

Sphalerite on dolomite from the Tri-State District,

Jasper County, Missouri, USA
General
Category
Sulfide mineral
Formula
(Zn,Fe)S
(repeating unit)

Strunz
classification
Dana
classification

02.CB.05a
02.08.02.01

Identification
Color
Brown, yellow, red, green, black.
Euhedral crystals occurs as wellformed crystals showing good
Crystal habit
external form. Granular generally
occurs as anhedral to subhedral
crystals in matrix.
Crystal system Isometric hextetrahedral (4 3m)
Simple contact twins or complex
Twinning
lamellar forms, twin axis [111]
Cleavage
[110] perfect
Fracture
Uneven to conchoidal
Mohs scale
3.5-4
hardness
Luster
Adamantine, resinous, greasy
Streak
brownish white, pale yellow
Transparent to translucent, opaque
Diaphaneity
when iron-rich
Specific gravity 3.94.2

Optical
Isotropic
properties
Refractive index n = 2.369
Other
non-radioactive, non-magnetic,
characteristics fluorescent and triboluminescent.
[1][2][3]
References
Sphalerite ((Zn,Fe)S) is a mineral that is the chief ore of zinc. It consists largely of zinc sulfide
in crystalline form but almost always contains variable iron. When iron content is high it is an
opaque black variety, marmatite. It is usually found in association with galena, pyrite, and other
sulfides along with calcite, dolomite, and fluorite. Miners have also been known to refer to
sphalerite as zinc blende and black-jack.

Contents

1 Chemistry

2 Varieties

3 Occurrence

4 Gemstone use

5 See also

6 References

7 External links

Chemistry

The crystal structure of sphalerite

The mineral crystallizes in the cubic crystal system. In the crystal structure, zinc and sulfur
atoms are tetrahedrally coordinated. The structure is closely related to the structure of diamond.
The hexagonal analog is known as the wurtzite structure. The lattice constant for zinc sulfide in
the zincblende crystal structure is 0.541 nm,[4] calculated from geometry and ionic radii of
0.074 nm (zinc) and 0.184 nm (sulfide). It forms ABCABC layers.

Varieties

Sharp, tetrahedral sphalerite crystals with minor associated chalcopyrite from the Idarado Mine,
Telluride, Ouray District, Colorado, USA (size: 2.32.31.2 cm)
Its color is usually yellow, brown, or gray to gray-black, and it may be shiny or dull. Its luster is
adamantine, resinous to submetallic for high iron varieties. It has a yellow or light brown streak,
a Mohs hardness of 3.54, and a specific gravity of 3.94.1. Some specimens have a red
iridescence within the gray-black crystals; these are called "ruby sphalerite." The pale yellow and
red varieties have very little iron and are translucent. The darker more opaque varieties contain
more iron. Some specimens are also fluorescent in ultraviolet light. The refractive index of
sphalerite (as measured via sodium light, 589.3 nm) is 2.37. Sphalerite crystallizes in the
isometric crystal system and possesses perfect dodecahedral cleavage. Gemmy, pale specimens
from Franklin, New Jersey (see Franklin Furnace) are highly fluorescent orange and/or blue
under longwave ultraviolet light and are known as cleiophane, an almost pure ZnS variety.

Sphalerite

Sphalerite on dolomite from the Tri-State District,

Jasper County, Missouri, USA

General
Category
Sulfide mineral
Formula
(Zn,Fe)S
(repeating unit)

Strunz
classification
Dana
classification

02.CB.05a
02.08.02.01

Identification
Color
Brown, yellow, red, green, black.
Euhedral crystals occurs as wellformed crystals showing good
Crystal habit
external form. Granular generally
occurs as anhedral to subhedral
crystals in matrix.
Crystal system Isometric hextetrahedral (4 3m)
Simple contact twins or complex
Twinning
lamellar forms, twin axis [111]
Cleavage
[110] perfect
Fracture
Uneven to conchoidal
Mohs scale
3.5-4
hardness
Luster
Adamantine, resinous, greasy
Streak
brownish white, pale yellow
Transparent to translucent, opaque
Diaphaneity
when iron-rich
Specific gravity 3.94.2
Optical
Isotropic
properties
Refractive index n = 2.369
Other
non-radioactive, non-magnetic,
characteristics fluorescent and triboluminescent.
[1][2][3]
References
Sphalerite ((Zn,Fe)S) is a mineral that is the chief ore of zinc. It consists largely of zinc sulfide
in crystalline form but almost always contains variable iron. When iron content is high it is an
opaque black variety, marmatite. It is usually found in association with galena, pyrite, and other
sulfides along with calcite, dolomite, and fluorite. Miners have also been known to refer to
sphalerite as zinc blende and black-jack.

Contents

1 Chemistry

2 Varieties

3 Occurrence

4 Gemstone use

5 See also

6 References

7 External links

Chemistry

The crystal structure of sphalerite

The mineral crystallizes in the cubic crystal system. In the crystal structure, zinc and sulfur
atoms are tetrahedrally coordinated. The structure is closely related to the structure of diamond.
The hexagonal analog is known as the wurtzite structure. The lattice constant for zinc sulfide in
the zincblende crystal structure is 0.541 nm,[4] calculated from geometry and ionic radii of
0.074 nm (zinc) and 0.184 nm (sulfide). It forms ABCABC layers.

Varieties

Sharp, tetrahedral sphalerite crystals with minor associated chalcopyrite from the Idarado Mine,
Telluride, Ouray District, Colorado, USA (size: 2.32.31.2 cm)
Its color is usually yellow, brown, or gray to gray-black, and it may be shiny or dull. Its luster is
adamantine, resinous to submetallic for high iron varieties. It has a yellow or light brown streak,
a Mohs hardness of 3.54, and a specific gravity of 3.94.1. Some specimens have a red
iridescence within the gray-black crystals; these are called "ruby sphalerite." The pale yellow and
red varieties have very little iron and are translucent. The darker more opaque varieties contain
more iron. Some specimens are also fluorescent in ultraviolet light. The refractive index of
sphalerite (as measured via sodium light, 589.3 nm) is 2.37. Sphalerite crystallizes in the
isometric crystal system and possesses perfect dodecahedral cleavage. Gemmy, pale specimens
from Franklin, New Jersey (see Franklin Furnace) are highly fluorescent orange and/or blue
under longwave ultraviolet light and are known as cleiophane, an almost pure ZnS variety.

Chalcopyrite
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

Chalcopyrite

Twinned chalcopyrite crystal from the Camp Bird

Mine, Ouray County, Colorado. Crystal is about 1 cm
x 1 cm.
General
Category
Sulfide mineral
Formula
CuFeS
2

(repeating unit)

Strunz
classification
Crystal
symmetry
Unit cell
Formula mass
Color
Crystal habit
Crystal system
Twinning
Cleavage
Fracture
Tenacity
Mohs scale
hardness
Luster
Streak
Diaphaneity
Specific gravity
Solubility
Other

02.CB.10a
Tetragonal 42m scalenohedral
a = 5.289 , c = 10.423 ; Z = 4
Identification
183.54
Brass yellow, may have iridescent
purplish tarnish.
Predominantly the disphenoid and
resembles a tetrahedron,
commonly massive, and
sometimes botryoidal.
Tetragonal Scalenohedral 42m
Penetration twins
Indistinct on {011}
Irregular to uneven
Brittle
3.5
Metallic
Greenish black
Opaque
4.1 4.3
Soluble in HNO3
magnetic on heating

characteristics
References

[1][2][3][4][5]

Chalcopyrite ( /klkparat/ KAL-ko-PY-ryt) is a copper iron sulfide mineral that

crystallizes in the tetragonal system. It has the chemical composition CuFeS2. It has a brassy to
golden yellow color and a hardness of 3.5 to 4 on the Mohs scale. Its streak is diagnostic as green
tinged black.
On exposure to air, chalcopyrite oxidises to a variety of oxides, hydroxides and sulfates.
Associated copper minerals include the sulfides bornite (Cu5FeS4), chalcocite (Cu2S), covellite
(CuS), digenite (Cu9S5); carbonates such as malachite and azurite, and rarely oxides such as
cuprite (Cu2O). Chalcopyrite is rarely found in association with native copper.

Contents

1 Chemistry

2 Paragenesis

3 Occurrence

4 Structure

5 See also

6 References

Chemistry

The unit cell of chalcopyrite. Copper is shown in pink, iron in blue and sulfur in yellow.
Natural chalcopyrite has no solid solution series with any other sulfide minerals. There is limited
substitution of Zn with Cu despite chalcopyrite having the same crystal structure as sphalerite.

However, it is often contaminated by a variety of other trace elements such as Co, Ni, Mn, Zn
and Sn substituting for Cu and Fe. Se, Fe and As substitute for sulfur, and trace amounts of Ag,
Au, Pt, Pd, Pb, V, Cr, In, and Sb are reported.
It is likely many of these elements are present in finely intergrown minerals within the
chalcopyrite crystal, for instance l

Cassiterite
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

Cassiterite

Cassiterite with muscovite, from Xuebaoding, Huya,

Pingwu, Mianyang, Sichuan, China (size: 100 x 95
mm, 1128 g)
General
Category
Oxide minerals
Formula
SnO
(repeating unit)

Strunz
classification
Crystal
symmetry
Unit cell
Color

04.DB.05
Tetragonal 4/m 2/m 2/m
a = 4.7382(4) , c = 3.1871(1) ;
Z=2
Identification
Black, brownish black, reddish

Crystal habit
Crystal system
Twinning
Cleavage
Fracture
Tenacity
Mohs scale
hardness

brown, red, yellow, gray, white;

rarely colorless
Pyramidic, prismatic, radially
fibrous botryoidal crusts and
concretionary masses; coarse to
fine granular, massive
Tetragonal - Ditetragonal
Dipyramidal 4/m 2/m 2/m
Very common on {011}, as contact
and penetration twins, geniculated;
lamellar
{100} imperfect, {110} indistinct;
partings on {111} or {011}
Subconchoidal to uneven
Brittle
67

Adamantine to adamantine
Luster
metallic, splendent; may be greasy
on fractures
Streak
White to brownish
Transparent when light colored,
Diaphaneity
dark material nearly opaque;
commonly zoned
Specific gravity 6.98 - 7.1
Optical
Uniaxial (+)
properties
n = 1.990 - 2.010 n = 2.093 Refractive index
2.100
Birefringence
= 0.103
Pleochroic haloes have been
observed. Dichroic in yellow,
Pleochroism
green, red, brown, usually weak, or
absent, but strong at times.
Fusibility
infusible
Solubility
insoluble
[1][2][3][4]
References
Cassiterite is a tin oxide mineral, SnO2. It is generally opaque, but it is translucent in thin
crystals. Its luster and multiple crystal faces produce a desirable gem. Cassiterite has been the
chief tin ore throughout ancient history and remains the most important source of tin today.[1]

Contents

1 Occurrence

2 Crystallography

3 Etymology

4 References

Occurrence

Cassiterite bipyramids, edge length ca. 30mm, Sichuan, China

Most sources of cassiterite today are found in alluvial or placer deposits containing the resistant
weathered grains. The best sources of primary cassiterite are found in the tin mines of Bolivia,
where it is found in hydrothermal veins. Rwanda has a nascent cassiterite mining industry.
Fighting over cassiterite deposits (particularly in Walikale) is a major cause of the conflict waged
in eastern parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[5][6]
Cassiterite is a widespread minor constituent of igneous rocks. The Bolivia veins and the old
exhausted workings of Cornwall, England, are concentrated in high temperature quartz veins and
pegmatites associated with granitic intrusives. The veins commonly contain tourmaline, topaz,
fluorite, apatite, wolframite, molybdenite, and arsenopyrite. The mineral occurs extensively in
Cornwall as surface deposits on Bodmin Moor for example, where there are extensive traces of
an hydraulic mining method known as streaming. The current major tin production comes from
placer or alluvial deposits in Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Maakhir region of Somalia, and
Russia. Hydraulic mining methods are used to concentrate the fine particles of ore owing to its
high specific gravity of abo

Uraninite
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

"Pitchblende" redirects here. For other uses, see Pitchblende (disambiguation).

Uraninite

Pitchblende from Niederschlema-Alberoda deposit,

Germany
General
Category
Oxide minerals
Uranium dioxide or uranium(IV)
Formula
(repeating unit)
oxide (UO2)
Strunz
04.DL.05
classification
Isometric, hexoctahedral
Crystal
H-M symbol: (4/m32/m)
symmetry
Space group: F m3m
Unit cell
a = 5.4682 ; Z = 4
Identification
Steel-black to velvet-black,
brownish black, pale gray to pale
Color
green; in transmitted light, pale
green, pale yellow to deep brown
Massive, botryoidal, granular.
Crystal habit
Octahedral crystals uncommon.
Crystal system Isometric
Cleavage
Indistinct
Fracture
Conchoidal to uneven
Mohs scale
56
hardness
Luster
Submetallic, greasy, dull
Streak
Brownish black, gray, olive-green
Opaque; transparent in thin
Diaphaneity
fragments
10.6310.95; decreases on
Specific gravity
oxidation
Optical
Isotropic

properties
Other
characteristics
References
Pitchblende

Radioactive: greater than 70 Bq/g

[1][2][3][4]

Major varieties
Massive

Uraninite is a radioactive, uranium-rich mineral and ore with a chemical composition that is
largely UO2, but also contains UO3 and oxides of lead, thorium, and rare earth elements. It is
most commonly known as pitchblende (from pitch, because of its black color, and blende, a
term used by German miners to denote minerals whose density suggested metal content, but
whose exploitation was, at the time they were named, either impossible or not economically
feasible). The mineral has been known at least since the 15th century from silver mines in the
Ore Mountains, on the German/Czech border. The type locality is the town of Jchymov, on the
Czech side of the mountains, where F.E.Brckmann described the mineral in 1727.[5] Pitchblende
from the Johanngeorgenstadt deposit in Germany was used by M. Klaproth in 1789 to discover
the element uranium.[6]
All uraninite minerals contain a small amount of radium as a radioactive decay product of
uranium. Uraninite also always contains small amounts of the lead isotopes 206Pb and 207Pb, the
end products of the decay series of the uranium isotopes 238U and 235U respectively. Small
amounts of helium are also present in uraninite as a result of alpha decay. Helium was first found
on Earth in uraninite after having been discovered spectroscopically in the Sun's atmosphere. The
extremely rare element technetium can be found in uraninite in very small quantities (about
0.2 ng/kg), produced by the spontaneous fission of uranium-238.

Contents

1 Occurrence

2 See also

3 References

4 External links

Occurrence

Uraninite crystals from Topsham, Maine (size: 2.72.41.4 cm)

Uraninite is a major ore of uranium. Some of the highest grade uranium ores in the world were
found in the Shinkolobwe mine in the Democratic Republic of the Cong

Acanthite
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

Acanthite

Acanthite on calcite - Locality: Freiberg District,

Erzgebirge, Saxony, Germany - Scale is one inch with
a rule at one cm

Category
Formula
(repeating unit)

Strunz
classification
Crystal
symmetry

General
Sulfide mineral
Ag2S
02.BA.30a
Monoclinic 2/m

a = 4.229 , b = 6.931 ,
c = 7.862 ; = 99.61; Z = 4
Identification
Color
Iron-black
Primary crystals rare, prismatic to
long prismatic, elongated along
[001], may be tubular; massive.
Crystal habit Commonly paramorphic after the
cubic high-temperature phase
(argentite), of original cubic or
octahedral habit
Crystal system Monoclinic prismatic
Polysynthetic on {111}, may be very
Twinning
complex due to inversion; contact on
{101}
Cleavage
Indistinct
Fracture
Uneven
Tenacity
Sectile
Mohs scale
2.0 - 2.5
hardness
Luster
Metallic
Streak
Black
Diaphaneity
Opaque
Specific gravity 7.20 - 7.22
[1][2][3][4]
References
Unit cell

Acanthite, Ag2S, crystallizes in the monoclinic system and is the stable form of silver sulfide
below 173 C. Argentite is the stable form above that temperature. As argentite cools below that
temperature its cubic form is distorted to the monoclinic form of acanthite. Below 173 C
acanthite forms directly.[1][4] Acanthite is the only stable form in normal air temperature.

Occurrence
Acanthite is a common silver mineral in moderately low-temperature hydrothermal veins and in
zones of supergene enrichment. It occurs in association with native silver, pyrargyrite, proustite,
polybasite, stephanite, aguilarite, galena, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, calcite and quartz.[1]

Acanthite was first described in 1855 for an occurrence in the Jchymov (St Joachimsthal)
District, Krun Hory Mts (Erzgebirge), Karlovy Vary Region, Bohemia, Czech Republic. The
name is from the Greek "akantha" meaning thorn or arrow, in reference to its crystal shape.[2][3][4]

Gallery

Acanthite - Locality: Chispas Mine, Arizpe, Sonora, Mexico. Scale is one inch with a rule
at one cm.

Chalcocite
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

Chalcocite

Category
Formula
(repeating unit)

Strunz
classification
Crystal
symmetry
Unit cell

Color
Crystal habit
Crystal system
Twinning
Cleavage
Fracture
Tenacity
Mohs scale
hardness
Luster
Streak
Diaphaneity
Specific gravity

General
Sulfide minerals
copper(I) sulfide: Cu2S
02.BA.05a
Monoclinic 2/m - Prismatic
a = 15.246(4) , b = 11.884(2) , c
= 13.494(3) ; = 116.35(1); Z =
96
Identification
Dark gray to black
Tabular to prismatic crystals also
massive to granular
Monoclinic, pseudo-orthorhombic
Common on {110} yielding
pseudohexagonal stellate forms
Indistinct on {110}
Conchoidal
Brittle to sectile
2.5 - 3
Metallic
Shiny black to lead gray
Opaque
5.5 - 5.8

Fusibility
References

2-2.5
[1][2][3]

Chalcocite, copper(I) sulfide (Cu2S), is an important copper ore mineral. It is opaque, being
colored dark-gray to black with a metallic luster. It has a hardness of 2 - 3. It is a sulfide with
an orthorhombic crystal system.
The term chalcocite comes from the alteration of the obsolete name chalcosine, from the Greek
khalkos, meaning copper. It is also known as redruthite, vitreous copper and copper-glance.

Occurrence
Chalcocite is sometimes found as a primary vein mineral in hydrothermal veins. However, most
chalcocite occurs in the supergene enriched environment below the oxidation zone of copper
deposits as a result of the leaching of copper from the oxidized minerals. It is also often found in
sedimentary rocks.
It has been mined for centuries and is one of the most profitable copper ores. The reasons for this
is its high copper content (66.6% atomic ratio and nearly 80% by weight) and the ease at which
copper can be separated from sulfur.

Chalcocite crystals from the Mammoth Mine, Mount Isa - Cloncurry area, Queensland, Australia
(size: 3.0 x 2.9 x 2.4 cm)
Since chalcocite is a secondary mineral that forms from the alteration of other minerals, it has
been known to form pseudomorphs of many different minerals. A pseudomorph is a mineral that
has replaced another mineral atom by atom, but it leaves the original mineral's crystal shape
intact. Chalcocite has been known to form pseudomorphs of the minerals bornite, covellite,
chalcopyrite, pyrite, enargite, millerite, galena and sphalerite.

See also

Copper(I) sulfide

Copper monosulfide

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Cinnabar
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the mineral. For the plant resin, see Dragon's blood. For the moth, see
Cinnabar moth.

Cinnabar

Category
Formula
(repeating unit)

Strunz
classification

Cinnabar on dolomite
General
Sulfide mineral
mercury(II) sulfide, HgS
02.CD.15a

Trigonal Trapezohedral
Crystal symmetry H-M symbol: 3 2
Space group: P31 2 1
a = 4.145(2) , c = 9.496(2) ,
Unit cell
Z=3
Identification
Cochineal-red, towards brownish
Color
red and lead-gray
Rhombohedral to tabular; granular
Crystal habit
to massive and as incrustations
Crystal system
Trigonal
Simple contact twins, twin plane
Twinning
{0001}
Cleavage
Prismatic {1010}, perfect
Fracture
Uneven to subconchoidal
Tenacity
Slightly sectile
Mohs scale
2-2.5
hardness
Luster
Adamantine to dull
Streak
Scarlet
Diaphaneity
Transparent in thin pieces
Specific gravity 8.176
Optical properties Uniaxial (+)
Refractive index n = 2.905 n = 3.256
Birefringence
= 0.351
1.04 x 10-25 g per 100 ml water
Solubility
(Ksp at 25C = 2 x 10-32)[1]
[2][3][4]
References
Cinnabar (pronounced /snbr/) or cinnabarite (/snbrat/) (red mercury(II) sulfide (HgS),
native vermilion), is the common ore of mercury.

Contents

1 Word origin

2 Structure

3 Properties

4 Occurrence

5 Mining and extraction of mercury

6 Toxicity

7 Decorative use

8 Other forms of cinnabar

9 See also

10 References

11 External links

Word origin
The name comes from (kinnabari),[5] a Greek word most likely applied by
Theophrastus to several distinct substances. Other sources say the word comes from the Persian
shangarf ( zinjifrah), a word of uncertain origin (also compare, Sanskrit: sugara).
In Latin it was sometimes known as minium, meaning also "red lead", though both of these terms
now refer specifically to lead tetroxide.[citation needed]

Structure
HgS adopts two structures, i.e. it is dimorphous.[6] The more stable form is cinnabar, which has a
structure akin to that for HgO: each Hg center has two short Hg-S bonds (2.36 ), and four
longer Hg---S contacts (3.10, 3.10, 3.30, 3.30 ). The black form of HgS has the zincblende
structure.[citation needed]

Properties

Cinnabar

Cinnabar is generally found in a massive, granular or earthy form and is bright scarlet to brickred in color.[7] It occasionally occurs in crystals with a non-metallic adamantine luster. Cinnabar
has a rhombohedral bravais lattice, and belongs to the hexagonal crystal system, trigonal
division. Its crystals grow usually in a massive habit, though they are sometimes twinned. The
twinning in cinnabar is distinctive and forms a penetration twin that is ridged with six ridges
surrounding the point of a pyramid. It could be thought of as two scalahedral crystals grown
together with one crystal going the opposite way of the other crystal. The hardness of cinnabar is
22.5, and its specific gravity 8.1.
Cinnabar resembles quartz in its symmetry and certain of its optical characteristics. Like quartz,
it exhibits birefringence. It has the highest refractive power of any mineral. Its mean index for
sodium light is 3.08,[8] whereas the index for diamond is 2.42 and that for gallium(III) arsenide
(GaAs) is 3.93.

Cinnabar mercury ore from Nevada, USA

Occurrence
Generally cinnabar occurs as a vein-filling mineral associated with recent volcanic activity and
alkaline hot springs. Cinnabar is deposited by epithermal ascending aqueous solutions (those
near surface and not too hot) far removed from their igneous source.
It is associated with native mercury, stibnite, realgar, pyrite, marcasite, opal, quartz, chalcedony,
dolomite, calcite and barite.[2]
Cinnabar is found in all localities that yield mercury, notably Puerto Princesa (Philippines);
Almadn (Spain); New Almaden (California); Hastings Mine and St. John's Mine, Vallejo,
California;[9] Idrija (Slovenia); New Idria (California); Giza, Egypt; Landsberg, near
Obermoschel in the Palatinate; Ripa, at the foot of the Apuan Alps and in the Mount Amiata
(Tuscany); the mountain Avala (Serbia); Huancavelica (Peru); Murfreesboro, Arkansas;
Terlingua (Texas); and the province of Guizhou in China, where fine crystals have been obtained.
It was also mined near Red Devil, Alaska on the middle Kuskokwim River. Red Devil was
named after the Red Devil cinnabar mine, a primary source of mercury.

Cinnabar is still being deposited at the present day from the hot waters of Sulphur Bank Mine in
California and Steamboat Springs, Nevada.

Mining and extraction of mercury

Cinnabar has been mined since the Neolithic Age.[10] During the Roman Empire it was mined
both as a pigment (Vitruvius, DA VII; IV-V) (Pliny, HN; XXXIII, XXXVI-XLII) and for its
mercury content (Pliny HN; XXXIII, XLI), and it has been the main source of mercury
throughout the centuries.[citation needed]
To produce liquid mercury (quicksilver), crushed cinnabar ore is roasted in rotary furnaces. Pure
mercury separates from sulfur in this process and easily evaporates. A condensing column is used
to collect the liquid metal, which is most often shipped in iron flasks.[citation needed]

Toxicity
See also: Mercury poisoning
Because of its mercury content, cinnabar can be toxic to human beings. Though ancient peoples
in South America often used cinnabar for art, or processed it into refined mercury (as a means to
gild silver and gold to objects) "the toxic properties of mercury were well known. It was
dangerous to those who mined and processed cinnabar, it caused shaking, loss of sense, and
death...data suggest that mercury was retorted from cinnabar and the workers were exposed to
the toxic mercury fumes."[11] Overexposure to mercury, mercurialism, was seen as an
occupational disease to the ancient Romans, "Mining in the Spanish cinnabar mines of Almadn,
225 km southwest of Madrid, was regarded as being akin to a death sentence due to the
shortened life expectancy of the miners, who were slaves or convicts."[12]

Decorative use
Cinnabar has been used for its color in the New World since the Olmec culture.[13] Cinnabar was
often used in royal burial chambers during the peak of Maya civilization.[14]
The most popularly known use of cinnabar is in Chinese carved lacquerware, a technique that
apparently originated in the Song Dynasty. The danger of mercury poisoning may be reduced in
ancient lacquerware by entraining the powdered pigment in lacquer,[15] but could still pose an
environmental hazard if the pieces were accidentally destroyed. In the modern jewelry industry,
the toxic pigment is replaced by a resin-based polymer that approximates the appearance of
pigmented lacquer.

Other forms of cinnabar

Hepatic cinnabar is an impure variety from the mines of Idrija in the Carniola region of
Slovenia, in which the cinnabar is mixed with bituminous and earthy matter.

Metacinnabarite is a black-colored form of HgS, which crystallizes in the cubic form.

Synthetic cinnabar is produced by treatment of Hg(II) salts with hydrogen sulfide to

precipitate black, synthetic metacinnabarite, which is then heated in water. This
conversion is promoted by the presence of sodium sulfide.[16]

Hypercinnabar, crystallise in the hexagonal form.

See also
Earth sciences portal

China red

Classification of minerals

List of minerals

References
1.

^ Meyers, J. (1986). Chem. Ed. 63: pp. 689.

2.

^ a b Mineral Handbook

3.

^ Mindat

4.

^ Webmineral

5.

^ "Cinnabar". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 22 May 2012.

6.

^ Wells, A. F. (1984). Structural Inorganic Chemistry. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

ISBN 0-19-855370-6.

7.

^ King, R. J. (2002). "Minerals Explained 37: Cinnabar". Geology Today 18 (5):

195199. doi:10.1046/j.0266-6979.2003.00366.x.

8.

^ Schumann, W. (1997). Gemstones of the World. New York: Sterling. ISBN 08069-9461-4.

9.

^ C.Michael Hogan, Marc Papineau et al., Environmental Assessment of the

columbus Parkway Widening between Ascot Parkway and the Northgate Development,
Vallejo, Earth Metrics Inc. Report 7853, California State Clearinghouse, Sept, 1989

10.

^ Martn-Gil, J.; Martn-Gil, F. J.; Delibes-de-Castro, G.; Zapatero-Magdaleno, P.;

Sarabia-Herrero, F. J. (1995). "The first Known Use of Vermillion". Experientia 51 (8):
759761. doi:10.1007/BF01922425. ISSN 0014-4754. PMID 7649232.

11.

^ Petersen, G. (2010). Mining and Metallurgy in Ancient Per. The Geological

Society of America.

12.

^ Hayes, A. W. (2008). Principles and Methods of Toxicology (5th ed.). New

York, NY, USA: Informa Healthcare. ISBN 0-8493-3778-X.

13.

^ "New World's Oldest". Time Magazine. Jul. 29, 1957.

14.

^ Healy, Paul F.; and Marc G. Blainey (2011). "Ancient Maya Mosaic Mirrors:
Function, Symbolism, And Meaning". Ancient Mesoamerica (Cambridge University
Press) (22): 229-244. doi:10.1017/S0956536111000241. Page 230.

15.

^ R. V. Dietrich (2005). "Cinnabar". Gemrocks: Ornamental & Curio Stones.

University Michigan.

16.

^ Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E. (2001). Inorganic Chemistry. San Diego, CA,

USA: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-352651-5.

External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Cinnabar

MSDS for cinnabar

Dartmouth Toxic Metals Research Program Mercury

Cinnabar visual reference

[hide]

Ore minerals, mix of minerals and ore deposits

Ores

Cassiterite (tin)

Sulfides

Acanthite (silver)

Chalcopyrite (copper)

Chalcocite (copper)

Cinnabar (mercury)

Galena (lead)

Pentlandite (nickel)

Sphalerite (zinc)

Bauxite (aluminium)

Scheelite (tungsten)

Other

Ore deposit types

Banded iron formation

Carbonate hosted lead zinc ore deposits

Heavy mineral sands

Iron oxide copper gold

Kambalda type komatiitic nickel ore deposits

Lateritic nickel

Magmatic nickel-copper-iron-PGE deposits

Porphyry copper

Sedimentary exhalative deposits

Volcanogenic massive sulfide

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Cassiterite
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Cassiterite

Cassiterite with muscovite, from Xuebaoding, Huya,

Pingwu, Mianyang, Sichuan, China (size: 100 x 95
mm, 1128 g)
General
Category
Oxide minerals
Formula
SnO
(repeating unit)

Strunz
classification
Crystal
symmetry
Unit cell

Color

Crystal habit
Crystal system
Twinning
Cleavage
Fracture
Tenacity
Mohs scale

04.DB.05
Tetragonal 4/m 2/m 2/m
a = 4.7382(4) , c = 3.1871(1) ;
Z=2
Identification
Black, brownish black, reddish
brown, red, yellow, gray, white;
rarely colorless
Pyramidic, prismatic, radially
fibrous botryoidal crusts and
concretionary masses; coarse to
fine granular, massive
Tetragonal - Ditetragonal
Dipyramidal 4/m 2/m 2/m
Very common on {011}, as contact
and penetration twins, geniculated;
lamellar
{100} imperfect, {110} indistinct;
partings on {111} or {011}
Subconchoidal to uneven
Brittle
67

hardness
Adamantine to adamantine
Luster
metallic, splendent; may be greasy
on fractures
Streak
White to brownish
Transparent when light colored,
Diaphaneity
dark material nearly opaque;
commonly zoned
Specific gravity 6.98 - 7.1
Optical
Uniaxial (+)
properties
n = 1.990 - 2.010 n = 2.093 Refractive index
2.100
Birefringence
= 0.103
Pleochroic haloes have been
observed. Dichroic in yellow,
Pleochroism
green, red, brown, usually weak, or
absent, but strong at times.
Fusibility
infusible
Solubility
insoluble
[1][2][3][4]
References
Cassiterite is a tin oxide mineral, SnO2. It is generally opaque, but it is translucent in thin
crystals. Its luster and multiple crystal faces produce a desirable gem. Cassiterite has been the
chief tin ore throughout ancient history and remains the most important source of tin today.[1]

Contents

1 Occurrence

2 Crystallography

3 Etymology

4 References

Occurrence

Cassiterite bipyramids, edge length ca. 30mm, Sichuan, China

Most sources of cassiterite today are found in alluvial or placer deposits containing the resistant
weathered grains. The best sources of primary cassiterite are found in the tin mines of Bolivia,
where it is found in hydrothermal veins. Rwanda has a nascent cassiterite mining industry.
Fighting over cassiterite deposits (particularly in Walikale) is a major cause of the conflict waged
in eastern parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[5][6]
Cassiterite is a widespread minor constituent of igneous rocks. The Bolivia veins and the old
exhausted workings of Cornwall, England, are concentrated in high temperature quartz veins and
pegmatites associated with granitic intrusives. The veins commonly contain tourmaline, topaz,
fluorite, apatite, wolframite, molybdenite, and arsenopyrite. The mineral occurs extensively in
Cornwall as surface deposits on Bodmin Moor for example, where there are extensive traces of
an hydraulic mining method known as streaming. The current major tin production comes from
placer or alluvial deposits in Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Maakhir region of Somalia, and
Russia. Hydraulic mining methods are used to concentrate the fine particles of ore owing to its
high specific gravity of about 7.0 G.

Crystallography