Mlri

Multiple Access Methods
Primary Goal : maximize the # users sharing limited

frequency spectrum while at the same time providing
quality communications with reasonable system costs.
For any type of cellular system the service quality as
the # users
Same system interference (ACI, CCI, etc.) limit cellular
capacity
Cellular capacity is related to QoS and revenue $$ for
service provider

Duplexing
Simultaneous 2-way communication
FDD : Frequency Division Duplexing

Two separate SX frequency channels for each user
Frequency
Separation
FVC
RVC
f
Duplexer : device that allows Tx & Rx to operate
simultaneously using same antenna
Desire large frequency separation for good Tx/Rx isolation
Frequency separation is a fixed or constant value
Does NOT depend on channel #

TDD : Time Division Duplexing
Two separate time slots (forward & reverse for each user on same
frequency channel
Time
Separation
FVC
RVC
Time separation must be small (~ 10 msec) for real-time services (e.g.

voice) so that service appears to be continuous
Simpler mobile unit Tx/Rx since duplexer not needed
Antenna is shared in time by Tx/Rx
Duplexer is complicated & expensive component
TDD/FDD hybrid many users share FVC frequency using TDD and
different RVC frequency also using TDD GSM

Multiple Access (MA) Methods
FDMA, TDMA, & CDMA 3 major types
Many MA schemes are hybrids of these basic types
Narrowband vs. Wideband

Signal BW (Bs) < channel BW (Bc) narrowband
Large # of narrow frequency channels FDMA (e.g. AMPS)
Bs >> Bc wideband
Multipath fading only affects small % of signal frequency content
no equalization needed
Large # users share same channel CDMA (Sprint, Verizon)

FDMA : Frequency Division Multiple Access
1 user/channel with FDD channel pair
FDMA Features :
1) FDMA channel
Carries only one user at a time
Relatively narrow ~ 30 kHz for AMPS
Idle when not in use wasted resource
2) Base station and mobile transmit simultaneously and

continuously
3) Narrowband system usually
Only way to support large # of users in limited spectrum
4) Normally use Analog FM for mobile communications

FDMA Features (continued) :
5) FDMA Mobile Systems
Low complexity compared to TDMA or CDMA
Fewer overhead bits in digital systems
Less timing and synchronization
6) Higher Cell Site Costs (relative to TDMA)
Lower channel utilization (1 channel/user)
Rejection of ACI requires expensive BPF in base station
Duplexers needed so Tx and Rx can use antenna simultaneously
7) Adjacent Channel Interference
Significant interference source need good BPF @ base station
Power amplifiers are non-linear and cause :
spectral regeneration of modulation sidebands
increased ACI

Non-linear power amplifiers
Spectral broadening increased ACI
Non-linear Tx emission byproducts intermodulation
(IM)
Same-system interference (ACI)
Out of band interference system -to-system
U.S. AMPS 1G System

Narrowband analog FM
FDMA/FDD
45 MHz separation between FVC & RVC

U.S. AMPS 1G System
B 2B
t
# FDMA/FDD channels = Bs
Nc
Bt : total spectrum allocation

Bs : signal BW (specification)
Bg : guard band which provides separation to minimize ACI to
other provider
For AMPS Bt = 12.5 MHz Bs = 30 kHz Bg = 10 kHz & Nc =

416 (21 control and 395 voice channels)

TDMA : Time Division Multiple Access
Divide radio channel into N time slots for one
frame of data to support multiple users/channel

TDD mobile & base share (50/50) same channel
Not widely used
Used in some digital cordless phone (Table 9.1)
FDD different channels with multiple users for

forward & reverse links
Most widely used
Several time slot delay between forward & reverse link!
Mobile unit not simultaneously using Tx/Rx
no duplexer required
Simple Tx/Rx design

Frame structure
Depends on wireless standard (GSM, USDC, etc.)
Preamble
Control, setup, MIN, & synchronization (timing)
Not all standards have this! (e.g. GSM)
Guard bits needed for proper timing

Efficiency % of information data bits as opposed to
overhead, control, & timing bits f
Doesnt include coding actual efficiency (info. data) <
hf

Frame Efficiency
boh
100%
f 1
bT
where
boh = # overhead bits/frame
bT = # total bits/frame
# TDMA channels =
m Bt 2 Bg
Bs
where m = max. # users/channel

TDMA Features:
1) TDMA channel
Multiple users share same channel
Non-overlapping time slots in frame structure
User data communication done in periodic bursts
must use digital modulation
2) Lower battery consumption than FDMA
Mobile Tx is off most of the time (e.g. ~ 7/8 for GSM)
3) Mobile Assisted Handoffs
Mobile Rx monitors multiple base stations during idle time slots
Relay information back to MSC for handoff execution
4) Tx and Rx of mobile unit never on at same time
No duplexer required
Simple Tx/Rx switch less costly mobile architecture

TDMA Features:
5) Higher data rates relative to FDMA
Bs is sometimes > Bc
Equalization often required
Training bit overhead
6) Timing is critical
Synchronization between base and mobile and between Tx
and Rx
Timing data bits required in each slot (many slots/frame)
Guard bits to separate users (limit multipath impact)
7) Bandwidth on demand:
Allocate multiple time slots per frame for a higher rate user

CDMA : Code Division Multiple Access
PN sequence converts narrowband signal to wideband

signal Direct Sequence-Spread Spectrum (DS-SS)
Many users with unique PN codes share same RF
channel
As # users system BW efficiency but also the
PN cross-correlation noise floor
Perfect power control need to keep PN noise from
single user from dominating base station Rx for all
other users near/far
Strongest mobile (near to base) can capture base Rx
Much more significant problem than ACI in other MA
methods b/c one mobile can affect all users in a given cell
CDMA Power Control

Power control done by each cell base station (not
MSC)
Want each mobile to contribute same level of power
@ base Rx regardless of distance from base
** Mobiles in adjacent cells controlled by different
base stations **
Source of additional PN noise
Mobiles at adjacent cell edge are using max Tx power !
Book discusses/advocates not using 1 cell frequency reuse (N =
1!!) to combat this problem
Cant have macroscopic reverse link diversity (soft-handoff)
if N > 1 !!
CDMA Power Control

All CDMA operators (Sprint PCS, Verizon Wireless,
etc.) use N = 1 along with significant overlap with
adjacent cells (needed for soft handoff!!)
Power control in overlap area done by multiple base

stations with logic rules in mobile Rx
PU & PU & PD = PD PU : power up PD : power down
Done to minimize effect of PN noise from mobiles in
adjacent cells
CDMA Cell Overlap

Significant cell overlap can lead to :
More base stations/area $$

Large number of base stations + multipath signals
serving mobile unit
If # serving signals > 3 (finger # in RAKE Rx) then major
source of forward link interference at mobile Rx
Also # blocked calls if multiple base stations serving same
mobile
Adjacent cell interference on forward link (BS to MS)

Not Gaussian (AWGN) not noiselike
No forward link power control coordination between BSs
Reduced forward-link capacity compared to reverse-link

capacity in 2G systems

CDMA Features:
1) CDMA Channel
Large number of users share same channel
Assigned individual PN identifying codes
Utilization limited by interference from other users (same

cell and adjacent cell)
Gradual performance decline as # users increase soft limit
Other users produce Rx noise after despreading
2) Spread Signal BW >>> Information BW

Frequency diversity reduces effect of multipath fading
No equalization required
Low battery drain b/c low peak power (Tx power is spread)

CDMA Features:
3) Macroscopic Spatial Diversity
MSC monitors multiple base stations for same mobile signal
Choose best version at any instant in time to pass to PSTN
Soft handoff
Can be signficant interference source on forward link if #

base stations + multipath > finger # in RAKE Rx
4) Time Diversity As Well !

High chip rate different multipath signals will be
independent
RAKE Rx diversity combines delayed multipath signals to
improve SNR at mobile

CDMA Features:
5) Power Control
Essential for minimizing near/far problem within a cell
Must be perfect to achieve capacity advantages
Forward and reverse link power control needed
Forward link power control in 3G CDMA standards
6) Adjacent Cell Mobiles

Co-channel interference source for neighboring cells
Power not controlled by neighboring base station!
Max. interference source on boundary between cells
Some frequency reuse is usually required to minimize

interference

SDMA : Space Division Multiple Access
Direct radiated energy to each individual users in
space
Use adaptive multi-beam antenna arrays
Multi-beam serve different groups of users by
location
Adaptive must follow mobile units
Cell Sectoring primitive non-adaptive form of

SDMA
SDMA
Omni
Pattern
3-Sector
Pattern
Adaptive Spot
Beams

How does SDMA improve performance?
Reverse link performance usually most critical
Limited mobile Tx power + battery life
Perfect power control not possible near/far problem &
ACI
CCI at base Rx from co-channel Tx (tall BS antennas)
Use narrow Rx (not Tx) antenna beam to focus in on

mobile users
Increases received energy @ base from mobile
Decreases ACI & CCI from all other directions by significant
amount (10-15 dB)
Acts as spatial filter
Less Tx power required from mobile longer battery life!
SDMA
Antenna + DSP Technology
Antenna array (many individual antenna elements)
required to have :
Multiple beams with focused capability
Adaptive change pattern width & direction vs. time
Requires significant DSP solutions
Only suitable for base station b/c of size (array) and

computational load (DSP) constraints
Best suited for TDMA & CDMA systems
SDMA antenna technology is currently being used for
3G/4G systems (CDMA & TDMA)
Further increase capacity of existing systems
Cellular System Capacity

Channel capacity (C) max. # channels or users (@
specific GOS) provided by a system in a fixed
frequency band & specific geographic area
Depends primarily on:
Frequency reuse (N) and channel BW (Bc)
Radio capacity (m) measure of the overall

spectrum efficiency of a system
Depends on :
Bc : channel BW (not coherence MRC BW)
C/I : carrier-to-interference ratio

Radio Capacity (m)
For hexagonal geometry :
m
Bt
1 2
Q Bc
3
Bt
6 C
Bc n / 2
3 I min
2/ n
(radio channels/cell)
where n : propagation constant Bt : total spectrum
Allows comparisons between systems & standards

with different Bt, Bc, and (C/I)min specifications !!
Digital systems can tolerate lower (C/I)min than analog & still
produce better voice quality

TDMA Capacity
Improved performance at (C/I)min ~ 10 dB !! (vs. 18 dB
for AMPS)
Error correction, speech coding, & MAHO improve link
budget and performance at lower (C/I)
Lower (C/I) more interference smaller cluster
size (N ) larger frequency reuse/area larger
capacity
TDMA vs. AMPS Table 9.3, pg. 474
Mutiple Access Methods
2G+
GSM-GPRS
2.5G
EDGE
1G
2G
2G - Obsolete
2G - Obsolete
2G
3G
3G

TDMA Capacity
Error correction
Improves system performance when signal power & BER
Speech coding
Lower & lower data rates allow more users/BW
Significant capacity improvements result for TDMA as DSP
improves
GSM originallly used 13.3 kbps codec (1991) but 6 kbps
codec became available that achieves comparable voice
quality double capacity when deployed
Easy to incorporate into existing GSM frame structure 16
half time slots vs. 8 full time slots

TDMA Capacity
Mobile Assisted HandOff (MAHO)?
Mobile unit monitors neighboring base stations and chooses
best available signal
Always use base with best signal strength
w/o MAHO current serving base (or MSC) waits till mobile
power @ base drops below HO threshold
Other base station could be better provider long before HO
threshold
Yields better overall signal power at mobile larger S

larger I tolerated for same S/I smaller cluster size
larger capacity

CDMA Capacity
FDMA vs. TDMA straightforward comparisons

Capacity limited by BW, frequency reuse, & data rates
CDMA systems can reuse entire frequency spectrum

in all cells
Potentially large increase in capacity relative to TDMA or
FDMA systems
CDMA capacity limited by interference from despread

PN noise from other users (same cell + adjacent cell)
Any reductions in average interference levels will increase
capacity
Capacity is enhanced in real time unlike capacity
improvements for TDMA/FDMA with ACI or CCI reduction

CDMA Capacity
Capacity enhancement
Sectorization (3 6 sectors) and/or SDMA

Limit interference spatially to a % of cell
Signal power from fraction of users in cell
Discontinuous transmission (DTX)
Turn Tx off during silent periods of speech

Voice Activity Factor (VAF) for mobile
User only contributes interference of time!
Theoretical CDMA capacity calculations
Many assumptions must be made in order to calculate

capacity
Difficult to determine accuracy of assumptions for realworld system

CDMA Capacity
Key issues that are difficult to assess on paper :
Imperfect power control near/far
All user signals at base not exactly the same
Macroscopic diversity on forward link creating too many (>

finger # of RAKE Rx) useable signals (including multipath)
Adjacent cell PN interference
Adjacent BSs cause non-AWGN forward-link interference at
mobile Rx
Theoretical maximum capacity of CDMA different than

that obtained in practice

CDMA vs. TDMA Capacity
Was a Hot Issue in late 1990s
Direct 1-to-1 meaningful comparisons difficult
CDMA does have capacity advantage but certainly
not overwhelming
Theoretical capacity advantage difficult to fully achieve
in actual real-world system
DSP improvements increased capacity and data

rates of both TDMA and CDMA systems

Capacity comparisons in papers & textbooks ignore fundamental
issue: **COST**
A 50% capacity advantage is not useful if it costs 3 as much to provide
service as a competitor
TDMA (GSM) technology had a substantial advantage in base station cost
More mature technology which has been around longer

More manufacturers, longer product history reduced
base station costs
Sprint PCS deployment of IS-95 CDMA had many more stations per unit area
than TDMA
Higher provider cost even if base station costs were same as

TDMA
Sprint PCS began service in 1998 and it took >7 years to
make a profit!!
Chapter 1
Introduction to Wireless
Communication Systems
Introduction
Wireless is often used to describe all types of devices and
technologies that use space as signal propagating medium
and not connected by a wire or a cable.
Wireless Communication is defined as the transmission of
user information without the use of any physical media.
A wide array of devices ranging from computers to digital
cameras, laser printers and even household appliances can
communicate without wires.
Chapter 1
I. Evolution of Wireless and Mobile Radio

Communication System
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Radio and Television Communication

Radar Communications
Satellite Communications
Wireless and Mobile Communications
Cellular Communications
Chapter 1
1.1. Radio & Television Communications

In 1874, Marconi performed simple experiments to send EM
waves at short distances of only 100 m and successfully
proved that EM wave transmission was possible between two
distant points even in the presence of obstacles between
them.
This paved the way for radio communication. The word radio
originated from the term radiated energy.
In 1901, Marconi set up a transmitting station in England and
a receiving station on the other side of Atlantic Ocean on the
island of Newfoundland.
A signal was transmitted and received at a distance of 3500
kms due to the presence of the ionosphere, a layer of the
upper atmosphere between 60 to 500 kms above the earth
Chapter 1
Continue
In 1927, Farnsworth gave the first public demo of the TV
system and developed several basic concepts related to
electronic TV systems.
In 1930, North Americas first TV station , WX3K in Wheaton,
Maryland was started.
National Broadcasting Company (NBC) started regular TV
broadcasting.
In 1941, FCC set the standards for broadcast TV. By 1970, TV
has become the primary information and entertainment
medium in the world.
Today it is estimated that there are more than a billion TV
sets worldwide.
Chapter 1
1.2. Radar Communications

Radar was originally called Radio Direction Finder (RDF). The
term RADAR was coined in 1941 which means Radio
Detection and Ranging.
Radar is an active remote sensing system that operates on the
principle of echoes.
A radar display shows a map like picture of the area being
scanned.
The center of the picture corresponds to the radar antenna
and radar echoes are shown as bright spots on the screen.
Radar is used to detect airplanes, ships, forecast the weather,
to study potential hidden dangers in highway tunnels, to
locate pools of water in areas of dense foliage on the earth.
Chapter 1
1.3. Satellite Communications

A satellite is any object that orbits or revolves around another
object.
Eg., Moon is the satellite of Earth and Earth is the satellite of
Sun.
Satellite provide communication Capabilities around the
world, transmitting the TV signals, telephone calls, faxes,
computer communications, and weather information.
In 1945, Arthur C Clarke
envisioned a network of
communication satellite.
Three satellites could be placed into space at about 36,000
kms above sea level so as to orbit the planet every 24 hours
and are able to transmit signals around the world by
transmitting in a LOS direction with the other orbiting
satellites .
Chapter 1
Continue
In 1957, USSR launched Sputnik I satellite, followed by Sputnik
II and its passenger, Laika, a dog.
In 1961, Yuri Gagarin became the first human in orbit. In 1964,
an international organization , INTELSAT, was formed , which
launched a series of satellites with the goal of providing total
earth coverage by satellite transmission.
Today INTELSAT has 19 satellites in orbit that are open to use
by all nations.
Aryabhatta was Indias first satellite which was built by ISRO
to conduct experiments related to astronomy, launched by
USSR on 19th April, 1975 using COSMOS 3M launch vehicle.
Chapter 1
1.4. Wireless Communications

Based on the nature of wireless transmission, wireless
communication systems may be classified as
(i) Simplex Systems
(ii) Half Duplex Systems
(iii) Full Duplex Systems
Chapter 1
(i)Simplex System:
*Allows only one way communication.
*Either transmission or reception.
eg: TV remote, FM radio ..
Chapter 1
10
(ii) Half Duplex Systems

Allow two-way communication by using the same radio
channel for both transmission and reception .
At any given time the user can either transmit or receive
information.
eg: Walkie Talkie
Chapter 1
11
Walkie-Talkie
Chapter 1
12
(iii) Full Duplex Systems

Allow simultaneous two-way communication i.e., both
transmission and reception can be done simultaneously.
Can be implemented in two different ways
(i) Frequency Division Duplexing - FDD
Two different simplex channels are used, one for transmission
and the other for reception.
(ii) Time Division Duplexing - TDD
Only one channel is used for both transmission and reception at
different time slots
eg: Mobile phone
Chapter 1
13
Mobile phone
Chapter 1
14
1.5. Cellular Communications

* To make the people to communicate with each other when
they are on move.
The idea has been adopted from military people where they
establish their own communication set up during the camps
near borders.
The advances in VLSI made it possible to bring the technology
to layman with minimum cost.
The main constraint in implementing Mobile radio
communication is limited spectrum allocation.
Frequency reuse concept became the backbone and main
reason for the success of Mobile radio communication.
Chapter 1
15
Continue
The entire coverage area is divided conveniently into small
regions called cells. Group of cells form a cluster and group of
clusters will cover the entire coverage area.
The same carrier frequencies are reused in different cells of
different clusters through out the coverage area by
maintaining the minimum distance. The cells are called
Co-channel cells.
* The overall aim for Mobile radio companies is to provide
communication to the users when they are on move with the
subscriber unit being light weight, small size and less power
consumption.
Chapter 1
16
Continue..
The number of users of mobile and portable radio in 1995 was
about 100 million.
25 to 40 million cordless telephones were in U.S. in 1991 and
estimated to be over 100 million in the year 2001
The number of worldwide cellular telephone users grew from
25,000 in 1984 to about 25 million in 1993 and to 630 million
as of late 2001.
Consumers are expected to increasingly use

wireless service as their sole telephone access
method in the years to come.
Chapter 1
17
2. Mobile Radio Telephony

1946:
First public mobile telephone was introduced in U.S.

System used single , high powered transmitter
Range of over 50 km
Bandwidth of 120 kHz
Human voice occupies only 3 KHz bandwidth
Large bandwidth is provided due to non availability of tight RF
filters and low noise front end receiver amplifiers.
Chapter 1
18
Continue
1950:
Federal Communication Committee (FCC) doubled the
number of mobile telephone channels per market without
new spectrum allocation.
Channel bandwidth is reduced to 60 kHz
1960:
Channel bandwidth was cut to 30 kHz
There was four fold increase in spectrum efficiency due to
technology advances from WWII to the mid 1960s
Chapter 1
19
Continue
AT&T Bell Labs and other telecommunication companies
developed the theory and techniques of cellular radio
telephony
They proposed the concept of breaking a coverage zone into
small cells, each of which reuse portions of the spectrum to
increase spectrum usage.
Channels can be reused only when there is sufficient distance
between the transmitters to prevent interference.
Cellular telephony relied on reusing the same channels within
the same market or service area.
Chapter 1
20
Continue
1968:
AT&T proposed the concept of a cellular mobile system to FCC.
1983:
FCC finally allocated 666 duplex channels for U.S. Advanced
Mobile Phone System (AMPS)
40 MHz of spectrum in the 800 MHz band.
Each channel having a one-way bandwidth of 30 kHz.
1989:
FCC granted an additional 166 channels (10 MHz) because of
rapid growth and demand.
Chapter 1
21
Frequency Spectrum allocation for

U.S. cellular radio service
Reverse Channel
991
992
,,,,
1023
.....
799
824 849 MHz

Channel Number
1 N 799
991 N 1023
Center Frequency (MHz)

0.030N + 825.0
0.030(N 1023) + 825.0
Channels 800 990 are unused

Chapter 1
22
Continue
Forward Channel
991
992
,,,,
1023
.....
799
869 894 MHz

Channel Number
1 N 799
991 N 1023
Center Frequency (MHz)

0.030N + 870.0
0.030(N 1023) + 870.0
Channels 800 990 are unused

Chapter 1
23
Continue
1991:
US Digital Cellular (USDC) system hardware was installed in
major U.S cities.
USDC standard (EIA IS-54 and IS-136) allowed operators to
replace analog channels with digital channels which
supported three users in the same 30 kHz bandwidth.
Capacity improvement offered by USDC is three times that of
AMPS because of digital modulation, speech coding and
TDMA are used instead of analog modulation and FDMA.
Chapter 1
24
Continue
Cellular system based on CDMA has been developed by
Qualcomm, Inc. and standardized by Telecommunications
Industry Association (TIA) as an IS-95
This system supported variable number of users in the
bandwidth of 1.25 MHz using direct sequence spread
spectrum
CDMA systems can operate at much larger interference levels
because of their inherent interference resistant properties.
CDMA systems can operate with much smaller SNR which
allowed CDMA systems to use the same set of frequencies in
every cell which in turn provided large improvement in
capacity.
Chapter 1
25
Continue
1995:
US Government auctioned Personal Communication Service
(PCS) in the 1800/1900 MHz bandwidth which are used for
wireless services that compete with cellular systems.
Chapter 1
26
3. Elements of Wireless Communication Systems

1.Base Station (BS)
*A fixed station in a mobile radio system used for communication
with mobile stations .
*Located at the center or on the edge of a coverage region .
*Consists of Dedicated radio channels for voice transmission
and data channels
*Consists of Transmitters , receivers, control unit and power supply
unit
*Consists of Transmitter and Receiver antennas mounted on the
tower
Chapter 1
27
Chapter 1
28
(2) Mobile Station (MS)

*A Station in the cellular radio service intended for use while in
motion at unspecified locations
*Consists of a control unit, a transceiver and an antenna system
*Hand-held personal units (portables) or installed in vehicles
(mobiles).
Portables
Mobiles
Chapter 1
29
(3)Mobile Switching Center (MSC):

Connects the Base stations and Mobile stations to the PSTN
It coordinates the routing of calls in a large service area.
Also called as Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO)
Chapter 1
30
(4) Control Channels

Channel used for transmission of control signals.
Control signals are mainly required for
call establishment
call maintenance
call termination
Also used for transmission of control signals related to
call request
call initiation
other beacon or control purposes
Available as a pair:
Forward Control Channel (FCC): From BS MS
Reverse Control Channel (RCC): From MSBS
Chapter 1
31
(5) Voice Channels

Channel used for transmission of information, mainly voice.
Available as a pair.
(i) Forward Voice Channel (FVC)
Channel used for transmission of information from the base
station to mobile station
BS MS
(ii) Reverse Voice Channel (RVC)
Channel used for transmission of information from the mobile
station to base station
MSBS
Chapter 1
32
(6) Full Duplex Systems

Allow simultaneous two-way communication i.e., both
transmission and reception can be done simultaneously.
Can be implemented in two different ways
(i) Frequency Division Duplexing - FDD
Two different simplex channels are used, one for transmission
and the other for reception.
(ii) Time Division Duplexing - TDD
Only one channel is used for both transmission and reception at
different time slots
eg: Mobile phone
Chapter 1
33
Mobile phone
Chapter 1
34
(7) Half Duplex Systems

Allow two-way communication by using the same radio
channel for both transmission and reception .
At any given time the user can either transmit or receive
information.
eg: Walkie Talkie
Chapter 1
35
Walkie-Talkie
Chapter 1
36
(8)Simplex System:
*Allows only one way communication.
*Either transmission or reception.
eg: TV remote, FM radio ..
Chapter 1
37
(7) Handoff
The process of transferring a mobile station from one
channel or base station to another
(8) Page
A brief message which is broadcast over the entire service
area, usually in a broadcast fashion by many base stations
at the same time.
(9) Roamer
A mobile station which operates in a service area other
than from which service ha been subscribed.
(10)Subscriber
A user who pays subscription charges for using a mobile
communication system
(11) Transceiver
A device capable of simultaneously transmitting and
receiving radio signals
Chapter 1
38
Continue
(12) Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)
Provides simultaneous radio transmission channels for the
subscriber and the base station, so that they both may
constantly transmit while simultaneously receiving signals
from one another.
At the BS, separate Transmitting and Receiving antennas are
used to accommodate two separate channels
At the MS, a single antenna along with a duplexer is used to
simultaneously transmit and receive the signals.
In U.S.AMPS standard, the reverse channel has a frequency
which is exactly 45 MHz lower than that of the forward
channel.
Chapter 1
39
(13) Time Division Duplexing (TDD)

Single radio channel is shared in time, so that a portion of the
time is used to transmit from the BS to MS and the remaining
time is used to transmit from MS to BS
Possible only with digital transmission formats and digital
modulation.
Very sensitive to timing
Suitable for indoor or small area wireless applications where
the coverage distances are much smaller.
Chapter 1
40
4. Examples of Wireless Communication

Systems
(1) Paging Systems
(2) Cordless Telephone Systems
(3) Cellular Telephone Systems
Chapter 1
41
4.1. Paging Systems
Communication systems used to send brief messages to a

subscriber.
The message may be either a numeric message,
alphanumeric message or a voice message
News headlines, stock quotations and faxes may also be
sent.
A message is sent to a paging subscriber via the paging
system access number with a telephone keypad or modem.
The issued message is called a page.
The paging system then transmits the page through out the
service area using the base stations which in turn broadcast
the page on a radio carrier
Chapter 1
42
Chapter 1
43
Continue
Simple paging system coverage area may vary between 2 to 5
km or even confined to within individual buildings.
Wide area paging systems can provide world wide coverage.
Consists of a
network of telephone lines
many base station transmitters
and large radio towers.
Designed to provide reliable communication to subscribers
wherever they are i.e., inside a building, driving on a highway
or flying in an airplane.
Requires large transmitter power (of the order of Kilowatts)
and low data rates for maximum coverage from each base
station.
Chapter 1
44
Continue..
Post Office Code Standard Advisory Group (POCSAG) is the
worlds most commonly used paging standard developed by
British Post office in 1970s
Supports FSK signaling at 512 bps, 1200 bps and 2400 bps.
FLEX (4-level FSK based paging standard) and ERMES
(European Radio Message System) are new paging systems
which provide transmission up to 6400 bps.
Chapter 1
45
4.2. Cordless Telephone Systems

Full duplex systems use radio to connect a portable handset
to a dedicated base station, which is then connected to a
dedicated telephone line with a specific telephone number on
the PSTN.
Consist of a portable unit which communicates to the
dedicated base unit over distance of a few tens of meters.
Modern cordless telephones allow subscribers to use their
handsets at many outdoor locations. However it is not
possible to maintain a call if the user travels outside the range
of the base station.
Coverage ranges up to a few hundred meters.
Chapter 1
46
Chapter 1
47
Continue
* CT2(Cordless Telephone-2) and Digital European Cordless
Telephone (DECT) are the two most popular cordless
telephone standards throughout Europe and Asia.
CT2 system used microcells which cover small distances,
usually less than 100m, using base stations with antennas
mounted on street lights or on sides of the buildings.
Used FSK with 32 kbps transmission speed.
DECT system accommodated both data and voice
transmissions for office and business users.
PACS (Personal Access Communication System) is the standard
developed in U.S. which is used inside the office buildings as a
wireless voice and data telephone system or radio local loop.
Chapter 1
48
4.3. Cellular Telephone Systems
Chapter 1
49
Basic cellular system consists of

mobile stations,
base stations and
mobile switching center (MSC)
MSC is also called Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO),
since it is responsible for connecting all the mobiles to the
PSTN in a cellular system.
Mobile Station (MS)
Each MS communicates via radio with one of the BS and may
be handed off to any of the BSs throughout the duration of a
call.
MS contains a transceiver, an antenna and control circuitry
and may be mounted in a vehicle or used as a portable handheld unit.
Chapter 1
50
Base Stations (BS)

BSs station consists of several transmitters and receivers
which simultaneously handle full duplex communications and
generally have tower which support several transmitting and
receiving antennas.
It serves as a bridge between all MSs in the cell and connects
the mobiles via telephone lines or microwave links to the
MSC.
MSC :
It coordinates the activities of all the BSs and connects the
entire cellular system to the PSTN.
It handles 1,00,000 cellular subscribers and 5,000
simultaneous conversations at a time.
It accommodates all billing and system maintenance
functions.
Chapter 1
51
Continue
Communication between the base station and the mobiles is
defined by a standard common air interface (CAI) that
specifies four different channels.
Voice Channels
(i)Forward Voice Channels (FVC)
(ii)Reverse Voice Channels (RVC)
* Control Channels
(i)Forward Control Channel (FCC)
(ii)Reverse Control Channel (RCC)
Also called as set up channels as they are used to set up a call
and moving it to an unused voice channel.
FCC also serve as beacons which continually broadcast all of
the traffic requests for all mobiles in the system.
Chapter 1
52
Continue
Handoff:
Once a call is in progress, the MSC adjusts the transmitted
power of the MS and BSs in order to maintain call quality as
the subscriber moves in and out of range of each BS
Roaming:
This service allows subscribers to operate in service areas
other than the one from which service is subscribed.
When a mobile enters a city or geographic area that is
different its home service area, it is registered as a roamer in
the new service area.
Chapter 1
53
4.3.1. Call initiated by a landline

Step 1:
MSC: Receives call from PSTN. Sends the requested MIN to all
base stations
Step 2:
BS: FCC - Transmits page (MIN) for specified user.
MS: FCC - Receives page and matches the MIN with its own MIN
Step 3:
MS: RCC Acknowledges receipt of MIN and sends ESN and
SCM
BS: RCC Receives MIN, ESN, SCM and passes to MSC
Step 4:
MSC:Verifies whether mobile MIN, ESN pair is valid or not.
Chapter 1
54
Step 5:
MSC: Requests BS to move mobile to unused Voice channel
pair (FVC & RVC)
Step 6:
BS:
FCC Transmits data message for mobile to move to
specific voice channel
MS: FCC Receives data messages to move to specified voice
channels.
Step 7:
MSC: Connects the mobile with the calling party on the PSTN
BS:
FVC Begin voice transmission
RVC Begin voice reception
MS: FVC Begin voice reception
RVC Begin voice transmission
Chapter 1
55
4.3.2. Call initiated by Mobile

Step 1:
MS: RCC Sends a call initiation request along with the
subscribe MIN and number of called party
BS: RCC - Receives call initiation request and MIN, ESN, SCM
Step 2:
MSC:Receives call initiation request from BS and verifies for
valid MIN & ESN pair of the mobile
Step 3:
MSC: Instructs FCC of originating BS to move mobile to a pair of
voice channels.
Chapter 1
56
Step 4:
BS:
FCC - Page for called mobile to move to voice channel.
MS: FCC Receives page and matches MIN with its own MIN.
Receives instruction to move to voice channel
Step 5:
MSC: Connects the mobile with the called party on the PSTN
Step 6:
BS:
FVC Begin voice transmission
MS: FVC Begin voice reception
MS: RVC Begin voice transmission
BS:
RVC Begin voice reception
Chapter 1
57
Continue.
Nippon Telephone and Telegraph (NTT) company of Japan was
the worlds first cellular system started in 1979.
Used 600 duplex channels with 25 kHz bandwidth in 800 MHz
band.
Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT 450) System of Europe was
developed in 1981 for 450 MHz band and used 25 kHz
bandwidth channels.
European Total Access Cellular System (TACS) was deployed in
1985 which is similar to U.S.AMPS system except with smaller
channel bandwidth.
C-450 is the cellular standard started in Germany in the year
1985.
Chapter 1
58
Continue
All the systems are replaced by Pan European digital cellular
standard Global Standard for Mobile (GSM) which was first
deployed in 1990 in a new 900 MHz band in Europe.
GSM standard is the first universal digital cellular system
accepted worldwide with modern network features extended
to each mobile user.
North Americas USDC and Japans Pacific Digital Cellular
(PDC) standards provided digital cellular service in 1991 and
1993 which are similar to GSM standard.
Chapter 1
59
Major Mobile Radio Standards in North America

Standard
Type
Year
Multiple
Access
Bandwidth Modulation
MHz
Ch.
bandwidth
AMPS
Cellular
1983
FDMA
824-894
FM
30 kHz
USDC
Cellular
1991
TDMA
824-894
DQPSK
30 kHz
NAMPS
Cellular
1992
FDMA
824-894
FM
10 kHz
CDPD
Cellular
1993
FH/Packet
824-894
GMSK
30 kHz
IS-95
Cellular
/PCS
1993
CDMA
824-894
1.8-2.0
QPSK/BPSK
1.25 MHz
POCSAG
Paging
1970
Simplex
Several
FSK
12.5 kHz
Chapter 1
60
Continue..
Major Mobile Radio Standards in Europe
Standard
Type
Year
Multiple
Access
MHz
Ch.
bandwidth
ETACS
Cellular
1985
FDMA
900
FM
25 kHz
NMT-450
Cellular
1981
FDMA
450-470
FM
25 kHz
NMT-900
Cellular
1986
FDMA
890-960
FM
12.5 kHz
GSM
Cellular/ 1990
PCS
TDMA
890-960
GMSK
200 kHz
C-450
Cellular
1985
FDMA
450-465
FM
20/10 kHz
ERMES
Paging
1993
FDMA
Several
FSK
25 kHz
NMT: Nordic Mobile Telephone

ERMES: European Radio Message System
Chapter 1
61
Continue..
Major Mobile Radio Standards in Japan
Standard
Type
Year
Multiple
Access
MHz
Ch.
bandwidth
JTACS
Cellular
1988
FDMA
860-925
FM
25 kHz
PDC
Cellular
1993
TDMA
810-1501
DQPSK
25 kHz
NTT
Cellular
1979
FDMA
400/800
FM
25 kHz
NTACS
Cellular
1993
FDMA
843=925
FM
12.5 kHz
NTT
Paging
1979
FDMA
280
FSK
12.5 kHz
NEC
Paging
1979
FDMA
Several
FSK
10 kHz
JTACS: Japan Total Access Communication System

PDC: Pacific Digital Cellular
NTT: Nippon Telephone and Telegraph
Chapter 1
62
4.4. Comparison of Common Wireless

Mobile Station
Service
Coverage
Range
Required
Infrastructure
Complexity H/W cost Carrier

Function
Frequency
Remote
Control
Low
Low
Low
Low
Infrared
Transmitter
Garage
Door
Opener
Low
Low
Low
Low
<100 MHz
Transmitter
Pager
High
High
Low
Low
< 1 GHz
Receiver
Cordless
Low
Low
Medium
Low
< 1 GHZ
TxRx
Cellular
Phone
High
High
High
Medium
< 2 GHZ
TxRx
Chapter 1
63
Comparison of Common Wireless

Base Station
Service
Coverage
Range
Required
Infrastructure
Complexity H/W cost Carrier

Function
Frequency
Remote
Control
Low
Low
Low
Low
Infrared
Receiver
Garage
Door
Opener
Low
Low
Low
Low
<100 MHz
Receiver
Pager
High
High
High
High
< 1 GHz
Transmitter
Cordless
Low
Low
Low
Medium
< 1 GHZ
TxRx
Cellular
Phone
High
High
High
High
< 2 GHZ
TxRx
Chapter 1
64
5. Trends in Cellular Radio and Personal

Communications
Personal Communication System (PCS) , originated in U.K.
were given spectrum in 1800 MHz range to develop Personal
Communication Network (PCN) through out Great Britain.
PCN refers to a wireless networking concept where any user
can make or receive calls, no matter where they are, using a
light weight, personalized communicator.
PCS refers to new wireless systems that incorporate more
network features and are more personalized than existing
cellular radio systems
ETSI (European Telecommunications Standard Institute) is also
developing 20 Mbps HIPERLAN standard for indoor wireless
networks.
Chapter 1
65
Continue
A world wide standard , the Future Public Land Mobile
Telephone System (FPLMTS), formerly known as International
Mobile Telecommunication 2000 (IMT-2000) has been
formulated by ITU which is standard body for the United
nations with headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland.
The technical group standard TG 8/1 is within ITUs Radio
communications Sector (ITU-R).
ITU-R was formerly known as the Consultative Committee for
International Radio Communication (CCIR).
TG 8/1 takes care of implementing worldwide wireless
networks and frequency coordination to worldwide wireless
networks.
Chapter 1
66
Continue
FPLMTS(IMT-2000):
3G Universal, multi-function, globally compatible digital
mobile radio system which will integrate
Paging
Cordless
Cellular systems
and LEO satellites
Into one universal mobile system.
230 MHz spectrum is allocated in the frequency range of
1885 to 2025 MHz and 2110 to 2200 MHz
Chapter 1
67
6.1. Advantages of Wireless Communications

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mobility
Increased Reliability
Ease of Installation
Rapid Disaster Recovery
Lower cost
6.2. Disadvantages of Wireless Communications

1. Radio Signal Interference
2. Security
3. Health Hazards
Chapter 1
68
Mobile System Comparisons
7. Applications
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
Office and Household Environments

Industrial control
Education Sector
Health Services
Government and Military Operations
Event and Travel Management
Home Entertainment
Environmental and Industrial Research
Chapter 1
70
Chapter 1
71
2G Standards
Widespread adoption of wireless communications

accelerated in late 1990s
Governments everywhere opened PCS bands (1.8-2 GHz)

PCS bands :
Increased competition (e.g. AMPS duopoly)

Spurred deployment of 2G digital systems
Especially in U.S.
1995 80M users
2001 800M users
2006 2B users
2011 4.6B users
2014 6B users!!!
ECE 4730: Lecture #26
2G Standards
Three major 2G digital standards
GSM, IS-136 (NADC), IS-95 (CDMAOne)
All 2G standards designed before widespread use

of internet (pre-1995)
Circuit-switched data modems limited to single voice
channel
Data throughput rate is approximately the same as the
speech coding data rate for all three 2G standards
Typically 10 kbps data rate for single user
Very limited internet browsing and email functionality
2.5G Standards
2.5G Standards
Goal was to retrofit 2G standards to allow higher data rate
transmissions
Support internet applications
More data-centric standards
Overlay on existing 2G networks for gradual deployment
Base station upgrades (software and/or hardware)
Software upgrade only is least expensive
New mobile unit software
Provide intermediate solution for migration to fully datacentric 3G standards for high-speed data transmission
2.5G Upgrade
Appropriate 2.5G
upgrade path must
match previous 2G
technology to prevent
wholesale equipment
change at base station
2.5G TDMA Standards
2.5G Standards : HSCSD, GPRS, and EDGE

High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD)
Circuit switched (not data centric!) upgrade for GSM
GSM speech coder data rate was14.4 kbps (plus channel coding 22.8
kbps )
GSM original speech data rate was 9.6 kbps (plus data error coding
14.4 kbps plus channel coding 22.8 kbps )
HSCSD :
Eliminates original GSM data error coding

Individual users allowed to use up to 4 consecutive GSM time slots in a
given frame (same radio channel)
Max data rate = 4 x 14.4 = 57.6 kbps
Good for real-time/dedicated internet access (circuit-switched)
BS only needs software upgrade; New mobile handsets required
2.5G TDMA Standards
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
Upgrade for GSM or IS-136 (sort of)

Multi-user packet based (more data centric)
Multi-user network sharing of radio channels and time slots
Supports many more users than HSCSD but in bursty manner (not
dedicated)
Best suited for non-real time internet
Email, fax, asymmetric web browsing
Asymmetric? download rate is greater than upload
Retains original 2G TDMA (GSM or IS-136) modulation

Completely redefined air interface for packet network
2.5G TDMA Standards
GSM GPRS
21.4 kbps raw (no channel coding) data rate per TS

If all 8 GSM time slots are dedicated to GPRS then
maximum instantaneous data rate is 8 x 21.4 =171.2 kbps

GSM channel data rate is 270 kbps
270 171 = 99 kbps frame overhead
Applications can provide own error coding as needed

Data throughput for individual user decreases
substantially when
More users added to network

Propagation conditions degrade
Retransmission of lost data packets!!
50 kbps average data throughput was routinely achieved
2.5G TDMA Standards
GSM GPRS
New IP routers and gateway hardware at BS

New BS software for packet network air interface
No new RF (Tx/Rx) BS hardware
New GPRS mobile handsets
Originally developed for GSM only but NADC operators
(e.g. AT&T and Cingular) requested GPRS be extended

to include IS-136 as well
IS-136 GPRS developed but not actually deployed!!
U.S. IS-136 carriers switched to GSM-GPRS!!
Not a seamless upgrade as originally intended!!
Significant cost to upgrade (wholesale RF hardware change)
2.5G TDMA Standards
GSM GPRS
Most widely used 2.5G standard

Much more popular than HSCSD
Packet vs. Circuit Switched
Shared vs. Dedicated
Multi-User vs. Single-User
100 million users in 2001
T-Mobile first to deploy in U.S.

AT&T Wireless and Cingular switched in 2001/2002
Upgraded to 2.5G EDGE in 2003 and 2004
AT&T completed nationwide upgrade to EDGE in late 2003
2.5G TDMA Standards
Enhanced Data for GSM Evolution (EDGE)
More advanced upgrade to GSM standard
Requires new RF hardware at BS unlike GPRS
New digital modulation standard 8-PSK (Octal PSK) used

in addition to standard GMSK
Higher order modulation more bits/symbol larger
spectral efficiency larger data throughput

Nine different air interface formats
Rapidly and adaptively selectable

Variable data rates and error coding
Multiple Modulation and Coding Schemes (MCS)
10
2.5G TDMA Standards
EDGE MCS
Each MCS state can use low (GMSK) or high (8-PSK)
data rate modulation

Each mobile unit adaptively determines best MCS setting
for user data needs and channel conditions
Stronger S / I then higher data rate
Selected data rate decreases as one moves away from BS
Adaptive selection of best MCS Incremental

Redundancy
Quickly negotiate the optimal coding and data rate

Ensures each user will rapidly reach condition with maximum data
rate, minimum error coding, minimum BS, and minimum power
drain
Ultimately maximizes system capacity for multi-rate users
11
2.5G TDMA Standards
EDGE Data Rate
Assuming:
All 8 GSM TS are used by single user

No error coding
Max instantaneous data rate is 384 kbps (2.2X larger than GPRS)
Multi-user sharing yields maybe ~100-120 kbps average data rate
under nominal conditions
Multi-Carrier Transmissions 3G EDGE

Specified in EDGE for further data rate enhancement
Allows multiple RF channels to be used
Increases throughput to 1-2 Mbps for single user and 300-500 kbps
for multiple users
12
Cellular Fundamentals
Early Mobile Radio
Single Tx, high power, and tall tower

Low cost
Large coverage area
Small # users
Poor spectrum utilization
Cellular Concept
Many base stations, lower power, and shorter towers
Small coverage areas called cells
Each cell allocated a % of total available channels
Cellular Fundamentals
Cellular Concept (continued)
Nearby (adjacent) cells assigned different channel groups
Minimize interference between neighboring base stations and
mobile users
Same frequency channels may be reused by cells a reasonable
distance away
Reused many times as long as interference between same
channel (co-channel) cells is < acceptable level
Frequency reuse # users system cost
*** A fixed # of channels serves a large # of users by

reusing channels throughout coverage area ***
Frequency Reuse/Planning
Design process of selecting & allocating channel groups
to cellular base stations
Two competing/conflicting objectives:
1) Maximize frequency reuse in specified area
2) Minimize interference between cells
Cells
Base station antennas designed to cover specific cell area

Hexagonal cell shape assumed for planning
Simple model for easy analysis circles leave gaps!
Actual cell footprint is amorphous (no specific shape)
Contour where Tx successfully serves mobile unit
Frequency Reuse/Planning
Base station location
Cell center omni-directional antenna (360

coverage)
Cell corners ?? not really! See Fig. 3.8, pg. 87
Typically 3 sectored or directional antennas
Very common
Frequency reuse pattern
Cell Cluster group of N cells using complete set of

available channels
Cluster pattern repeated M times over a service area
to provide complete coverage
Frequency Reuse Pattern

N = 7 Cell Reuse Pattern
A-G Unique Channel Groups
M = 3 Cell Clusters
Co-Channel Cells
same channel group in
different clusters
Cell Layout
N cells/cluster
Hexagonal geometry connect without gaps
Specific values of N required for hexagonal
geometry
N = i2 + i j + j2 where i, j 1
Typical N values 3, 7, 12 (i, j = 1/1, 1/2, 2/2)
N = 4 also used (non-hexagonal cell shape)
Co-Channel Cells
1) Move i cells along any chain of hexagons
2) Turn 60 CCW and move j cells along chain
System Capacity
S : total # of duplex voice channels available for
use in a given system (area) determined by:
Amount of allocated spectrum (e.g. FCC)
Channel BW modulation format and/or standard
specs (e.g. AMPS)
k : allocate a subset of S for each cell where k < S

and S = k N
N : cluster size # of cells forming cluster
M : # of times a cluster is replicated in a service
area
System Capacity = Total # Duplex Channels = C
C=MkN=MS
System Capacity
For large system capacity :
Large M small cell size and/or small cluster size (N)

Why small N ?? for a given area, a small cluster size
translates to more clusters/area and M
Cluster size N and cell radius R determines :

Distance between co-channel cells (D)
Level of co-channel interference
Large N large D low interference small M
low C !!
Frequency reuse factor = 1 / N

Each cell assigned k S / N
System Capacity
Example: Given 30 MHz of spectrum for an FDD
cell system using two 25 kHz SX channels for FDX
operation, determine a reasonable distribution of
control & voice channels for each cell in a cluster
size of N = 7 if 0.5 MHz of spectrum is dedicated
for control channel use. Assume omni-directional
antennas (1 antenna/cell)
30 MHz of total spectrum

FDX channel BW = 2 25 kHz = 50 kHz
Total # of duplex channels = 30 MHz / 50 kHz = 600
Dedicated control channels (CC) = 0.5 MHz / 50 kHz =
10
System Capacity
Example (continued) :
S = # of duplex voice channels (VC) = 600 10 = 590

# of VC/cell 590 / 7 84
# of CC/cell 10 / 7 1
Exact solution: 5 cells @ 84 VC & 2 cells @ 85 VC
Full utilization of voice channels
1 CC/cell
Do not need more than 1 CC/cell for omni-directional
antennas
extra CCs (e.g. 3) means that greater reuse distance will
result less interference between cell control channels
Channel Assignment
Goal is to minimize interference & maximize
capacity
Lower interference allows smaller N to be used
greater frequency reuse larger C
Two main strategies: Fixed or Dynamic

Fixed Assignment
Each cell allocated a pre-determined set of voice channels
Calls within given cell only served by unused cell channels
All channels used blocked call no service
Several variations
MSC allows cell to borrow VC from adjacent cell
Adjacent donor cell must have available VC to give
Channel Assignment
Dynamic Assignment
Channels NOT allocated permanently

Call request serving base station MSC
MSC allocates channel on the fly
Allocation strategy considers
Probability of blocked call
Reuse distance (interference potential)
Channel frequency
Advantage: reduces call blocking, increases trunking

capacity (not C), and increases voice quality
Channel Assignment
Dynamic Assignment (continued)
Disadvantage: increases storage & computational
load @ MSC
Requires real-time data from entire network on
Channel occupancy
Traffic distribution
Radio Signal Strength (RSS) of all channels
Mobile Unit Handoff

Handoff : when a mobile unit moves from one
cell to another while a call is in progress, the
MSC must transfer (handoff) the call to a new
channel belonging to new base station
New voice and control channel frequencies
Very important task often given higher priority
than new call!!
Which is more annoying to customers?
Dropping call during middle of conversation
Blocking a new call request
Mobile Unit Handoff

Minimum Useable Signal (MUS)
Note
Lowest acceptable voice quality

Specified by system designers
Typical values 100 to 110 dBm
Handoff Threshold (HT) > MUS Level
= PHT PMUS
Carefully selected
too large unnecessary handoff MSC loaded down
too small not enough time to transfer call
dropped!
Handoff Margin
Fig. 3.3, pg. 63
dBm 10 log
1
mW
Illustration of
Handoff
at Cell
Boundary
PHT
PMUS
PHT
PMUS
Ideal Cellular Coverage

Less than R: only
covered by BS A
G
R
Greater than R: not

covered by A. Only
covered by BS in cell
where mobile is
located (e.g. B, C, D,
etc.)
Mobile Unit Handoff

Handoff : when a mobile unit moves from one
cell to another while a call is in progress, the
MSC must transfer (handoff) the call to a new
channel belonging to new base station
New voice and control channel frequencies
Very important task often given higher priority
than new call!!
Which is more annoying to customers?
Dropping call during middle of conversation
Blocking a new call request
Illustration of
Handoff
at Cell
Boundary
PHT
PMUS
PHT
PMUS
Mobile Unit Handoff

Minimum Useable Signal (MUS)
Note
Lowest acceptable voice quality

Specified by system designers
Typical values 100 dBm = 0.1 pW!
Handoff Threshold (HT) > MUS Level
= PHT PMUS
Carefully selected
too large unnecessary handoff MSC loaded down
too small not enough time to transfer call
dropped!
Handoff Margin
Fig. 3.3, pg. 63
dBm 10 log
1
mW
Mobile Unit Handoff

Dropped Call Occurrence 3 typical causes
Excessive delay by MSC in assigning handoff
High traffic times and computational load on MSC
No channels available in new cell

Mobile unit moves into dead zone
Handoff Decision
Signal level decreasing due to
Momentary signal fading do NOT handoff
Mobile moving away from base station
Must monitor RSS over a period of time moving average

Time allowed to complete handoff depends on mobile speed
Large negative RSS slope high speed quick handoff
Statistics of small-scale (short time) fading signal important to making

appropriate handoff decision Chpt. 5
Mobile Unit Handoff

1st Generation (1G) Cellular (Analog FM AMPS)
RSS of RVC measured at base station & monitored by
MSC
Another Rx in base station (locator Rx) monitors RSS
of RVC in adjacent cells (controlled by MSC)
MSC monitors RSS from all base stations & decides on
handoff
Call handoff took 12 sec very noticeable to user
Break in conversation and white noise before new channel
established in new cell
Mobile Unit Handoff

2nd Generation (2G) Cellular w/ digital TDMA
(USDC, GSM, IS136)
Mobile Assisted HandOffs (MAHO)
Important advancement
Mobile measures RSS of FCC from multiple adjacent
base stations & reports back to serving base station
If Rx power from new base station > Rx power from
serving (current) base station by pre-determined
margin for certain time period handoff initiated by
MSC
MSC makes handoff decision but is assisted by mobile which
reports RSS values from serving and neighboring cells
Mobile Unit Handoff

2G MAHO
MSC no longer monitors RSS of all channels like in
1G
MSC computational load considerably reduced
Enables rapid (~ 20 msec) and efficient handoffs

Imperceptible to user
Improves call quality as well
RSS from adjacent cell may be much better than serving
cell and RSS > PHT handoff not initiated but adjacent
cell has better signal!!
Mobile Unit Handoff

Prioritizing Handoffs
Perceived Quality of Service (QoS)
Assign higher priority to handoff vs. new call request
Dropped call more aggravating than occasional blocked call
Guard Channels
% of total available cell channels exclusively set aside for
handoff requests
Fewer channels available for new call requests!!
Good strategy for dynamic channel allocation (not fixed)
Guard channels only allocated/used in needed cells (high traffic)
Not wasted on cells with low traffic
Mobile Unit Handoff

Prioritizing Handoffs (continued)
Queuing Handoff Requests
Use time delay between handoff threshold and MUS level to
place handoff request in a queue
Prioritize requests (mobile speed) and handoff as needed
High speed mobile user rapid variation of RSS strong
negative slope of RSS when leaving cell short time
duration before MUS level crossed high priority handoff
Low speed mobile user can be placed lower in queue
priority even though handoff threshold crossed before
another high speed user
Mobile Unit Handoff

Practical Handoff Considerations
Problems occur b/c of large range of mobile velocities
Pedestrian vs. vehicle user
Small cell sizes and/or micro-cells larger # handoffs

MSC load is heavy when high speed users are passing
between very small cells
# handoffs/time increases
Mobile Unit Handoff

Practical Handoff Considerations
Umbrella Cells
Use different antenna heights and Tx power levels to provide
large and small cell coverage
Multiple antennas & Tx can be co-located at single location if
necessary
Large cell high speed traffic fewer handoffs
Small cell low speed traffic
Example areas: interstate highway passing thru urban

center, office park, or nearby shopping mall
Fig. 3.4, pg. 67
Umbrella Cell
Handoff Parameters
Typical 1G Analog Cellular parameters
Threshold margin 6 to 12 dB
Total time to complete handoff 8 to 10 sec
Transfer time 1 to 2 sec
Handoff Parameters
Typical 2G Digital Cellular parameters
Threshold margin 2 to 6 dB
Total time to complete handoff 1 to 2 sec
Transfer time 20 msec
Small handoff time

Greater flexibility in handling high/low speed users
Queuing handoffs & prioritizing
More time to rescue calls needing urgent handoff
Fewer dropped calls QoS increased
Mobile Unit Handoff

Soft vs. Hard Handoffs
Hard handoff different radio channels assigned when moving
from cell to cell
All 1G analog (AMPS) & 2G digital TDMA systems

(USDC, GSM, IS-136, etc.)
Spread spectrum users share the same channel in every cell
CDMA IS95, JSTD8 (Verizon Wireless, Sprint

PCS)
MSC simultaneously monitors reverse link signal at
several base stations
Soft Handoff MSC chooses best signal and passes
on to PSTN
Advantage unique to CDMA systems
Cellular Interference
*** Interference is the limiting factor in
performance of all cellular radio systems ***
Interfering Sources:
Another mobile in same cell (adjacent frequency channel)
Base stations operating at same frequencies (co-channel)
Other cellular carriers transmitting out-of-band
Non-linear Tx products intermodulation
More severe in urban areas with many service providers
Other microwave, electronic, and wireless devices
Voice/Data Channel Interference
Cross talk data interference
Lower voice quality, lower data rates
Dropped calls
Control Channel Interference

Missed, blocked, and dropped calls
Reduced system capacity
Most interference generated by same system
Cannot be completely controlled due to random
propagation effects of radio signals
Two major types of system-generated

interference :
1) Co-Channel Interference (CCI)
2) Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI)
Two major types of system-generated interference :
1) Co-Channel Interference (CCI)
2) Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI)
Co-Channel Interference caused by frequency reuse
Many cells in given coverage area use same set of

channel frequencies to increase system capacity
(C)
Co-channel cells cells that share same set of
frequencies
Co-Channel Interference
Possible solution :
A) Increase base station Tx power to improve radio
signal reception?
NO!!
Why ??
increases interference from cochannel cells by the same amount!
no net improvement
Possible solution :
B) Separate co-channel cells by some minimum
distance to provide sufficient isolation from
propagation of radio
signals?
Why ??
if all cell sizes same then cochannel interference is independent of
Tx power
YES!!
CCI depends on :
R : cell radius
D : distance from BS to center of nearest cochannel
cell
D / R then spatial separation relative to cell

coverage area
Improved isolation from co-channel RF energy
Q = D / R : co-channel reuse ratio

3N
For hexagonal cells Q = D / R =
40
Fundamental Tradeoff
Tradeoff in cellular system design:
Small Q small cluster size more frequency
reuse larger system capacity great!!
But also small co-channel cell separation
increased CCI reduced voice quality not so
great!
Tradeoff:
Capacity vs. Voice Quality
Signal to Interference
ratio S / I (not S / N
S
S
or SNR!!) I i
Ii
o
Equation (1)
i 1
co-channel cell
io : # of co-channel interfering cells
P0 : Rx power at close-in reference point

d
d0 : close-in reference distance

P
P
r
0
Average dRx
power at distance d
0
n : path loss exponent
n
S : Rx power from desired signal

th
Iwhere
i : Interference power from i
If base stations have equal Tx power and propagation
constant (n) is the same throughout coverage area (not
always true!) then
S
Equation (2) I
R n
io
n
(
D
)
i
where
i 1
Di : Distance from ith interferer to mobile Rx power

@ mobile (Di ) n
n : Path loss exponent or propagation constant
Free space or LOS (no obstruction) n = 2 (1 / 4 d 2)
Urban cellular n = 3 to 5
If all interfering base stations are equidistant
( D) from mobile unit and considering only
first layer (or tier) of co-channel cells then
Equation (3)n
S
Q
D 1

I
io
R io
(3 N )
io
n/2
W

W
What determines acceptable S / I ?
Voice quality Subjective testing
1G AMPS S / I 18 dB (assumes n = 4)
Solving Eq. (3) for N using S / I = 18 dB = 101.8 = 63.1, n
= 4, and
io = 6 interfering co-channel cells
N = 1/3 [ (S / I ) io ] 2/n = 1/3 [ (63.1) 6 ] 2/n = 6.5 7
N = 7 was very common choice for 1G AMPS
2G GSM S / I 10 dB
2G IS-95 (CDMA) S / I 7 dB (7 1 dB)
Many assumptions involved in Eq. (3)
Same Tx power for all cell BSs
Hexagonal geometry
Propagation constant, n, same throughout area
Di D (not true for N = 4 non-hexagonal)
Optimistic result in many cases
Computer propagation tools used to calculate S / I
when assumptions are not valid
S / I is usually the worst when mobile is at cell
Equations (1)-(3) are (S / I) for forward link

only
Co-channel base Tx interfering with desired base
station transmission to mobile unit
Interference occurs @ mobile unit
What about reverse link co-channel

interference?
Less important b/c signals from mobile antennas
(near ground!) dont propagate as well as those
from tall base station antennas
Obstructions near ground level significantly
attenuate mobile energy in direction of cochannel base station Rx
47
Also weaker b/c mobile Tx power is variable
power control (needed to mitigate ACI!)
Adjacent Channel Interference

Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI)
Caused by imperfect Rx filters that allow energy
from adjacent channels to leak into passband of
desired
Desired signal
Ideal
Signal BW
Filter Response
Actual Filter
Response
f1
f2
Signal
Energy Leaks
into Rx from
Adjacent
Channel

ACI can affect both forward & reverse channel links
Reverse Link mobile-to-base
Interference @ base station Rx from nearby mobile Tx when desired
mobile Tx is far away from base station
Forward Link base-to-mobile

Interference @ desired mobile Rx from nearby base Tx when
secondary mobile Rx is far away from base station
Near/Far Effect
Interfering source (Tx) is near some Rx when other source is far away
ACI is primarily from mobiles in same cell

Some cell-to-cell ACI does occur as well secondary source

Reverse Link ACI
BS
X
X
MS 1
Undesired
Nearby
Strong
Signal
Interference @ BS Rx
MS 2
Desired
Signal
Far Away
& Weak

Forward Link ACI
BS
X
X
X
MS 2: Secondary
Mobile, Far Away
with from BS
Interference @ MS Rx
MS 1: Desired Mobile,
Nearby with Strong Tx
Signal and ACI from BS
Trunking & Grade of Service

Trunked radio system radio system where a large # of users
share a limited pool of channels
Channel allocated on demand & returned to channel pool upon call
termination
Exploit statistical (random) behavior of users so that fixed # of channels can
accommodate large # of users
Trunking theory used by telephone companies to allocate limited # of voice
circuits for large # of telephone lines
Efficient use of equipment resources $$ savings
Disadvantage is that some probability exists that mobile user will be denied
access to a channel
Blocked call : access denied blocked call cleared
Delayed call : access delayed & call put into holding queue for specified amount
of time (5-15 seconds)

Grade of Service (GOS)
Measure of user access to a trunked radio system
during busiest hour of the week
Specified as probability (Pr) that call is blocked or
delayed
Busiest hour typically 4-6 pm on Thu or Fri
(cellular)
Erlang (erl) : unitless measure of traffic intensity
Example: 0.5 erl = 1 channel occupied 30 minutes during 1
hour
Table 3.3, pg. 76 Trunking theory definitions

Traffic Intensity (A)
Also called Offered Traffic Intensity
Offered? not necessarily carried by system
(blocked/delayed)
Each user Au = lH (erl)
System with U users A = U Au = U lH (erl)
Intensity/channel AC = U Au / C (erl/channel)
Maximum carried traffic load = total # available
channels = C (erl)

Erlang B formula
Blocked Call Cleared (denied)
AC BCC
C!
k
C
A
GOS = Pr [blocked call] =
k 0 k !
A = total offered traffic

C = # channels in trunking pool (e.g. a cell or sector)
Program in calculator or use computer to calculate

Erlang C formulas
Blocked Call Delayed BCD put into holding

queue
Probability
is delayed
greater
t seconds
Pr [delay tthat
] Prcall
[delay
0] exp(
(C than
A) t / H
)
Probability that call is initially denied access and put
into holding queue
AC
Pr [delay 0]
C 1
A
Ak
C
A C ! 1
C k 0 k !
Program in calculator or use computer to calculate

Graphical form of Erlang Curves
Fig. 3.6 & 3.7 - pgs. 81, 82
Family of curves
Pr vs. A for many values of C
Provide approximate solutions
Errors due to eyeball interpolation
Numerical formulas provide exact values
Erlang B Graph
Number of Trunked Channels ( C )

Example: How many users can be supported in a
cell containing 50 channels for a 5% GOS (BCC) if
the average user calls twice/hr with an average
call duration of 5 minutes?
Fig. 3.6 For GOS = 5% and C = 50 then A = 45 erl

Twice/hr l= 2
Call duration H = 5 minutes
Au = lH = 2 (5 min / 60 min) = 1/6 erl (unitless!)
A = U Au U = A / Au = 45 / (1/6) = 270 users
See additional examples 3.4-3.7 in book
Trunking Efficiency
Trunking Efficiency measure of # users supported
by specific configuration of fixed channels
Table 3.4, pg. 79 Lets assume 1% GOS
1 group of 20 channels 12 erl or (12/20) 100 = 60%

efficiency
2 groups of 10 channels 2 4.46 = 8.92 erl or (8.92/20)
100 = 44.6% efficiency
***Larger channel group supports [(12/8.92) 1] 100 =
35% more traffic!!***
Allocation of channel groups can substantially change

# users supported by trunked system
As trunking pool size then trunking efficiency
Trunking Efficiency
Improving Cellular System Capacity

Cell Sectoring
Method that capacity by reducing CCI

Replace omni-directional antennas at base station
with several directional antennas
3 sectors 3 @ 120 antennas
Cell channels broken down into sectored groups

CCI reduced b/c only some of neighboring co-channel
cells radiate energy in direction of main cell
Figs. 3.10 & 3.11, pgs. 90 & 91
Cell splitting (discussed next) keeps D / R unchanged
(same CCI) but increases frequency reuse/area
Cell Sectoring
Cell Sectoring
N = 7 cell cluster
6 CCI cells in first tier
120 Sectoring
io = 2 interfering cells
Cell Sectoring
How is capacity increased?
By reducing CCI the cell system designer can choose smaller cluster size (N
S
3N
D 1
W
)

R io
io
Smaller N greater frequency reuse larger system capacity
Much less costly than cell splitting

Only requires more antennas @ base station vs. multiple new base stations
for cell splitting
Primary disadvantage is available channels in a cell subdivided into

sectored groups
Trunked channel pool trunking efficiency
*** Overall system capacity increased at the expense of reducing

capacity of individual cells (w/sectors) ***
Why? Cluster size N is reduced frequency reuse increases!!
Cell Sectoring
Other Advantages :
More antenna gain sector antenna focuses signal
energy
Forward/reverse link budgets improved
More Tx power delivered to coverage area
Better building penetration
Flexibility in controlling CCI and dropped calls from poor

handoff execution
Downtilt antennas in certain sectors to reduce CCI in specific cells
Uptilt antennas in certain sectors to increase coverage at cell
boundary to improve chance of successful handoff
Cell Sectoring
Other Disadvantages :
Must design network coverage with sectoring
decided in advance
Cant effectively (easily) use sectoring to increase
capacity after setting cluster size N
Cant be used to gradually expand capacity as
traffic like cell splitting
Improving Cellular System Capacity

Cell Splitting
Subdivide congested cell into several smaller cells
Must decrease antenna height & Tx power so smaller
coverage results and CCI level is held constant
Each smaller cell keeps same # of channels as the
larger cell!!
Capacity b/c channel re-use per unit area
Smaller cells micro-cells
Fig. 3.8, pg. 87
Cell Splitting
Base stations
placed
at cell corner
for illustration
purposes
Cell Splitting
Other Graphical Examples
Cell Splitting
Advantages :
Only needed for cells that reach max. capacity not
all cells
Implement when Pr [blocked call] > acceptable GOS
System capacity can gradually expand as demand
Disadvantages :
# handoffs/unit area
Umbrella cell for high velocity traffic may be needed
**More base stations $$ for real estate, towers,
etc.**
IS-95 Overview
CDMA Overview
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a radically new concept in wireless
communications. It has gained widespread international acceptance by cellular
radio system operators as an upgrade that will dramatically increase both their
system capacity and the service quality.
CDMA is a form of spread-spectrum, a family of digital communication
techniques that have been used in military applications for many years.
Use of noise-like carrier waves
Bandwidths much wider than the bandwidth of traditional narrow band
signal.
CDMA Overview (Cont.)

Originally there were two motivations
Either to resist enemy efforts to jam the communications (anti-jam, or AJ). Or to hide the fact
that communication was even taking place, sometimes called low probability of intercept
(LPI).
It has a history that goes back to the early days of World War II.
CDMA for civilian mobile radio applications is was proposed theoretically in the late 1940's.
Commercial applications became possible because of two evolutionary developments of
Integrated Circuit and effective access method.
WiCoRe, UT-Dallas
A103
Slide 3
A103
o Originally there were two motivations

- Either to resist enemy efforts to jam the communications
(anti-jam, or AJ),
- Or to hide the fact that communication was even taking
place, sometimes called low probability of intercept (LPI).
o It has a history that goes back to the early days of World War II.
- CDMA for civilian mobile radio applications is was proposed
theoretically in the late 1940's.
- Commercial applications became possible because of two
evolutionary developments of Interegaceted Ciruicets,
and effective access method.
A0188429, 8/2/2002
Network Architecture
Five Levels
Mobile Station (MS)
Base Station
System(BSS)
Switching
System(SS)
Global Positioning
System
Control Network
(HLR, VLR, EIR,
AuC).
WiCoRe, UT-Dallas
Public
Network
GPS
HLR
VLR
EIR
Switching
System
Base
Station
A104
Base
Station
AuC
Slide 4
A104
Base Station Controller (BSC): 1. Number of BSC varies 2. Manages the allocation of radio resources for one or more BTSs 3.
Responsible for connection to MS on demand of MSC
4. Controls handover between BTS and another BTS 5 . The link between the mobile station (MS) and the Mobile Switching Centre
(MSC).
Mobile Switching System: 1. Handles the switching of calls between external networks and the BSCs 2. Controls handovers between
BSC within the MSC area 3.Decide which function that is going to be used (call, SMS etc) 4.Coordinates VLR, HLR, OSS (OMC)
HLR:Database that keeps information about all subscribers within its area
VLR:Database that keeps information about all subscribers that temporary are within its area (MSC service area)
AuC: Stores information regarding safety
EIR: Contains information about stolen cellular, defect cellular that may not be used in the network etc
A0188429, 8/2/2002
Logical Architecture
Logical Channels
Public
Network
Pilot Channel
Sync Channel
Paging Channel
Access Channel
GPS
Switching
System
Base
Station
WiCoRe, UT-Dallas
A105
Base
Station
Slide 5
A105
Pilot Channel: Transmit a continuos sequence of 0s at rate of 1.23 Mch/s. By tuning to the pilot channel, terminals communicating with
the base station acquire carrier phase and timing reference.
Sync Channel: Information rate of sync channel is 1,200 b/s. The sync channel repeatedly transmits one message which convery
important system information to terminals, including system time obtained from the GPS and time delay introduced to the
pseudirandomn sequence in the radio modulator.
Paging Channel: CDMA signal carries up to 7 paging channel to other terminals that do not have calls in progress. Information rate
from 4,800 to 9,600.
Access Channel: A terminal without a call in progress uses an access channel to send messages to a base station in order to originate a
call, to response to a paging message, and to register its location.
A0188429, 8/2/2002
A106
Services & Capabilities

Multiple Access using the same Frequency band for multiple users.
CODE
TIME
User n
User 2
User 1
FREQUENCY
Simplicity in Frequceny Planning

and efficiency. Reuse factor of one with no cell
CDMA:Spread Spectrum
sectorizaation.
Comprehensive telephone services (voice, text, and low speed data
communication). Compatible with other protocols ISDN
WiCoRe, UT-Dallas
Slide 6
A106
DS-CDMA/FDM: 1. Channel is spread over wide frequency band 2. Many users share the same frequency band at the same time 3.
Each user is assigned a unique code to identify and separate them
A0188429, 8/2/2002
Services & Capabilities
CDMA frequency based is the same as AMPS
Channel Bandwidth is 1.25MHz
Modulation is based on QPSK and OQPSK
Channel Bite Rate is based on 1.2288 Mb/s
Channel data rate from 1200 b/s to 9600 b/s
Channel uplink frequency is 824 to 849MHz; down link is between 869 to 894 MHz; with frequency spacing of 45 MHz.
Simplicity in Frequceny Planning and efficiency. One (1) reuse factor with no cell sectorizaation.
Challenge is SIR need to add more details here.
Compherise telephone services (voice, text, and low speed data communication). Compatible with other protocol sISDN
WiCoRe, UT-Dallas
Channel Structure
WiCoRe, UT-Dallas
Radio Link Overview

Channel Structure
Forward Channel
Reverse Channel
Different modulation techniques for uplink

and down link
Two Stage Modulation
Variable Bit Rate
Reuse Factor of 1
WiCoRe, UT-Dallas
Bandwidth
Bandwidth of a CDMA channel is 1.23MHz
which is equivalent to 41 contiguous AMPS
Channels or about 20 AMPS channels per
CDMA carrier
Can be used along side AMPS sharing the
same FCC assigned spectrum by giving CDMA
a section of the frequency
WiCoRe, UT-Dallas
Processing Gain
Early Implementations
use R=9600 b/s for a
Processing gain of 128
ch/b
G = Processing Gain
Later Implementations
W = Switching Rate Ch/s
use R=14400 b/s for a
R = Source Information Rate b/s
processing gain of 85.3
ch/b
W
G
R
WiCoRe, UT-Dallas
A107
Spectrum Efficiency
W
R
C
E
b
N0
Fsec tors Fspeech
F power Fcells Foutage
C = Conversation/base station
29.8 conversations/cell C 111 conversations per
cell
WiCoRe, UT-Dallas
Slide 12
A107
CDMA spectrum efficiency is much different from other standards since all cells use the same radio band. With FDMA or TDMA
spectrum efficiency calculations account for reuse by dividing the number of physical channels with N. CDMA capacity depends on the
amount of interference the system can tolerate. W/R is the number of physical channels in a system which is lowered by a factor of
Eb/N0 (Energy of bit/interference power) (SNR) The equations is then adjusted due to the use of directional antennae, variable bit rate
encoding, Interference from surrounding cells, Imperfect power control, outage margin which enforces a limit of the fraction of time
that the fluctuating signal can be below the system target.
A0188429, 8/2/2002
PN Sequence
Signal is spread using a pseudorandom noise
sequence
Low cross correlation
Feedback shift register with 42 stages
Long code repeats after 242-1 ch or 41.4 days
WiCoRe, UT-Dallas
Reverse Channel
WiCoRe, UT-Dallas
Reverse Channel Modulation

Offset Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (OQPSK)
Modulates in-phase and quadrature
components of the carrier-frequency
Modulates at 1,228,800 ch/s and has a
periodicity of 215 chips
Terminal synchronizes to base station sync
channel
WiCoRe, UT-Dallas
Data Rates Reverse Channel

Frame Length 20 ms
Data Rate R b/s
1,200
2,400
4,800
9,600
Information
Rate RI b/s
800
2000
4000
8600
Information bits
per frame
(IBPF)
16
40
80
172
Parity bits per

frame (PBPF)
12
Data bits per

frame
(IBPF+PBPF+8)
24
48
96
192
Coded bits per

frame (CBPF)
72
144
288
576
Repetitions
Total bits per

frame (BPF)
576
576
576
576
WiCoRe, UT-Dallas
Reverse Channel Digital Modulation

Random Number Generator Long Code
42-Stage Shift Register
Digital
Logic
Digital
Carrier
1.2288
Mch/s
Long Code
Mask
Channel Identifier
(42 bits)
Convolutional
Code
Rate 1/3
variable
rate
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Repeat
28,800
b/s
307,200
b/s
Interleave
20 ms
Walsh
Modulator
Digital
Modulator
1.2288
Mch/s
OQPSK
I-Channel
Binary sequence
Period = 2/75 seconds
+
Digital
Modulator
In-Phase
1.288
Mch/s
Radio
Carrier
Delay
(1/2 Chip)
WiCoRe, UT-Dallas
Radio
Signal
Mixer
Quadrature
Q-Channel
Binary sequence
Period =2/75 seconds
Forward Channel
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Forward Link Radio Transmission

Overview
1 Physical channel contains 64 chips
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
Each basestation has 64 physical channels
(One Row of Walsh Hadamard Matrix)
numbered 0 to 63
Base station reduces power to maintain
energy per bit when operating at lower bit
rates
WiCoRe, UT-Dallas
Data Rates Forward Channel

Frame Length 20 ms
Data Rate R b/s
1,200
2,400
4,800
9,600
Information
Rate RI b/s
800
2000
4000
8600
Information bits
per frame
(IBPF)
16
40
80
172
Parity bits per

frame (PBPF)
12
Data bits per

frame
(IBPF+PBPF+8)
24
48
96
192
Coded bits per

frame (CBPF)
48
96
192
384
Repetitions
Total bits per

frame (BPF)
384
384
384
384
WiCoRe, UT-Dallas
Forward Channel Digital Modulation

(Paging and Forward Traffic)
Digital
Random Number Generator Long
Digital Carrier Decimate
Code
42-Stage Shift Register
Logic 1.2288 64:1
Mch/s
Long Code
19.2
Mask
kb/s
Channel Identifier
(42 bits)
Convolutional
Code
Rate 1/2
variable
rate
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Repeat
19.2
kb/s
Interleave
384 bits
20 ms
64-bit
carrier
19.2
kb/s
Digital
Modulator
pseudorandom
scrambling
1.2288
Mch/s
Forward Channel Digital Modulation

(Sync)
64-bit carrier
Walsh 32
Convolutional
2,400
Code
b/s
Rate 1/2
1,200 b/s
WiCoRe, UT-Dallas
Repeat
2:1
4,800
b/s
Interleave
128 bits
26.67 ms
4,800
b/s
19.2
kb/s
Repeat
4:1
Digital
Modulator
1.2288
Mch/s
Forward Radio Modulation

I-Channel
Binary sequence
Period = 2/75 seconds
Base Station
Time Delay
PN_OFFSET
+
Digital
Modulator
In-Phase
1.288
Mch/s
Radio
Carrier
Q-Channel
Binary sequence
Period =2/75 seconds
WiCoRe, UT-Dallas
Radio
Signal
Mixer
Quadrature
Base Station
Time Delay
PN_OFFSET
CDMA Logical Channels

Pilot
Sync
Forward
Paging
Traffic
Variable-Bit-Rate
User Information
Power Control
Signaling Messages
Reverse
Access
Variable-Bit-Rate
User Information
Traffic
Signaling Messages
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Logical Channels
Forward Link
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Pilot
Transmit a continuous sequence of 0s

Rate 1.2288 Mch/s
Used as references of carrier phase and timing
Also, used for Handoff signal indications
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Sync
Rate = 1,200 b/s ; Digital Carrier Walsh 32
Transmits one Message
System Time
Time delay found in Pseudorandom sequence
Identifiers
Base station
Network
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Paging Channel
Up to 7 paging channels
Walsh 1 to Walsh 7
Rate 4,800 b/s or 9,600 b/s
Sleep mode
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Traffic Channels
Carries voice, control, and power data
Physical channel can change when moving
through new cells
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Logical Channels
Reverse Link
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Access Channels
A terminal without a call in progress uses the access
channels to communicate with the base station
Originate call, respond to paging message, register
location
Transmission rate is 4800 b/s
88bit or 20 ms frames
Message length of 4-26 frames
Terminal will wait for acknowledgement and
retransmit if necessary
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Traffic Channels
Carries both voice, control
WiCoRe, UT-Dallas
Messages Traffic Channel
Call Management Messages

Authentication and Privacy Messages
Radio Resource Management Messages
Mobility Management Messages
Operation, Administration, and Maintnence
Messages
WiCoRe, UT-Dallas
Messages Paging/Access Channel
Broadcast Messages
Call Management Messages
Authentication and Privacy Messages
Mobility Management Messages
Operations, Administration, and Maintenance
Messages
WiCoRe, UT-Dallas
IS-95 Conclusions
Uses CDMA technology:
Reduces cell reuse factor
Efficient bandwidth use
-PN sequences to spread signal
Soft handoffs
WiCoRe, UT-Dallas
A119
Slide 36
A119
IS-95 uses CDMA technology to enhance a wireless system.

Because all of the frequencies can be used in all of the cells, the cell reuse factor is one, supporting more users.
The signals spectrum is spread using PN sequences, which reduces interference and allows multiple users use the same frequency.
IS-95 transfers the call from cell to cell using a soft handoff. The soft handoff reduces the burden placed on the system, making
wireless communication flow better.
A0188429, 8/1/2002
Wireless LANs
A wireless LAN uses wireless transmission

medium
Used to have high prices, low data rates,
occupational safety concerns, and licensing
requirements
Problems have been addressed
Popularity of wireless LANs has grown rapidly
Saves installation of LAN cabling

Eases relocation and other modifications to network
structure
However, increasing reliance on twisted pair cabling for
LANs
Most older buildings already wired with Cat 3 cable
Newer buildings are prewired with Cat 5
Wireless LAN to replace wired LANs has not happened

In some environments, role for the wireless LAN
Buildings with large open areas
Manufacturing plants, stock exchange trading floors, warehouses

Historical buildings
Small offices where wired LANs not economical
May also have wired LAN
Servers and stationary workstations
Connect LANs in nearby buildings

Point-to-point wireless link
Connect bridges or routers
Not a LAN per se
Usual to include this application under heading of

wireless LAN
Link between LAN hub and mobile data

terminal
Laptop or notepad computer

Enable employee returning from trip to transfer
data from portable computer to server
Also useful in extended environment such as

campus or cluster of buildings
Users move around with portable computers
May wish access to servers on wired LAN
Peer-to-peer network
Set up temporarily to meet some immediate
need
E.g. group of employees, each with laptop or
palmtop, in business or classroom meeting
Network for duration of meeting
Same as any LAN
High capacity, short distances, full connectivity, broadcast

capability
Throughput: efficient use wireless medium

Number of nodes:Hundreds of nodes across multiple cells
Connection to backbone LAN: Use control modules to connect
to both types of LANs
Service area: 100 to 300 m
Low power consumption:Need long battery life on mobile
stations
Mustn't require nodes to monitor access points or frequent
handshakes
Transmission robustness and security:Interference prone and

easily eavesdropped
Collocated network operation:Two or more wireless LANs in
same area
License-free operation
Handoff/roaming: Move from one cell to another
Dynamic configuration: Addition, deletion, and relocation of
Infrared (IR) LANs: Individual cell of IR LAN

limited to single room
IR light does not penetrate opaque walls
Spread spectrum LANs: Mostly operate in ISM

(industrial, scientific, and medical) bands
No Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
licensing is required in USA
Narrowband microwave: Microwave

frequencies but not use spread spectrum
Some require FCC licensing
Spectrum virtually unlimited
Infrared shares some properties of visible light
Infrared spectrum is unregulated worldwide

Extremely high data rates
Diffusely reflected by light-colored objects
Use ceiling reflection to cover entire room
Does not penetrate walls or other opaque objects
More easily secured against eavesdropping than microwave

Separate installation in every room without interference
Inexpensive and simple
Background radiation
Uses intensity modulation, so receivers need to detect only

amplitude
Sunlight, indoor lighting
Noise, requiring higher power and limiting range
Power limited by concerns of eye safety and power
consumption
Directed-beam IR
Point-to-point links
Range depends on power and focusing
Can be kilometers
Used for building interconnect within line of sight
Indoor use to set up token ring LAN

IR transceivers positioned so that data circulate in ring
Omnidirectional
Single base station within line of sight of all other stations

Typically, mounted on ceiling
Acts as a multiport repeater

Other transceivers use directional beam aimed at ceiling
unit
Diffused configuration
Transmitters are focused and aimed at diffusely reflecting

ceiling
Usually use multiple-cell arrangement

Adjacent cells use different center frequencies
Hub is typically mounted on ceiling
Connected to wired LAN

Connect to stations attached to wired LAN and in other cells
May also control access
IEEE 802.11 point coordination function
May also act as multiport repeater
Stations transmit to hub and receive from hub
Stations may broadcast using an omnidirectional antenna

Logical bus configuration
Hub may do automatic handoff

Weakening signal, hand off
No hub
MAC algorithm such as CSMA used to control
access
Ad hoc LANs
Licensing regulations differ from one country to

another
USA FCC authorized two unlicensed applications
within the ISM band:
Spread spectrum - up to 1 watt

Very low power systems- up to 0.5 watts
902 - 928 MHz (915-MHz band)
2.4 - 2.4835 GHz (2.4-GHz band)
5.725 - 5.825 GHz (5.8-GHz band)
2.4 GHz also in Europe and Japan
Higher frequency means higher potential bandwidth
Interference
Devices at around 900 MHz, including cordless telephones,

wireless microphones, and amateur radio
Fewer devices at 2.4 GHz; microwave oven
Little competition at 5.8 GHz
Higher frequency band, more expensive equipment
Just wide enough to accommodate signal

Until recently, all products used licensed
band
At least one vendor has produced LAN
product in ISM band
Microwave frequencies usable for voice, data, and video

licensed within specific geographic areas to avoid interference
Radium 28 km
Can contain five licenses
Each covering two frequencies
Motorola holds 600 licenses (1200 frequencies) in the 18-GHz
range
Cover all metropolitan areas with populations of 30,000 or more
in USA
Use of cell configuration

Adjacent cells use nonoverlapping frequency bands
Motorola controls frequency band
Can assure nearby independent LANs do not interfere
All transmissions are encrypted

Licensed narrowband LAN guarantees interference-free
communication
License holder has legal right tointerference-free data
channel
1995, RadioLAN introduced narrowband wireless

LAN using unlicensed ISM spectrum
Used for narrowband transmission at low power
0.5 watts or less
Operates at 10 Mbps
5.8-GHz band
50 m in semiopen office and 100 m in open office
Peer-to-peer configuration
Elects one node as dynamic master
Based on location, interference, and signal strength
Master can change automatically as conditions

change
Includes dynamic relay function
Stations can act as repeater to move data between
stations that are out of range of each other
MAC protocol and physical medium specification

for wireless LANs
Smallest building block is basic service set (BSS)
Number of stations
Same MAC protocol
Competing for access to same shared wireless medium
May be isolated or connect to backbone

distribution system (DS) through access point (AP)
AP functions as bridge
MAC protocol may be distributed or controlled by

central coordination function in AP
BSS generally corresponds to cell
DS can be switch, wired network, or wireless
network
Simplest: each station belongs to single BSS

Within range only of other stations within BSS
Can have two BSSs overlap
Station could participate in more than one BSS
Association between station and BSS dynamic

Stations may turn off, come within range, and go
out of range
Two or more BSS interconnected by DS
Typically, DS is wired backbone but can be any

network
Appears as single logical LAN to LLC
Logic within station that provides access to

DS
Provides DS services in addition to acting as station
To integrate IEEE 802.11 architecture with

wired LAN, portal used
Portal logic implemented in device that is part
of wired LAN and attached to DS
E.g. Bridge or router
Service
Provider
Category
Association
Distribution system
MSDU delivery
Authentication
Station
LAN access and

security
Deauthentication
Station
LAN access and

security
Dissassociation
Distribution system
MSDU delivery
Distribution
Distribution system
MSDU delivery
Integration
Distribution system
MSDU delivery
MSDU delivery
Station
MSDU delivery
Privacy
Station
LAN access and

security
Reassocation
Distribution system
MSDU delivery
Station services implemented in every 802.11

station
Including AP stations
Distribution services provided between BSSs
May be implemented in AP or special-purpose device
Three services used to control access and

confidentiality
Six services used to support delivery of MAC
service data units (MSDUs) between stations
Block of data passed down from MAC user to MAC layer

Typically LLC PDU
If MSDU too large for MAC frame, fragment and transmit in
series of frames (see later)
Distribution is primary service used by stations to

exchange MAC frames when frame must traverse
DS
From station in one BSS to station in another BSS
Transport of message through DS is beyond scope of
802.11
If stations within same BSS, distribution service logically
goes through single AP of that BSS
Integration service enables transfer of data

between station on 802.11 LAN and one on an
integrated 802.x LAN
Integrated refers to wired LAN physically connected to DS

Stations may be logically connected to 802.11 LAN via
integration service
Integration service takes care of address translation and

media conversion
Purpose of MAC layer transfer MSDUs between MAC

entities
Fulfilled by distribution service (DS)
DS requires information about stations within ESS
Three transition types of based on mobility
Provided by association-related services

Station must be associated before communicating
No transition: Stationary or moves within range of single

BSS
BSS transition: From one BSS to another within same ESS
Requires addressing capability be able to recognize new
location
ESS transition: From BSS in one ESS to BSS in

another ESS
Only supported in sense that the station can move

Maintenance of upper-layer connections not guaranteed
Disruption of service likely
DS needs to know where destination station is
Identity of AP to which message should be delivered

Station must maintain association with AP within current
BSS
Three services relate to this requirement:
Association: Establishes initial association between station

and AP
To make identity and address known

Station must establish association with AP within particular BSS
AP then communicates information to other APs within ESS
Reassociation: Transfer established association to another

AP
Allows station to move from one BSS to another
Disassociation: From either station or AP that association is

terminated
Given before station leaves ESS or shuts
MAC management facility protects itself against stations that
disappear without notification
On wireless LAN, any station within radio range other devices

can transmit
Any station within radio range can receive
Authentication: Used to establish identity of stations to each
other
Wired LANs assume access to physical connection conveys
authority to connect to LAN
Not valid assumption for wireless LANs
Connectivity achieved by having properly tuned antenna
Authentication service used to establish station identity

802.11 supports several authentication schemes
Allows expansion of these schemes
Does not mandate any particular scheme

Range from relatively insecure handshaking to public-key
encryption schemes
802.11 requires mutually acceptable, successful authentication
before association
Deauthentication: Invoked whenever an

existing authentication is to be terminated
Privacy: Used to prevent messages being read
by others
802.11 provides for optional use of
encryption
MAC layer covers three functional areas

Reliable data delivery
Access control
Security
Beyond our scope
802.11 physical and MAC layers subject to

unreliability
Noise, interference, and other propagation effects
result in loss of frames
Even with error-correction codes, frames may not
successfully be received
Can be dealt with at a higher layer, such as TCP
802.11 includes frame exchange protocol
However, retransmission timers at higher layers typically

order of seconds
More efficient to deal with errors at the MAC level
Station receiving frame returns acknowledgment (ACK)
frame
Exchange treated as atomic unit
Not interrupted by any other station
If noACK within short period of time, retransmit
Basic data transfer involves exchange of two

frames
To further enhance reliability, four-frame exchange
may be used
Source issues a Request to Send (RTS) frame to destination

Destination responds with Clear to Send (CTS)
After receiving CTS, source transmits data
Destination responds with ACK
RTS alerts all stations within range of source that

exchange is under way
CTS alerts all stations within range of destination
Stations refrain from transmission to avoid collision
RTS/CTS exchange is required function of MAC but
may be disabled
Distributed wireless foundation MAC

(DWFMAC)
Distributed access control mechanism
Optional centralized control on top
Lower sublayer is distributed coordination

function (DCF)
Contention algorithm to provide access to all traffic

Asynchronous traffic
Point coordination function (PCF)

Centralized MAC algorithm
Contention free
Built on top of DCF
DCF sublayer uses CSMA

If station has frame to transmit, it listens to
medium
If medium idle, station may transmit
Otherwise must wait until current transmission
complete
No collision detection
Not practical on wireless network

Dynamic range of signals very large
Transmitting station cannot distinguish incoming weak
signals from noise and effects of own transmission
DCF includes delays
Amounts to priority scheme

Interframe space
1.
2.
Single delay known as interframe space (IFS)

Using IFS, rules for CSMA:
Station with frame senses medium
If idle, wait to see if remains idle for one IFS. If so, may
transmit immediately
If busy (either initially or becomes busy during IFS)

station defers transmission
Continue to monitor until current transmission is over
3.
Once current transmission over, delay another IFS

If remains idle, back off random time and again sense
If medium still idle, station may transmit
During backoff time, if becomes busy, backoff timer is
halted and resumes when medium becomes idle
To ensure stability, binary exponential backoff

used
Use three values for IFS

SIFS (short IFS):
Shortest IFS
For all immediate response actions (see later)
PIFS (point coordination function IFS):
Midlength IFS
Used by the centralized controller in PCF scheme when
issuing polls
DIFS (distributed coordination function IFS):

Longest IFS
Used as minimum delay for asynchronous frames
contending for access
Station using SIFS to determine transmission

opportunity has highest priority
In preference to station waiting PIFS or DIFS time
SIFS used in following circumstances:

Acknowledgment (ACK): Station responds with ACK
after waiting SIFS gap
No collision detection so likelihood of collisions greater
than CSMA/CD
MAC-level ACK gives efficient collision recovery
SIFS provide efficient delivery of multiple frame LLC PDU
Station with multiframe LLC PDU to transmit sends out MAC

frames one at a time
Each frame acknowledged after SIFS by recipient
When source receives ACK, immediately (after SIFS) sends next
frame in sequence
Once station has contended for channel, it maintains control of
all fragments sent
Clear to Send (CTS): Station can ensure data

frame will get through by issuing RTS
Destination station should immediately respond
with CTS if ready to receive
All other stations hear RTS and defer
Poll response: See Point coordination

Function (PCF)
PIFS used by centralized controller
Issuing polls
Takes precedence over normal contention traffic
Frames using SIFS have precedence over PCF poll
DIFS used for all ordinary asynchronous

traffic
Alternative access method implemented on top of DCF

Polling by centralized polling master (point coordinator)
Uses PIFS when issuing polls
PIFS smaller than DIFS

Can seize medium and lock out all asynchronous traffic while it
issues polls and receives responses
E.g. wireless network configured so number of stations with

time-sensitive traffic controlled by point coordinator
Remaining traffic contends for access using CSMA
Point coordinator polls in round-robin to stations configured

for polling
When poll issued, polled station may respond using SIFS
If point coordinator receives response, it issues another poll
using PIFS
If no response during expected turnaround time, coordinator
issues poll
Point coordinator would lock out asynchronous traffic by

issuing polls
Superframe interval defined
During first part of superframe interval, point coordinator polls

round-robin to all stations configured for polling
Point coordinator then idles for remainder of superframe
Allowing contention period for asynchronous access
At beginning of superframe, point coordinator may seize

control and issue polls for given period
Time varies because of variable frame size issued by responding

stations
Rest of superframe available for contention-based access

At end of superframe interval, point coordinator contends for
access using PIFS
If idle, point coordinator gains immediate access
Full superframe period follows
If busy, point coordinator must wait for idle to gain access
Results in foreshortened superframe period for next cycle
Frame Control:
Type of frame
Control, management, or data
Provides control information
Includes whether frame is to or from DS, fragmentation

information, and privacy information
Duration/Connection ID:
If used as duration field, indicates time (in s) channel will

be allocated for successful transmission of MAC frame
In some control frames, contains association or connection
identifier
Addresses:
Number and meaning of address fields depend on context

Types include source, destination, transmitting station, and
receiving station
Sequence Control:
4-bit fragment number subfield
For fragmentation and reassembly
12-bit sequence number

Number frames between given transmitter and
receiver
Frame Body:
MSDU (or a fragment of)
LLC PDU or MAC control information
Frame Check Sequence:
32-bit cyclic redundancy check
Assist in reliable data delivery

Power Save-Poll (PS-Poll)
Request to Send (RTS)
Clear to Send (CTS)
Sent by any station to station that includes AP

Request AP transmit frame buffered for this station while station
in power-saving mode
First frame in four-way frame exchange
Second frame in four-way exchange
Acknowledgment (ACK)
Contention-Free (CF)-end
CF-End + CF-Ack:
Announces end of contention-free period part of PCF

Acknowledges CF-end
Ends contention-free period and releases stations from associated
restrictions
Eight data frame subtypes, in two groups

First four carry upper-level data from source
station to destination station
Data
Data + CF-Ack
Data + CF-Poll
Data + CF-Ack + CF-Poll
Simplest data frame

May be used in contention or contention-free period
Only sent during contention-free period
Carries data and acknowledges previously received data
Used by point coordinator to deliver data
Also to request station send data frame it may have
buffered
Combines Data + CF-Ack and Data + CF-Poll
Remaining four data frames do not carry user

data
Null Function
Carries no data, polls, or acknowledgments
Carries power management bit in frame control
field to AP
Indicates station is changing to low-power state
Other three frames (CF-Ack, CF-Poll, CF-Ack

+ CF-Poll) same as corresponding frame in
preceding list (Data + CF-Ack, Data + CFPoll, Data + CF-Ack + CF-Poll) but without
data
Used to manage communications between

stations and Aps
E.g. management of associations
Requests, response, reassociation, dissociation, and

authentication
Issued in four stages

First part in 1997
IEEE 802.11
Includes MAC layer and three physical layer specifications
Two in 2.4-GHz band and one infrared
All operating at 1 and 2 Mbps
Two additional parts in 1999

IEEE 802.11a
5-GHz band up to 54 Mbps
IEEE 802.11b
2.4-GHz band at 5.5 and 11 Mbps
Most recent in 2002
IEEE 802.g extends IEEE 802.11b to higher data rates
Three physical media

Direct-sequence spread spectrum
2.4 GHz ISM band at 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps

Up to seven channels, each 1 Mbps or 2 Mbps, can
be used
Depends on bandwidth allocated by various
national regulations
13 in most European countries
One in Japan
Each channel bandwidth 5 MHz

Encoding scheme DBPSK for 1-Mbps and DQPSK for
2-Mbps
Frequency-hopping spread spectrum
Hopping scheme adjustable
Two-level Gaussian FSK modulation for 1-Mbps
For 2 Mbps, four-level GFSK used
2.4 GHz ISM band at 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps

Uses multiple channels
Signal hopping from one channel to another based on a
pseudonoise sequence
1-MHz channels are used
23 channels in Japan
70 in USA
E.g. Minimum hop rate forUSA is 2.5 hops per second
Minimum hop distance 6 MHz in North America and most of
Europe and 5 MHz in Japan
Bits encoded as deviations from current carrier frequency
Four different deviations from center frequency define four 2-bit
combinations
Omnidirectional
Range up to 20 m
1 Mbps used 16-PPM (pulse position modulation)
Each group of 4 data bits mapped into one of 16-PPM

symbols
Each symbol a string of 16 bits
Each 16-bit string consists of fifteen 0s and one binary 1
For 2-Mbps, each group of 2 data bits is mapped

into one of four 4-bit sequences
Each sequence consists of three 0s and one binary 1
Intensity modulation
Presence of signal corresponds to 1
5-GHz band
Uses orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
(OFDM)
Not spread spectrum
Also called multicarrier modulation

Multiple carrier signals at different frequencies
Some bits on each channel
Similar to FDM but all subchannels dedicated to single

source
Data rates 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, and 54 Mbps

Up to 52 subcarriers modulated using BPSK, QPSK,
16-QAM, or 64-QAM
Depending on rate
Subcarrier frequency spacing 0.3125 MHz
Convolutional code at rate of 1/2, 2/3, or 3/4 provides
forward error correction
Extension of 802.11 DS-SS scheme

5.5 and 11 Mbps
Chipping rate 11 MHz
Same as original DS-SS scheme

Same occupied bandwidth
Complementary code keying (CCK) modulation to achieve
higher data rate in same bandwidth at same chipping rate
CCK modulation complex
Overview on next slide
Input data treated in blocks of 8 bits at 1.375 MHz
8 bits/symbol 1.375 MHz = 11 Mbps

Six of these bits mapped into one of 64 code sequences
Output of mapping, plus two additional bits, forms input to
QPSK modulator
Higher-speed extension to 802.11b

Combines physical layer encoding techniques
used in 802.11a and 802.11b to provide
service at a variety of data rates
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple

Access
(OFDMA)
Outline
1. Background
Multiple Access (MA) Methods
2. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing

(OFDM) Based Multiple Access (OFDMA)
Orthogonality Principle
OFDM
OFDM-FDMA
3. Advantages and Disadvantages of OFDMA
4. Conclusion
2
Multiple Access (MA)

General wireless cellular systems are multi-users systems
Radio resource are limited
Limited Bandwidth
Limited number of channels
The radio resource must be shared among multiple users

Multiple Access Control (MAC) needed
Contention-based
Non-contention-based
Contention-based
Multiple Access(MA)
Contention-based
Each terminal transmits in a decentralized way
No central controller (Base stations or access points)
Example:
ALOHA
Carrier Sensing Multiple Access (CSMA)
Standard:
GSM [l] uses the slotted ALOHA in the terminals initial access
process
IEEE 802.11 uses CSMA/CA based contention access scheme
Non-contention-based
Multiple Access (MA)
A logic controller (BS or AP) is needed to coordinate the

transmissions of all the terminals
The controller informs each device when and on which
channel it can transmit
Collisions can be avoided entirely
Two Subdivisions
1. Non-channelization
2. Channelization
Non-channelization
Non-contention-based MA
Terminals transmit sequentially using the same channel

Example:
Polling based medium access
Standard:
IEEE 802.15(WPAN)
IEEE 802.11(WLAN)
Channelization
Non-contention-based MA
Terminals transmit simultaneously using different channels
Most commonly used protocols in cellular systems
Example:
1. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
2. Code Division Multiple Access( CDMA)
1. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
Standard
1. GSM (TDMA)
2. IS-95 (CDMA)
3. American Mobile Phone System, AMPS (FDMA)
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
GSM
Time slot 0.577 ms

Frame 4.6 ms
8 time slots per frame
Frequency band 20 KHz
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

IS-95
Orthogonal Walsh codes

64 codes (channels)
One pilot channel
Seven paging channels
55 traffic channels
Each carrier 1.25 MHz
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

American Mobile Phone
System (AMPS)
Total Bandwidth 25 MHz
Each Channel 30 KHz
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing

(OFDM) Based Multiple Access (OFDMA)
OFDM
OFDM-FDMA
Vector space
A, B and C vectors in space
are orthogonal to each other
A.B=B.C=C.A=0
(A+B+C).A=(mod A)^2
(A+B+C).B=(mod B)^2
(A+B+C).C=(mod C)^2
A
C
12
Orthogonality Principle cont..

Real Function space
f1 (t ) A sin( wt )
f 2 (t ) B cos( wt )
T
f1 (t ) f 2 (t )dt 0
f m (t ) M sin(mwt )
f n (t ) N cos(nwt )
T
f m (t ) f n (t )dt 0
Orthogonality Principle cont..

m.n
f (t ) sin( wt ) sin( 2 wt )
T
sin(mwt)sin(nwt)dt 0 where m n
0
T
sin(mwt)cos(nwt)dt 0
0
Here mw and nw are called

m-th and n-th harmonics of
w respectively
Orthogonal Frequency Division

Multiplexing(OFDM)
It is a special kind of FDM
The spacing between carriers are such that
they are orthogonal to one another
Therefore no need of guard band between
carriers.
One example makes the thing clear
15
Example of OFDM
Lets we have following information bits
1, 1, -1, -1, 1, 1, 1, -1, 1, -1, -1, -1, -1, 1, -1, -1,
C1
C2
C4
Just converts
the
serialsC3bits to parallel
bits
1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
Example of OFDM cont..

Modulate each column with corresponding sub-carrier using BPSK
Modulated signal for C1
Example of OFDM cont..

Final OFDM Signal = Sum of all signal
N 1
V (t ) I (t ) sin(2nt )
n 0
Generated OFDM signal, V(t)
V(t)
OFDM-FDMA (OFDMA)
Each terminal occupies a
subset of sub-carriers
Subset is called an OFDMA
traffic channel
Each traffic channel is
assigned exclusively to one
user at any time
user4
user3
user2
user1
OFDM-FDMA (OFDMA)
The IEEE 802.16e/ WiMax use OFDMA as
Multiple access technique
Bandwidth options 1.25, 5, 10, or 20 MHz
Entire bandwidth divided into 128, 512, 1024 or
2048 sub carriers
20 MHz bandwidth with 2048 sub carriers has 9.8
KHz spacing between sub carriers
OFDM-FDMA (System View)
Advantages of OFDMA
Multi-user Diversity
broadband signals experience frequency selective
fading
OFDMA allows different users to transmit over
different portions of the broadband spectrum
(traffic channel)
Different users perceive different channel qualities,
a deep faded channel for one user may still be
favorable to others
22
Advantages of OFDMA cont..
Multi-user Diversity

Efficient use of Spectrum
4/3 Hz per symbol
6/5 Hz per symbol

Receiver Simplicity
It eliminates the intra-cell interference avoiding

CDMA type of multi-user detection
Orthogonality of code destroyed by selective
fading
Only FFT processor is required
Bit Error Rate performance is better only in Fading
environment
Disadvantages of OFDMA
Peak to average power
ratio (PAPR)
x(t )
PAPR
P
avg
The large amplitude variation increases in-band noise and

increases the BER when the signal has to go through amplifier
nonlinearities.
Disadvantages of OFDMA cont..

Synchronization
Tight Synchronization between users are required for
FFT in receiver
Pilot signals are used for synchronizations
Co-channel interference
Dealing with this is more complex in OFDM than in CDMA
Dynamic channel allocation with advanced

coordination among adjacent base stations
27
Research issues and Conclusion

Future works
Peak-to-average power reduction in OFDM
Timing and Frequency Synchronization
Efficient digital signal processing Implementation of OFDM
Multiple input/Multiple output (MIMO) OFDM
Conclusion
Different variations of OFDMA are proposed
and have different pros and cons
28
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Multiple Access Methods

Primary Goal : maximize the # users sharing limited

Multiple Access Methods

FDD : Frequency Division Duplexing

Multiple Access Methods

Time separation must be small (~ 10 msec) for real-time services (e.g.

Multiple Access Methods

Narrowband vs. Wideband

Multiple Access Methods

Multiple Access Methods

2) Base station and mobile transmit simultaneously and

4) Normally use Analog FM for mobile communications

Multiple Access Methods

Multiple Access Methods

U.S. AMPS 1G System

Multiple Access Methods

Bt : total spectrum allocation

For AMPS Bt = 12.5 MHz Bs = 30 kHz Bg = 10 kHz & Nc =

Multiple Access Methods

Multiple Access Methods

FDD different channels with multiple users for

Multiple Access Methods

Guard bits needed for proper timing

Multiple Access Methods

where m = max. # users/channel

Multiple Access Methods

Multiple Access Methods

Multiple Access Methods

PN sequence converts narrowband signal to wideband

CDMA Power Control

CDMA Power Control

Power control in overlap area done by multiple base

CDMA Cell Overlap

More base stations/area $$

Adjacent cell interference on forward link (BS to MS)

No forward link power control coordination between BSs

Reduced forward-link capacity compared to reverse-link

Multiple Access Methods

Utilization limited by interference from other users (same

2) Spread Signal BW >>> Information BW

Multiple Access Methods

Can be signficant interference source on forward link if #

4) Time Diversity As Well !

Multiple Access Methods

6) Adjacent Cell Mobiles

Some frequency reuse is usually required to minimize

Multiple Access Methods

Cell Sectoring primitive non-adaptive form of

Multiple Access Methods

Use narrow Rx (not Tx) antenna beam to focus in on

Only suitable for base station b/c of size (array) and

Cellular System Capacity

Radio capacity (m) measure of the overall

Cellular System Capacity

where n : propagation constant Bt : total spectrum

Allows comparisons between systems & standards

Cellular System Capacity

Cellular System Capacity

Mutiple Access Methods

Cellular System Capacity

Cellular System Capacity

Cellular System Capacity

Yields better overall signal power at mobile larger S