CRITERIA FOR PROCESS SELECTION

To select the optimum process for the production of phthalic anhydride, some factors are considered to
meet the requirements in producing the best quality of this product with the least capital cost. Factors to
consider are:
Total cost
Product Yield
Manufacturability and sustainability
Environmental Impact
Safety

1. Total Cost
Total cost is the most crucial and major concern in most of all design projects. This is subdivided
into two types: fixed costs and variable costs. Fixed costs are costs that do not depend upon the production
rate, and they must be paid even if no chemical is produced. This include laboratory costs, operating labor,
capital repayment charges, insurance, etc. Variable costs, on the other hand, are dependent upon the
amount of chemical produced such as raw materials, utilities (services), shipping, etc.The types of
equipment to be used in the process should be kept as simple as possible. Major items of equipment
include reactors, heat exchangers, columns, pressure vessels, storage tanks, etc. Ancillary equipment such
as process piping and insulation can be estimated after the total cost of the major items is known. The
primary objective of every design project is to gain profit while meeting the needs of the customers so it is
important to have the plant in the least total cost as possible. Thus, the process to be used must be the
most economically viable.

2. Product Yield
The process to be used must have the greatest product yield. Having enormous losses is due to
the ineffective purification or separation processes used and this can greatly affect the financial aspect of
the plant. A process should obtain high efficiency to gain more profit at low manufacturing cost.

3. Manufacturability and Sustainability

Manufacturability is concerned with efficient manufacture of products and equipment within acceptable
cost while sustainability is the use of available resources to meet the present needs without compromising
the needs of the future generations. (Brundtland Report, 1987)
It is important to consider sustainable business practices to minimize environmental impacts while
conserving energy and natural resources. It is important to consider the extent to which a product can be
manufactured with relative ease at minimum cost and maximum reliability. This aspect includes the supply
and demand of raw materials, water and energy consumption requirement of the processes.
An ideal process shall have the cheapest raw material possible in order to lessen the variable cost
during production. When choosing a process, it is more economical to use materials that are readily
available in the local or domestic market. The reason is that these materials have a lower cost than
imported ones. Evidently when a material is imported, it will be subjected to shipment charges and transfer
taxes. Other than that, imported goods may suffer from severe price fluctuations, due to movement several
factors like foreign exchange rate and existence of international issues, laws and policy that may also
increase the cost of production.

4. Environmental Impact
To select an optimum process, it is important to consider its environmental aspects.The importance
of this analysis is in making possible operation at a high performance level with reduced risks to the
environment. This includes the presence of by products, harmful emissions and waste generation. The
presence of by product is inevitable, thus, this should be controlled. The concentrations of all chemicals to

be discharged, including gaseous emissions, must be determined and measures taken to ensure that these
levels conform to allowable legislative standards. It is prudent to ensure that not only are present emission
standards observed, but also that the plant could conform to any subsequent legislative reductions in these
emission levels (while still operating economically).
5. Safety
Is the plant able to operate in a safe manner, providing an acceptable hazard risk to the plant
employees and the public? All process design activities, e.g. process selection, plant layout, etc., and the
equipment designs must be carried out with the design objective of ensuring (within acceptable risk levels)
the safe operation of the plant. (Ray and Johnston, 1949)

PROCESS EVALUATION

Table 11. Comparison of the Processes

Production of Phthalic

Production of

Production of Phthalic

Anhydride via Catalytic

Phthalic

Anhydride via

Gas-Phase Oxidation of

Anhydride via

Catalytic Gas-Phase

Naphthalene

Catalytic Gas-

Oxidation of o-Xylene

Phase Oxidation

CRITERIA

of n-Pentane

Environmental
Aspect

Uses fluidized bed reactor

which causes higher CO
emission (approximately 300
lb/ton) (Al-Qasmi, et al)
A thermal incinerator alone is
approximately 95 percent
efficient in combustion of
pollutants for o-xylene-based
production, and 80 percent
efficient for naphthalene-based
production
Particulate, sulfur oxides and
carbon monoxide make up the

The major
contributor of
emissions is the
reactor and
condenser effluent
which is vented
from the condenser
unit. Releases CO
emissions as well.
Emits particulates
and hydrocarbons
in pretreatment
and distillation

The main environmental

concern of this process is
the emission of certain
products of incomplete
combustion. Compared to
using naphthalene and npentane as raw materials,
it produces less CO2
emission (approximately
200lb/ton) (Al-Qasmi, et
al)

emissions, with carbon

monoxide comprising over half
the total
Safety

The plant vessels could

contain flammable mixtures of
naphthalene
or
phthalic
anhydride vapours with air at
high temperatures.
Acute (short-term) exposure of
humans to naphthalene by
inhalation, ingestion, and
dermal contact is associated
with
hemolytic
anemia,
damage to the liver, and
neurological
damage.
Cataracts have also been
reported in workers acutely
exposed to naphthalene by
inhalation and ingestion.
(United States Environmental
protection Agency, 2015)

Prolonged or
repeated exposure
can cause drying
and cracking of
skin with redness
and blisters.

Hazardous in case of skin

contact (irritant,
permeator), of eye
contact (irritant), of
ingestion, of inhalation.
(Ray and Johnston, 2014)

Pentane can
irritate the lungs.
Repeated
exposure may
cause bronchitis to
develop with
coughing, phlegm,
and/or shortness of
breath. (Hazardous
Substance Fact
Sheet, 2015)

Repeated or prolonged
exposure to the
substance can produce
target orgasns damage.

For the evaluation of the three processes, equation 1 is used to calculate the score for each
criterion for the three different processes for the production of 1,4-butanediol. Calculated score in each
criterion is summed up to get the total score for each process. The process that will have the highest total
score will be the process to be used for the equipment design.
calculated score=level of importance x score given

(1)

Table 12. Evaluation of the Processes

CRITERIA

Level of
Importance

Production of

Production of

Production of

Phthalic Anhydride

Phthalic Anhydride

Phthalic

via Catalytic Gas-

via Catalytic Gas-

Anhydride via

Phase Oxidation of

Phase Oxidation of

Catalytic Gas-

Naphthalene

n-Pentane

Phase Oxidation
of o-Xylene

Total Cost
Product Yield
Manufacturability
and Sustainability
Environmental
Impact
Safety
Total Score

4
3
2

Score
given
3
1
1

Calculated
score
12
3
2

Score
given
1
2
2

Calculated
score
4
6
4

Score
given
2
3
3

Calculated
Score
8
9
6

2
18

16

26