Modal verbs and their meanings

- Meanings of can and could 1. POSSIBILITY

The possibility interpretation of can occurs in circumstances when the
potential for an event taking place has no specified source in terms of an
animate agent or a social authority. The potential simply exists.
Even an expert driver can make mistakes. (It's possible for even...)
Her performance was the best that could be hoped for.
If it's raining tomorrow the sports can take place indoors. (It will be
possible for...)
2. ABILITY
Can be translated with 'znati'.
Can you remember where they live? (Are you able to remember...)
Magda could speak three languages by the age of six.
They say Bill can cook better than his wife.
3. PERMISSION
In this sense can/could is less formal than may.
Can we borrow these books from the library? (Are we allowed to borrow...)
In those days only men could vote in elections.

- Meanings of may and might 1. POSSIBILITY

Here may denotes the possibility of a given proposition (content of a
sentence) being or becoming true.
We may never succeed. (It is possible that we'll never succeed.)
You may be right. (It is possible that you are right.)
There might be some complications.
In formal English may/might is sometimes used in the same possibility
sense as can/could:
During the autumn many rare birds may be observed on the northern
coasts of the island.
2. PERMISSION
As a permission modal auxiliary may is more formal and less common
than can, which can be substituted for it (except in fixed phrases such as
if I may - ako mi dozvolite).
You may borrow my bicycle if you wish. (I permit you to...)
Visitors may reclaim necessary travel expenses up to a limit of $50.

Might I ask whether you are using the photocopier?

3. CONCESSION (dopusnost)
This meaning is used when the speaker wishes to acknowledge the
possibility of some event or state being the case but not necessarily
relevant for the current discussion. This is interpreted as a concession and
is often followed by a but clause.
You may have good reasons but that doesn't make it legal. (Although you
have good...)
He may be old but he is still fit. (Although he is old he is still fit.)

- Meanings of must 1. LOGICAL NECESSITY or CONCLUSION (epistemic meaning)

There must be some mistake.
You must be feeling tired.
The Smiths must have a lot of money.
Must in this sense means that the speaker has drawn a conclusion from
things already known or observed.
! Must in this sense cannot normally be used in interrogative or negative
clauses. Can is generally used in place of must in questions and negation.
She must be the one you mean. -> Can she be the one you mean?
You must be joking. -> You can't be serious.
She must be asleep. -> She can't be awake.
There is another necessity meaning of must in examples like:
To be healthy, a plant must receive a good supply of both sunshine and
moisture.
2. OBLIGATION or COMPULSION
You must be back by ten o'clock.
We must all share our skills and knowledge.
Productivity must be improved if the nation is to be prosperous.
In these examples there is the implication to a greater or lesser extent that
the speaker is advocating a certain form of behaviour. So must unlike
have (got) to typically suggests that the speaker is exercising his/her
authority.
* Negation of must
The negative form of must - mustn't involves a negation of the action:
You mustn't do it. = Ne smijes to uraditi. (Not refers to 'do')
When the obligation is negated the form don't have to is used.
You don't have to do it. = Ne moras to uraditi.

- Meanings of need and have (got) to 1. NECESSARY FOR (negative and interrogative)
Need, as modal auxiliary, is used in the negative and question form of
must in the sense necessary for especially in BrE.
Need they make all that noise? (Do they need / have to)
You neednt worry about the test. (You dont need / have to)
As these examples show it is possible and more common even in BrE to
replace the modal auxiliary need by the main verb need to or have to.
2. LOGICAL NECESSITY or CONCLUSION
Have (got) to can also be substituted for must with little or no difference
in meaning:
There has (got) to be some mistake.
To be healthy, a plant has (got) to receive a good supply of both
sunshine and moisture.
3. OBLIGATION or COMPULSION
You have (got) to be back by ten oclock.
We have all got to share our skills and knowledge.
However, there is generally a preference for using have to when the
obligation seems to come from some uncontrollable external source that
compels an action.
Excuse me but I have to sneeze.
Im really thirsty, I just have to get something to drink.
* Since must has no past tense for and no non-finite form, have to is
used in many contexts where must is impossible. For example, following a
modal verb:
Well have to be patient.

- Meanings of ought to and should 1. TENTATIVE INFERENCE (epistemic meaning)

The mountains should / ought to be visible from here.
These plants should / ought to reach maturity after five years.
The speaker doesnt know if his statement is true but tentatively (not
definite or certain) concludes that it is true on the basis of whatever he
knows - weaker conclusion.

2. OBLIGATION (deontic meaning, weaker)

You should / ought to do as he says.
The floor should / ought to be washed at least once a week.
With the perfect aspect should and ought to typically have the implication
that something wasnt carried out:
They should / ought to have met her at the station. = But they didnt.
3. ADVICE, RECOMMENDATION, SUGGESTION
Should and ought to are used with the perfect infinitive to refer to past
time, and they typically have the implication that the recommendation has
not been carried out:
He should / ought to have been a little more tactful. = But in fact, he
wasnt tactful.
In socially-oriented uses there is a weaker sense of obligation with should
and ought to than is found with must. With should and ought to the
force of the speakers utterance is interpreted as advice or suggestion.
We should invite our neighbours to the wedding.
Recommendation:
They say you should serve red wine with steak.
4. NECESSITY and OBLIGATION
Ought to and synonymous uses of should express the same basic
modalities of necessity and obligation as must and have (got) to. They
contrast with them in not expressing the speakers confidence in the
occurrence of the event or state described:
* Sarah must / has to be home by now but she isnt. (* nonsensical)
Sarah should / ought to be home by now but she isnt.

- Meanings of will and would 1. PREDICTION

1. a) The common future predictive sense of will and the corresponding
prediction in the past sense of would (past time orientation, following
reference):
You will feel better after this medicine.
I was told I would feel better after this medicine.
1. b) The present predictive sense of will is rare and similar in meaning to
must in logical necessity or conclusion sense:
She will have had her dinner by now. (Bit ce da je dosad vec vecerala)
That will be the postman. (Bit ce da je postar; on hearing the doorbell
ring)

1. c) The habitual predictive meaning often occurs in conditional

sentences:
If litmus paper is dipped in acid, it will turn red. (lakmus papir)
It is often used in timeless statements of predictability:
Oil will float on water.
It also occurs in descriptions of personal habits or characteristic behaviour:
He will talk for hours if you let him. (said of a chatterbox)
She will sit on the floor quietly all day. She will just play with her toys and
you wont hear a murmur from her.
Every morning he would go for a long walk. (characteristic behaviour in
the past)
2. VOLITION
2. a) Intention often in combination with a sense of prediction:
I will write as soon as I can.
We wont stay longer than two hours.
The manager said he would phone me after lunch.
2. b) Willingness
Will / would you help me to address these letters? (Hoces li mi pomoci
/ Jesi li voljan)
Ill do it, if you like.
2. c) Insistence
If you will go out without your overcoat what can you expect? (Ako
stalno izlazis...)
She would keep interrupting me. (Stalno me je prekidala; past time)
This somewhat rare use implies wilfulness on the part of the subject. The
auxiliary is always stressed and cannot be contracted.

- Meanings of shall st

1. PREDICTION (1 person subject)

According to the opinion polls, I will / shall win quite easily.
2. VOLITION / INTENTION (1st person subject)
In the intentional sense, shall is again a formal and alternative to will
after I or we:
We shall uphold the wishes of people.
3. OBLIGATION
In questions containing Shall I / we, shall consults the wishes of the
addressee and thus moves from a volitional to an obligational meaning. It
is suitable for making offers:

 Shall I / we deliver the goods to your home address? (Do you want us
to...)
4. SUGGESTIONS
It is also used for making suggestions:
What shall we do this evening? (Sta cemo veceras?)
Shall we go to the theatre? (Sta mislis da odemo u pozoriste?
Predlazem da odemo...)

- The past tense forms of the modals 1. INDIRECT SPEECH, PERMISSION, PREDICTION
Could, might, would, should used quite regularly as past tense equivalents
of can, may, will, shall in indirect speech.
You can/may do as you wish. -> She said we could/might do as we
wished. (PERMISSION)
The plan will succeed. -> I felt sure that the plan would succeed.
(PREDICTION)
2. TENTATIVE PERMISSION (in polite requests)
Could I see your driving licence?
I wonder if I might borrow some coffee.
3. TENTATIVE VOLITION (in polite requests)
Would you lend me a dollar? (Da li bi mi molim te posudio...)
Id be grateful if someone would hold the door open.
4. TENTATIVE POSSIBILITY
There could be something wrong with the light switch. (tentative
opinion)
Of course, I might be wrong. (tentative opinion)
Could you (please) open the door? (polite directives and requests)
You could answer these letters for me. (polite directives and requests)

- Would and should as mood markers 1. HYPOTHETICAL MEANING

 If there were an accident, we would have to report it.

It would be impossible to estimate how many crimes went undetected
last year.
Dont bother to read all the papers. It would take too long.
2. PUTATIVE MEANING
In this use should is often equivalent to the mandative subjunctive. In
using should, the speaker entertains, as it were some putative world
recognizing that it may well exist or come into existence. It is more
common in BrE.
She insisted that we should stay.
Let me know if you should hear some more news.
I cant think why he should have been so angry.

- The modals with the perfect and progressive aspect The perfect and progressive aspect freely used with extrinsic (epistemic)
modal meanings.
1. POSSIBILITY
He may/might have missed the train.
She cant/couldnt be swimming all day.
2. NECESSITY (strong conclusion)
She must have left her umbrella on the bus.
You must be dreaming.
3. PREDICTION
The guests will/would have arrived by that time
4. OBLIGATION
It can only be expressed with the perfect or progressive when combined
with should or ought to.
I ought to be working now. (but Im not)
You should have finished it. (but you havent)
The combination of both perfect and progressive constructions with the
modals is possible.
You must have been dreaming.
She couldnt have been swimming all day.