CHAPTER 3

SUPER STRUCTURE

Definition
- physical or conceptual structure extended or developed from a basic form.
- The part of a building or other structure above the foundation

SUPER STRUCTURE

3.1 Load Distribution

3.2 Building
3.2.1 Ground Floor
3.2.2 Column
3.2.3 Upper Floor
3.2.4 Staircase
3.2.5 Roof
3.2.6 Finishing
3.2.7 Mechanical & Electrical Services
3.2.8 External Works Attached to Building

SUPER STRUCTURE

3.3 Infrastructure
3.3.1 Road Works
3.3.2 Drainage System
3.3.3 Retaining Wall
3.3.4 Landscape
3.3.5 M&E Works
3.4 Specializes Construction
3.4.1 Bridges
3.4.2 Box Culvert
3.4.3 Dam
3.4.4 Air Port
3.4.5 High Rise Building
4

3.1

Load Distribution

3.1 Load Distribution

- must consider not only what loading conditions might effect a structure, but
also how those loads are transferred from their point of origin through the
structure to the ground.
- design decisions concerning the structural framing system will dictate this
flow of forces
- Normally base on load from
- Dead load
- Wind load
- Life load
- Flow of load distribution
- Roof truss roof beam column foundation
- Wall beam column foundation
- Slab beam column foundation

Load distribution of frame

structure:
Load distribution of frame structure:
Load of roof coverings plus any rain, wind and other
loads transfered to roof slab. Then, load from slab
accepted by beam and transfered to columns.
Load in infill panel transfered to edge beam a base.
Then main and edge beam loads tramferred to
columns.
Live and loads of floor transferred to secondary
beam and then transferred to main beams.
All total column loads transferred to foundation.
Finally, total on foundation load transferred to
subsoil.
fajaruddin mustakim

Frame Structure

Frame Structure

fajaruddin mustakim

Example of load distribution

3.1

Load Distribution

The load at the midspan of the joist

of the frame is illustrated as a large
arrow pointing down. This load is
split into two parts, with a proportional
part going to each end of the beam.
This in turn becomes a point load at
the midspan of the smaller beams.
They transfer the load to the earth.
The load on each column in this case
is only one quarter of the initial load.
This is one method of distributing a load.

3.1

Load Distribution

The second drawing illustrates

a wooden floor of thick planks that
span between two beams. Each
of the four squares of the flat
surfaces is the tributary area
of the beam below it.
A tributary area of a structural
element (such as a joist, beam,
column, or wall) is the area that
contributes to the loading of that specific element. In this case, the plans
transfer their loads and pass them on to the two beams. These beams
can only transfer their loads equally to the two columns which support
them. Thus, the tributary area can be drawn by determining the supporting
characteristics of the horizontally spanning members.
10

3.1

Load Distribution

This is again illustrated

below for a simple frame
structure. The loads are
gathered by each
structural element and
passed on to that
element's supporting
elements. These
supports in turn pass
their loads to the next
supporting element until
the original load has
been transferred all the
way to the earth.

11

3.1

Load Distribution

The load distribution pattern and the explicit summation of the loads
can have a direct effect upon the size of the elements. Load
distribution often causes unequal loading of the vertical supporting
members. This may or may not be indicated by the designed form of
that element.

12

Load distribution? How?

13

Load distribution? How?

14

3.2

Building

3.2.1 Ground Floor (Non Suspended Floor : Setting Out, Lean Concrete,
Ground Beam, Ground Slab, Starter bars, Water Proofing, Plastic
Sheet, Suspended Floor)
3.2.2 Column
3.2.3 Upper Floor
3.2.4 Staircase
3.2.5 Roof
3.2.6 Finishing
3.2.7 Mechanical & Electrical Services
3.2.8 External Works Attached to Building

This is typical step of building construction, it may have some

various when it came to real practices.. Good luck J
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3.2.1

Ground Floor
(Non Suspended Floor : Setting Out, Lean
Concrete, Ground Beam, Ground Slab, Starter bars, Water
Proofing, Plastic Sheet, Suspended Floor)

17

3.2.1

Ground Floor
(Non Suspended Floor : Setting Out, Lean
Concrete, Ground Beam, Ground Slab, Starter bars, Water
Proofing, Plastic Sheet, Suspended Floor)

18

3.2.1

Ground Floor
(Non Suspended Floor : Setting Out, Lean
Concrete, Ground Beam, Ground Slab, Starter bars, Water
Proofing, Plastic Sheet, Suspended Floor)

19

Damp proof course (wall)

20

Damp proof membrane (slab)

21

Floor insulation

Insulation
Material
(wool)

Insulation
floor panel
will be install
above

22

polythene sheet
23

3.2.1

Ground Floor
(Non Suspended Floor : Setting Out, Lean
Concrete, Ground Beam, Ground Slab, Starter bars, Water
Proofing, Plastic Sheet, Suspended Floor)

- Provide a level surface that is capable of supporting all the live and dead
loads imposed
-Critical with moisture
-need water proofing (chemical product, liquid or powder)
-sometime, plastic sheet is just enough
-depend with site condition normally mention in drawing or document
contract
-Lean concrete (less cement ratio than aggregate -for filling)
-Construct base on setting out
-shape, point, corner, drop, construction joint
-Define structure level
-check with all drawing, such as shop drawing (eg: lift / excavator),
construction drawing of C&S and Architect)
-Always refer with general detail drawing

24

3.2.1

Ground Floor (Non Suspended)

-Ground floor include

-Ground beam
-Backfill inside ground beam
-Lean concrete
-Anti-termite protection
-Damp proof membrane
-Install rebar (bb, bt, tb & tt)
-Thickness normally around 150mm to 200mm (can be more)
-Density depend on specification (25N/mm2, 30N/mm2 or more)
-Construct base on setting out
-shape, point, corner, drop, gradient, construction joint
-Define structure level
-check with all drawing, such as shop drawing, construction drawing
of C&S and Architect)
-Always refer with general detail drawing
-Always provide starter bars for next structure (slab or column)

25

3.2.1

Ground Floor (Non Suspended)

-only use side formwork to form shape of the ground floor

-define M&E and services piping or ducting location and level before place
concrete
-Install chairs for spacer
-Set up joint inspection, joint survey (architect, engineer, surveyor)
-check with all drawing, such as shop drawing, construction drawing
of C&S and Architect)
-Set up machineries, manpower, tools, equipment, materials, logistic,
weather forces before proceed with concreting
-Always plan for back up (during concreting)
-Pouring concrete can be done by using concrete bucket and crane or
concrete pump
-Side formwork can be removed after 1 days (depend on size of the
structure)

26

3.2.1

Ground Floor (Non Suspended)

Function of floor
- The provision of a uniform, level surface
- Sufficient strength and stability
- Durability
- Sound Insulation
- Thermal insulation
-Fire Protection
The load of floor is made up of:
- Dead Load self weight
- Life Load such as furniture, equipment or machinery, people and
etc.

27

2.2.2

Column
28

Suspended Floor

-Avoid settlement from the soft soil.

-More stable and overcome the crack due the soft ground
-The reinforced concrete floor slab is kept free of the
perimeter walls.
-The mesh reinforcement in the slab is placed in the top
with 1" covers. The slab is constructed on well
compacted granular fill, crushed stone or marl

29

3.2.2

Column

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3.2.2

Column

- starter bars, check on numbers, size, location, lap length

-many shape,
-square, round, diamond, triangle, combination of any shape
-alignment and orientation of column
-vertical or arch
-height of column depend on structure and architect drawing (calculate or
stated)
-Set numbers of formwork (recycle concept, save time and cost)
-Install vertical bars with sufficient number of link and check
-Lap length (bottom and top)
-Shape of link
-Spacer block
-Install M&E piping or ducting
-Install formwork base from setting out and check verticality of the
formwork

32

Shape of link

Lap length

33

Spacers and chairs for concreting provide support for both

reinforcing mesh and bar, ensuring that the correct cover of
concrete over the reinforcement is achieved.
Slab-on-Ground Spacers
Plastic slab-on-ground spacers are
suitable for supporting both reinforcing
mesh and bar in slab-on-ground
applications.
Slab-on-ground spacers are made to
cover two heights
These bar chairs are a dual-size
plastic reinforcing
They have a flat base to minimise
penetration through the waterproof
membrane
The bar chairs are supplied stacked in
the bag to minimise storage space

34

Wire Chairs
The steel-wire spacer's legs are protected
with a film of plastic. Plastic-tipped bar
chairs can be used in suspended slabs,
beams, vertical walls and slab on ground
applications.
Range of heights from 20mm to 360mm
Ensures consistent placement of
reinforcement in slabs
Requires no adjustment after pouring of
concrete
Metal base
Metal bases are round metal plates that
support wire bar chairs on soft surfaces.
Prevents the wire spacer sinking into the
ground
Metal base sizes are available to suit bar
chairs up to 200mm in height
35

3.2.2

Column

- process of concreting almost same with ground floor

but vertical drop of concrete cannot be more than 1.5
meter high why???
-Require opening on one side of the vertical formwork
which is not exceed 1.5 m high how???
-concrete chute is an alternative
-How to support formwork
-How to do plum on the formwork

36

3.2.2

Column

37

3.2.2

Column

38

3.2.2

Column

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3.2.2

Column

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3.2.3

Upper Floor

44

3.2. 3

Upper Floor

- Normally suspended floor

- Beam and slab cast together
- Continue from starter bars from column
- Construction process
- conventional or traditional method (cast in-situ)
- modern or industrialized method (precast, system
formwork)
- Typical method of construction from first floor up to roof
beam
- Provide a level surface that is capable of supporting all the
live and dead loads imposed
- Provide area under need for M&E services

45

-Suspended concrete slab is referred to a cement slab that is not in

contact with the ground.
-This type of concrete slab construction requires different concrete
slab design from the one we normally see that is cast on the ground.

46

3.2. 3

Upper Floor

- Conventional or traditional method

- Setting out
- Install soffit formwork for beam
- Install side formwork for beam
- Install formwork for slab
- Install rebar for beam & slab
- Install any starter bars required
- Install spacer block and chairs
- Install ducting or conduit for M&E
- Construct any required opening
- Make sure location of drop
- Joint inspection (surveyor,
engineer, architect, M&E)
- concreting
Re bar

Starter bar

47

3.2. 3

Upper Floor (conventional method)

- Advantage of Conventional method

- Well known
- Economy for low cost project
- Material, easy to get
- Easy to modify base on drawing
- Disadvantage of Conventional method
- Time constrain
- no working area under the floor
- for concrete to cure

- Required skill workers

- Not so systematic (base on experience)
- Do not allow for cold joint (A cold joint is a plane of
weakness in concrete caused by an interruption or
delay in the concreting operations. It occurs when
the first batch of concrete has begun to set before
the next batch is added, so that the two batches do
not intermix)
- Very congested

48

3.2. 3

Upper Floor (industrialized method)

- modern or industrialized method

- Setting out
- Normally using system formwork (beam & slab)
- Install rebar for beam & slab at fabrication yard
- Cast slab or beam at fabrication yard (pre-stress structure)
- Install beam or slab
- Install ducting or conduit for M&E
- Construct any required opening
- Make sure location of drop
- Joint inspection (surveyor, engineer, architect, M&E)
- Concreting (topping up)
Fabrication yard is a demarcated area where metal construction which includes but
not limited to cutting, grinding and welding and boring holes to different shapes and
configuration. The are where all these and extended work are conducted can be
refered to as fabrication yard.
49

3.2. 3
-

Upper Floor (Pre-cast Floor)

Advantage of modern or industrialized method

- Fast track project
- Economy for high cost project
- Sectional slab and beam re-design by consultant or design by
consultant at early stage
- Easy to construct and maintain cleanliness
- Systematic
- Reduce +/- 50% of concrete volume (hollow section)
- Reduce +/- 25% of reinforcement weight
- Reduce +/- 10% of foundation size
Disadvantage of modern or industrialized method
- Required skill workers
- Cannot simply cut for opening
- Take time to study and plan for the system
- Not every contractor can afford cost and ability to construct

50

3.2. 3

Upper Floor (Pre-cast Floor)

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3.2. 3

Upper Floor (Pre-cast Floor)

52

3.2. 4

Staircase

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54

Stairs
Terminology:
Stairwell: the space in which the stairs and
landings are housed.
Stairs: a set of steps inside the building going
from one level to another.
Tread: the upper surface of a step on which the
foot is placed.

55

Handrail

Riser
Tread
Flight

56

57

Stairs
Nosing: the exposed edge of a tread, usually
projecting with a square, rounded of splayed
edge.
Riser: the vertical member between two
consecutive treads.
Step: Riser plus tread.
Flight: a series of steps without a landing.

58

Stairs
Newel: post forming the junction of flights of
stairs with landings.
Strings: the members receiving the ends of steps
which are generally housed to the string; called
wall or outer strings according to their position.

59

Stairs
Handrail: protecting member usually parallel to
the string and spanning between newels.
Baluster: the vertical infill member between a
string and handrail.

60

3.2. 4

Staircase

61

3.2. 4

Staircase

62

3.2. 4

Staircase

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3.2. 4

Staircase

64

3.2. 4

Staircase

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3.2. 4

Staircase

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3.2. 4

Staircase

-Purpose
-Provide access between various level with in building
-Also use for escape in case of fire (designer have to comply with
regulation or act regarding materials, position, size and safety)
- types of staircase
-In-situ Single straight stairway (simply support, landing to landing)
- in-situ Staircase with landing between bottom and upper floor (popular)
-Inclined slab
-String beam
-Cranked or continuous
-cantilever
-Spiral staircase (in-situ or pre-cast)
-Pre-cast concrete staircase
-Single straight
-Cranked
-Open riser
-Metal staircase
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3.2. 4

Staircase

-In-situ Single straight flight stairway

-Simple design and construction
-simply support
-landing to landing
-Space occupies

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69

3.2. 4

Staircase

- in-situ Staircase with landing between bottom and upper floor

(popular)
-Inclined slab (fig: 12.1.3)
-Landing usually at mid point of the rise
-Equal flight span
-Reduce effective span and bending moment
-Tension lab is required at top and bottom of each flight to
overcome the tension
-Give better visual from the underside

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71

3.2. 4

Staircase

- in-situ

Staircase with landing between bottom

and upper floor (popular)
- string beam stairs (fig: 12.1.4)
-An alternative design
-A string or edge beam is used to span from
landing to landing
-A string results in a thinner waist dimension
and overall saving in the concrete volume
-Required extra formwork for string beam
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3.2. 4

Staircase

- in-situ Staircase with landing between bottom and upper floor

(popular)
- cranked slab stairs (fig: 12.1.5)
-Very often used, because the half space landing has no
visible support
-Design as cantilever slab (half space landing )
-Required more reinforcement at slab area
-Create problem for concreting process (massy rebar)

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3.2. 4

Staircase

- in-situ Staircase with landing between bottom and upper

floor (popular)
- cantilever stairs (fig: 12.1.6)
-Sometime called spine wall stairs
-Consist a vertical RC wall between flight to half
space landing
-Because of cantilever, rebar is place in the top of
the flight slab and landing slab (for negative
bending moment)
-Can be single strait flight or two equal flight with
intermediate half space landing
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3.2. 4

Staircase (Pre-cast)

- Pre-cast concrete staircase

- advantages
-better quality control of the finish product
-saving site space (no storage for fw and fabrication)
-stairway enclosing shaft can be utilized as a space for
hoisting or
-lifting materials during the major construction period
-can be positioned and fixed by semi skilled operative
Pre-cast concrete staircase have
-Single flight stairs
-Cranked slab stairs
-Open riser stairs
-Spiral stairs
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3.2.5

Roof

- Include
- RC roof beam
- Roof truss (timber, aluminium, metal)
- Roof tiles (clay, cement, PVC)
- How to construct roof beam
- Setting out
- Install soffit beam and follow by side formwork
- Install rebar
- Inspection and concreting
- Install services
- Install trusses, heat insulation and roof tiles
- Finally, install ceiling
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3.2.5

Roof

- Function of roof
- To keep out rain, wind, snow and dust
- To prevent excessive heat loss in winter
- To keep the interior of the building cool in the
summer
- To accommodate all stress encountered
- To accept movement due to changes in temperature
and moisture content

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Rumah Melaka

Rumah Negeri Sembilan

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Roofs
Stability
Maintenance
Thermal
properties

Exclusion of wind &

rain
Functional
Requirements
For Roof

Provide
Natural daylight Strength

Durability
Aesthetically
Fire
Resistance

Degree of
Sound insulation
85

Roofs
Functions :

As barrier to the penetration of the elements

Provide resistance to heat loss to the internal environment

Type of roofs :

Flat roofs

: 0 10o

Pitched roofs

: > 10o

Material of roofs :

Timber structure + tiling or sheet covering

Steel structure + tiling or sheet covering
Concrete structure

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87

-A flat roof is generally defined as having a pitch not greater

than 15 to the horizontal.
-A truly flat roof would not allow rainwater to drain away so
most flat roofs have a fall on them so that the rainwater
naturally flows to collection points.
- Whilst you can have tiled roofs of 10-15 these are really flat
roof construction with a cosmetic covering of tiles.
88

Below is a typical construction of a warm flat roof. It

consists of six basic elements
-A Waterproof layer which resists water.
-Thermal insulation which retains heat within the building
rather than allowing it to escape through the roof.
-A vapour barrier to prevent moisture escaping
-A timber deck, often of plywood sheeting, which allows the
-roof to support a load such as someone walking on it
-Wooden roof joists which are supported by the walls
Plasterboard ceiling

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A pitched or sloping roof has a pitch of at least 15 but

often much more. A typical roof pitch in the UK for a
traditional house will be 40-50 but at the extreme can go
up to 70 (above 70 would actually be called a wall!)
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RIDGE BOARDS

COMMON
RAFTERS

VALLEY JACK RAFTERS

VALLEY RAFTER
HIP RAFTERS

HIP JACK RAFTERS

95

Roofs Member
Ridge: the spine of the roof; the apex line of
the sloping roof; the apex of the angle
formed by the termination of the inclined
surfaces at the top of a slope.
Common Rafters: the main load bearing
members of a roof; the span is between a
wall plate at eaves level and the ridge.

96

Roofs Member
Hip: it is the ridge formed by the
intersection of two sloping surfaces.
Hipped End: it is the sloped triangular
surface formed at the end of a roof

97

Roofs Member
Jack Rafters: these fulfil the same functions as
common rafters but span from ridge to valley
rafter or from hip rafter to wall plate.
Hip Rafters: similar to a ridge but forming the
spine of an external angle and similar to a rafter
spanning from ridge to wall plate.

98

Roofs Member
Valley Rafters: as hip rafter but forming an
internal angle.
Wall Plate: these provide the bearing and fixing
medium for the various roof members and
distribute the loads evenly over the supporting
walls; they are bedded in cement mortar on top
of the walls.

99

Roofs Member
Ceiling Joists: these fulfill the dual function of
acting as ties to the feet of pairs of the rafters
and providing support for the ceiling boards on
the underside and any cisterns housed within
the roof void.
Purlins: these are horizontal wooden or steel
members, used to support common rafters of
a roof when span is large.

100

Roofs Member
Struts: these are compression members which
transfer the load of a purlin to a suitable
loadbearing support within the span of the
roof.
Collars: these are extra ties to give additional
strength and are placed at purlin level.

101

Roofs Member
Eaves: the lowest edge which overhangs the
wall thus giving the wall a degree protection;
also fixing medium for the rainwater gutter.
Two types:
Open eaves
Closed eaves

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Roofs Member
Verge: the edge of a gable, running between
the eaves and ridge.
Eaves board or fascia board: wooden board
fixed to the common rafters at the eaves.
Barge board: timber board used to hold
common rafter forming verge.

105

Truss Construction
A truss is a framed or jointed structure.
Jointed together with the aid of galvanised
mild steel nail plate connectors.
The truss comprises rafters, struts, ties and
ceiling joist (often called a ceiling tie).

106

Truss Construction
Advantages:
Much faster and more economical to use
prefabricated trusses in place of rafters and
joists.
It takes significantly less labour than stick
framing.
A truss will span a greater distance without a
bearing wall.
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108

Natural slate tiles these are primarily rectangular in shape although other flat designs
are possible
Fibre cement tiles are a manufactured and lighter weight alternative to natural slate
Concrete tiles these are available in a wide range of colours and shapes. Concrete tiles
tend to be heavier than their slate or clay equivalents
Clay tiles a variety of fired clay tiles, moulded to different designs, are available
Thatched this uses water reed, wheat straw, sedge or other organic materials as the
main roof covering
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3.2.6

-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-

Finishing & Services

Floor, Wall and ceiling

Doors, door frames
Windows, window frames
Partitions
Ironmongery
Painting and decorating
Interior design
Water supply
Sanitary fitting

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3.4.5

-
-
-
-
-

HIGH RISE BUILDING

A high-rise is a tall building or structure. Normally, the function of the

building is added, for example high-rise apartment building or high-rise
offices
High rise = 491 feet (150 m) high (about 6 floor)
Skyscraper = taller than 492 feet (150 m)
the structural system of high-rise buildings are reinforced concrete and steel
design challenges for structural and geotechnical engineers
Needs : building systems like the building standpipe system, HVAC systems
(Heating, Ventilation and Air conditioning), fire sprinkler system and other
things like stairwell and elevator evacuations pose significant problems

114

3.4.5

-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-

HIGH RISE BUILDING

Need a proper plan and study

Need a QA & QC to control the quality
Safety factor are important for pre-stage, during construction and after
completion
Require specialties and equipment
Skill workers
Proper method of construction (plan and do trial mock up)
No mistake at all
High end engineering construction and technology

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117

Taipei 101

Petronas
Towers

Sears
Tower

Jin Mao
Tower

2 International
Finance Centre

City:

Taipei

Kuala Lumpur

Chicago
IL

Shanghai
SH

Hong Kong HK

Country:

Taiwan

Malaysia

United
States

China

Status:

built

built

built

Finished
:

2004

1998

Floors:

101
mixed use

Name:

Use:

Shun Hing
Square

Empire State
Building

Central
Plaza

Guangzhou
GD

Shenzhen GD

New York
City NY

Hong
Kong HK

China

China

China

United States

China

built

built

built

built

built

built

1974

1998

2003

1997

1996

1931

1992

88

108

93

90

80

69

102

78

office

office

mixed use

office

office

office

office

office

Antenna
:

527.3 m

Spire:

508 m

Roof:

448 m

452 m

415.8 m
420.5 m

442.3 m

CITIC Plaza

448.7 m

413.8 m

391.1 m

384 m

406.9 m

321.9 m

324.8 m

374 m
381 m

309 m

118

Singer
Building

Met Life
Tower

Woolworth
Building

Trump
Building

Chrysler
Building

Empire State
Building

1 World Trade
Center

New
York
City NY

New York
City NY

New York
City NY

New York
City NY

New York
City NY

New York
City NY

New York
City NY

Countr
y:

United
States

United
States

United
States

United
States

United
States

United States

United States

Status:

destroye
d

built

built

built

built

built

Finishe
d:

1908

1909

1913

1930

1930

Floors:

47

50

57

71

office

office

office

office

Name:

City:

Use:

Petronas
Towers

Taipei 101

Kuala
Lumpur

Taipei

United
States

Malaysia

Taiwan

destroyed

built

built

built

1931

1972

1974

1998

2004

77

102

110

108

88

101

office

office

office

office

office

mixed use

448.7 m

526.3 m

527.3 m
452 m

508 m

Antenn
a:
Spire:
Roof:

Sears
Tower

Chicago
IL

318.9 m
186.6 m

213.4 m

241.4 m

282.5 m

282 m

381 m

417 m

442.3 m

448 m

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THANK YOU FOR

YOUR ATTENTION

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