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34
1 author:
Muhammad Ramzan Anser
Ayub Agricultural Research Institute
5 PUBLICATIONS 1 CITATION
SEE PROFILE
CONTENTS
Foreword
1.
water
saving
and
enhance
crop
12
water
productivity.
4.
18
Foreword
Land degradation is a serious constraint to increasing agricultural productivity in
rainfed areas of Punjab, Pakistan. Water erosion, the major cause of land degradation,
has already affected 1.9 m ha area in Punjab; major part of which lies in Pothwar tract.
The region mainly depends on rainfall for crop production, which is erratic resulting in
low crop yields. The runoff harvesting potential has been estimated to be around 3
MAF, part of which has been harvested in the form of small dams, mini dams and
ponds; but not being utilized efficiently. The eroded areas need sustainable
rehabilitation to ensure food security in the region. The long-term international
collaboration of SAWCRI with ICARDA (International Center for Agricultural
Research in the Dry Areas, Syria) has resulted in development of some environmental
friendly and cost-effective resource conservation technologies. The long-term research
data indicates that adoption of such technologies by farming communities can help to
achieve food security in the region and improve livelihood of rural communities on
sustainable basis.
Ensuring adequate food and water to all and achieving sustainable rural
development and livelihoods for current and future generations all hinge upon the
responsible management of natural resources. Resource conservation technologies are
tools empower farmers to increase crop water productivity and thus attain higher
incomes. I hope this manual which contains detailed methodologies and salient
features of conservation technologies would be useful for use by professionals of line
departments, NGOs and other field units in private and public sector and would
facilitate dissemination of the technologies to the end users.
Director,
SAWCRI, Chakwal
substantial runoff.
The moving water not only takes with it top fertile soil but also essential nutrients and organic
carbon thereby reduces productive capacity of soils. The sediments are often deposited in
water reservoirs at downstream and greatly reduce their capacity and life. If the breached
bund is not repaired before next rainy season, it leads to formation of gullies and rendering
area out of plough, a great national loss. Crop yield on such eroded lands are poor and
livelihood of resource-poor farmers is affected adversely.
Conventional rehabilitation measures:
I.
II.
Q=CIA
[Eq.# 1]
Where
Q = Discharge (cfs)
[cfs = cubic foot per second]
C = Coefficient of runoff. [0.3=Light soil & slight slope; 0.4= Medium soil & medium slope;
0.5=Heavy soil and steep slope].
SAWCRI assumed Coefficient of runoff (C) as 0.4 and Rainfall intensity (I) as 4
inches per hour in designing loose stone structures in Pothwar as these figures were
considered representative for the area.
By putting these value in Rational Formula (Eq.# 1) we get:
Q = 0.4 x 4 x A
Q = 1.6A
(Eq. # 2)
With the help of Eq. # 2, one can easily determine discharge by knowing catchment
area of a structure.
For Example: If catchment area of a structure is 10 acres, Then, Q will be = 1.6 10 = 16 cfs.
Q=3.33BH1.5
or
B=Q/3.33H1.5
(Eq. # 3)
Where
B = Breadth/width of a structure (ft)
Q = Discharge (cfs). [ already calculated using Eq. # 2]
H = Height of side walls of a structure (ft)
Box 1.1: How to decide height of side walls (H) of a structure:
Height of side walls of a structure should be equal to height of field bund/embankment where
structure is to be installed. H normally ranges from 1.02.5 ft.
For different values of H, the H1.5 will be as under:
If H=1.0,
the value of H1.5 will be = (1.0)1.5 = 1.00
If H=1.5,
the value of H1.5 will be = (1.5)1.5 = 1.84
If H=2.0,
the value of H1.5 will be = (2.0)1.5 = 2.83
If H=2.5
the value of H1.5 will be = (2.5)1.5 = 3.95
We can also assume the breadth of a structure in Eq. #3 and determine height of side walls but field
experience shows that this practice is un-economical. To avoid calculations, field supervisors normally keep
breadth of a structure equal to the breadth of broken embankment, more quantity of dry stone is used, which
After deciding the height of side walls of a structure (Box 1.1), we can easily determine the
B=Q/3.33H1.5
B= 16/{3.33 (1.5)1.5}
B= 16/(3.33 1.84)
B= 2.6 feet
One can avoid above calculations and use graph (Fig 3), to determine breadth/width
of structure by knowing discharge (from Eq. # 2, (Q = 1.6 A), and assuming height of
walls of structure equal to height of his field bund.
Example 3:
Suppose you have determined: Q = 100 cfs Height (h) of walls will be 2.5 f
The width of structure will be 9 ft
t
4
BOX 1.2: How to decide the type of structure: (Whether stone protection or cascade)
Stone protection is normally installed when natural slope exists and field to field drop either
does not exist or is lower. We need only to protect slope and allow safe disposal of surplus
runoff.
Cascade ( or ladder type) structure in generally installed when field to field drop
(fall) is higher and natural slope does not exits:
The crest of structure is kept 6-9 inches raised from soil surface to encourage in situ
rainwater conservation.
While determining discharge for a downstream field, 3040% discharge from upstream
field should be added into it for effective performance.
5
After completing installation of structure, the roots (along with soil) of grasses growing in
vicinity of structure should be planted or spread in the gaps between stones to encourage
grass growth. Natural grass acts as cementing agent.
Avoid installation of structure at the onset of monsoon season; dry stones require time to
settle. The Post-monsoon season is best time for installation of structures.
Fig 5. Installation of a farm runoff structure in the field Fig 6. A loose stone structure in the field
V-shaped or Negarim: This technique is used for rain water harvesting on sloping
lands with slope ranging from 0 to 5%.
Designing of micro-catchments:
Micro-catchment works best on gentle slopes (ideally <5%). The catchment area (C) to
cultivated area (CA) area ratio should be 3:1. This ratio generally varies from 1:1 to 3:1.
Following formula may be used to calculate C/CA ratio:
( )
.
Runoff coefficient (Kc): it is the ratio between rainfall and runoff:
Kc =
All the rain is not converted into runoff, therefore, Runoff (mm) = kc Rainfall (mm).
Kc depends on catchment characteristics such as soil type, slope, vegetative cover/nature,
rainfall intensity, rainfall duration etc.
Runoff coefficient varies from 0.11.0, however, generally values from 0.1 0.5 are
adopted (as not ideal conditions, some leaching etc).
The canopy of a plant is normally assumed as the cultivated area.
The efficiency factor (K) takes into account the inefficiency of uneven distribution of
water within field as well as losses due to evaporation and deep percolation. Where the
cultivated/catchment area is leveled and smooth, the efficiency is higher. The efficiency
factor normally varies from 0.5 to 0.7.
Example to calculate C/CA:
Crop water requirement
= 525 mm
Design rainfall
= 350 mm
Runoff coefficient
= 0.4
Efficiency factor
= 0.6
. .
=2
(Length x width )
L
W
2. Square shape:
(Length)2
b
3. Triangular shape
=1/2 ab
a
(a= length of perpendicular; b= base length) and then multiply with 2 to get area of V
shaped triangle.
Circular
Square
Rectangular
10
% Slope
x 100
Where:
H1: Lowest elevation point (base of plant)
H2: Highest elevation point (bottom of bund)
First take measurements of rectangular shaped catchment:
Length of catchment (L) in ft or m
Width of catchment (W) in ft or m
Suppose:
L = 20 ft; W = 20ft; r = 5 ft
Then: Total area of the catchment = L x W = 20 x 20 = 400 ft2
And canopy or cultivated area (CA) = r2 = 3.14 x 52 = 79 ft2
Therefore, catchment area (C) = Total area canopy or cultivated area (CA)
= 400 79 = 321 ft2
Therefore, C/CA = 321/79 = 4
That means catchment area is 4 times than the cultivated area
Slope:
Suppose
Elevation difference
= 4 inches
% Slope= 3.33
x 100
[It means the developed micro-catchment with 3.33% slope].
11
Fig 11: Drip line installed for supplemental irrigation to Guava plants.
In Bubbler irrigation system (Fig 12), bubbler showers water in plant basin in the form of
an umbrella. Bubbler irrigation is mostly used for mature fruit plants and for plant species
whose water requirement is higher.
12
Fig 12: Bubbler system installed for supplemental irrigation to olive plants.
Benefits:
No land leveling is required for water application through drip and bubbler.
Saves 60-70% of irrigation water. This can help bring more area under irrigated
agriculture.
Minimize fertilizer losses due to localized application and reduced leaching.
Lowers labor cost. Conventional irrigation system for fruit plants involves irrigation
through labour using plastic pipe, which is very costly.
Measurement of discharge:
Emitters/Drippers which are used in drip irrigation system have discharge of water 4-8 liters per
hour (lph) while bubblers have 4-10 liters per minute (lpm). The discharge can be increased or
decreased through drip emitter or bubbler. The discharge can be measured by placing a beaker or
bucket under an emitter/bubbler for one minute. It will give us the discharge per minute.
Multiply it by 60, to have discharge per hour. If more number of emitters is installed on drip line,
then multiply discharge by number of emitters to have total discharge for one plant.
13
No. of plants =
Number of plants
= 109 plants
= 11
The number of drip lines can also be determined in the same manner if main line is
installed along the width of the field
We know that length of one drip line is = 198 ft [width of field]
Number of drip lines
= 11
So the total length of drip line will be = 198 x 11 = 2178ft
d) How to determine number of drippers?
We know that total number of plants
= 109 (calculated above}
Total number of dripper required
= 109 x 2 = 218
14
DRILL IN PIPE
FIT GTO
FIT DRIPPER
Fig 14: Step-wise procedure for installation of drip and bubbler irrigation systems
16
Where:
Hf is the frictional head loss (m)
K = 1.21 x 1010
Q is the pipeline discharge (lps)
C is the friction coefficient for pipe sections
D is the inside diameter (mm)
L is the pipeline length (m)
Le is the equivalent length of pipe and accessories
17
Broadcasting gypsum powder on soil surface @ 1 tonne per acre (20 bags). To
ensure uniform broadcasting 10 bags should be applied length wise and 10 bags
width wise.
iii.
Shallow cultivation using cultivator to mix gypsum into the soil and avoid blowing
with winds (Fig 17).
18
Important considerations:
Gypsum is only recommended for normal soils and should not be applied in salt-affected
soils for moisture conservation.
b) GREEN MANURING
Any green/fresh plant material incorporated into the soil to improve its fertility &
consequently productivity is called as green manure. In long-term experiments, SAWCRI
evaluated the performance of various legume crops as green manure and found cowpea and
guar as suitable for rainfed areas. The experimental data indicated that guar was best cover
crop as well as green manure crop for low rainfall areas (<400 mm annual rainfall); and
cowpeas for medium and high rainfall areas.
Methodology:
After harvest of winter crop, sowing of guar/cowpeas should be completed up to
mid-June through broadcasting seed @ 20-24 kg per acre. In case of delay in monsoon
rains, dry sowing can be practiced and has been found effective.
Crop should be incorporated into the soil with moldboard plough (Fig 18) or rotavator by
mid-August to allow sufficient time (~2 months) for decomposition. Delay in
incorporation beyond mid-August leaves less moisture in the soil profile for succeeding
winter-season crop.
19
Before sowing of winter crop, the green manure field should be given two shallow
cultivations with cultivator at early morning or evening to facilitate decomposition and
control weeds.
Benefits:
Green manure crop completely covers soil surface (Fig 19) during summer season,
therefore, reduces the risk of water erosion during this period.
Green manure crops fix N in the soil and therefore, improve soil fertility.
Green manuring improves infiltration rate in the soil and therefore, enhances in situ
rainwater harvesting.
The improvement in physical properties of soils helps conserve more soil moisture
which remains available to winter crop for relatively longer period of time and
results in good crop establishment. .
Green manuring helps to increases yield of succeeding crops up to 22%. The impact
of green manuring is mostly visible during 2nd year after incorporation.
20
Ensuring adequate food and water to all and achieving sustainable rural development
and livelihoods for current and future generations all hinge upon the responsible
management of natural resources
21