Lecture 3

Operator methods in quantum mechanics

Background

Although wave mechanics is capable of describing quantum

behaviour of bound and unbound particles, some properties can not
be represented this way, e.g. electron spin degree of freedom.
It is therefore convenient to reformulate quantum mechanics in

framework that involves only operators, e.g. H.

Advantage of operator algebra is that it does not rely upon
p
2

particular basis, e.g. for H = 2m , we can represent p in spatial

coordinate basis, p = i!x , or in the momentum basis, p = p.
Equally, it would be useful to work with a basis for the
wavefunction, , which is coordinate-independent.

Operator methods: outline

Dirac notation and definition of operators

Uncertainty principle for non-commuting operators

Time-evolution of expectation values: Ehrenfest theorem

Symmetry in quantum mechanics

Heisenberg representation

Example: Quantum harmonic oscillator

(from ladder operators to coherent states)

Dirac notation
Orthogonal set of square integrable functions (such as
wavefunctions) form a vector space (cf. 3d vectors).
In Dirac notation, state vector or wavefunction, , is represented
symbolically as a ket, |".
Any wavefunction can be expanded as sum of basis state vectors,
y + )
(cf. v = x
ex + y e
|" = 1 |1 " + 2 |2 " +
Alongside ket, we can define a bra, #| which together form the
scalar product,
#|"

dx (x)(x) = #|"

Dirac notation
For a complete basis set, i , we can define the expansion
"
|" =
i |i"
i

where #j|" =

"
i

i #j|i" = j .
#$%&
ij

For example, in the real space basis, |" =

dx (x)|x".

Then, since #x|x $ " = (x x $ ),

!
#x $ |" = dx (x) #x $ |x" = (x $ )
# $% &
(xx ! )

In Dirac formulation, real space representation recovered from inner

product, (x) = #x|"; equivalently (p) = #p|".

Operators
maps one state vector, |", into another, |", i.e.
An operator A

A|"
= |".

If A|"
= a|" with a real, then |" is said to be an eigenstate (or
with eigenvalue a.
eigenfunction) of A
e.g. plane wave state p (x) = #x|p " = A e ipx/! is an eigenstate of
the momentum operator, p = i!x , with eigenvalue p.
which acts upon the
For every observable A, there is an operator A
wavefunction so that, if a system is in a state described by |", the
expectation value of A is

#A" = #|A|"
=

dx (x)A(x)

Operators
Every operator corresponding to observable is linear and Hermitian,
i.e. for any two wavefunctions |" and |", linearity implies

A(|"
+ |") = A|"
+ A|"

the Hermitian conjugate (a.k.a. the

For any linear operator A,
adjoint) is defined by relation
=
#|A"

=
dx (A)

) = #A
|"
dx (A

= A,
e.g. p = i!x .
Hermiticity implies that A

Operators
|" = #|A",

From the definition, #A

some useful relations follow:
1

|" = #|A
" = #A|",

From complex conjugation, #A

) |" = #A|",

i.e. #(A

) = A

(A

B"
= #A
|B"
= #B
A
|",
From #|A
B)
=B
A
.
it follows that (A

B)
C
= A(
B
C
),
Operators are associative,i.e. (A
but not (in general) commutative,
B|"

B|")

B)|"

A|"

A
= A(
= (A
=
& B
.

Operators
A physical variable must have real expectation values (and
eigenvalues) physical operators are Hermitian (self-adjoint):
'!
(
=

#|H|"
(x)H(x)dx

=
(x)(H(x))
dx = #H|"

= #H
|", and H
= H.

i.e. #H|"
= #|H"
= Ei |i" form complete
Eigenfunctions of Hermitian operators H|i"
orthonormal basis, i.e. #i|j" = ij
For complete set of states |i", can expand a state function |" as
|" =

"
i

|i"#i|"

In coordinate representation,
(x) = #x|" =

"
i

#x|i"#i|" =

"
i

#i|"i (x),

i (x) = #x|i"

Resolution of identity
|" =

"
i

|i"#i|"

If we sum over complete set of states, obtain the (useful) resolution

of identity,
"
i

"
i

|i"#i| = I

#x $ |i"#i|x" = #x $ |x"
)

$
$

(x)
(x
)
=
(x

x
).
i
i i
)
)
As in 3d vector space, expansion |" = i bi |i" and |" = i ci |i"
allows scalar
to be taken by multiplying components,
) product
#|" = i bi ci .

i.e. in coordinate basis,

Example: resolution of identity

Basis states can be formed from any complete set of orthogonal

states including position or momentum,
!
!
dx|x"#x| =
dp|p"#p| = I.

From these definitions, can recover Fourier representation,

!

1
(x) #x|" =
dp #x|p" #p|" =
# $% &
2!

e ipx/! / 2!

dp e ipx/! (p)

where #x|p" denotes plane wave state |p" expressed in the real space
basis.

Time-evolution operator
Formally, we can evolve a wavefunction forward in time by applying
time-evolution operator.

For time-independent Hamiltonian, |(t)" = U(t)|(0)",

where
time-evolution operator (a.k.a. the propagator):

U(t)
= e i Ht/!

follows from time-dependent Schrodinger equation, H|"

= i!t |".
)
By inserting the resolution of identity, I = i |i"#i|, where |i" are
with eigenvalue Ei ,
eigenstates of H
|(t)" = e

i Ht/!

"
i

|i"#i|(0)" =

"
i

|i"#i|(0)"e iEi t/!

Time-evolution operator

= e i Ht/!
U

Time-evolution operator is an example of a Unitary operator:

Unitary operators involve transformations of state vectors which
preserve their scalar products, i.e.
!
U"
= #|U
U"
=
#|" = #U|
#|"

U
=I
i.e. U

Uncertainty principle for non-commuting operators

For non-commuting Hermitian operators, we can establish a bound
and B:

on the uncertainty in the expectation values of A

Given a state |", the mean square uncertainty defined as
#A")
2 " = #|U
2 "
(A)2 = #|(A
#B")
2 " = #|V
2 "
(B)2 = #|(B
=A
#A",
#A"
#|A",

where U
etc.

|"||2 ,
Consider then the expansion of the norm ||U|"
+ iV
2 " + 2 #|V
2 " + i#U|
V
" i#V
|U"
0
#|U

V
]|" 0
i.e. (A)2 + 2 (B)2 + i#|[U,
and #B"
are just constants, [U,
V
] = [A,
B].

Since #A"

Uncertainty principle for non-commuting operators

B]|"

(A)2 + 2 (B)2 + i#|[A,

0
Minimizing with respect to ,
B]|"

2(B) + i#|[A,
= 0,
2

B]|"

1 #|[A,
i =
2 (B)2

and substituting back into the inequality,

1
2
B]|"

(A) (B) #|[A,

4
2

i.e., for non-commuting operators,

i
(A)(B) #[A, B]"
2

Uncertainty principle for non-commuting operators

(A)(B)

i
#[A, B]"
2

For the conjugate operators of momentum and position (i.e.

[
p , x] = i!, recover Heisenbergs uncertainty principle,
(p)(x)

i
!
#[
p , x]" =
2
2

Similarly, if we use the conjugate coordinates of time and energy,

[E , t] = i!,
i
!

(t)(E ) #[t, E ]" =

2
2

Time-evolution of expectation values

For a general (potentially time-dependent) operator A,

t |")
t #|A|"
= (t #|)A|"
+ #|t A|"
+ #|A(

and Hermiticity,
Using i!t |" = H|",
i!(t #|) = #|H,
1
1

t #|A|"
= #i H|
A|" + #|t A|"
+ #|A|(i
H)"
!
!
*
+
i
A|"

H|"

=
#|H
#|A
+#|t A|"
!#
$%
&
A]|"

#|[H,
obtain Ehrenfest Theorem,
For time-independent operators, A,
i

A]|"

t #|A|" = #|[H,
.
!

Ehrenfest theorem: example

i

A]|"

t #|A|" = #|[H,
.
!
=
For the Schrodinger operator, H

p
2
2m

+ V (x),

i
i p2
#
p"
t #x" = #[H, x]" = #[
, x]" =
!
! 2m
m
Similarly,
i
= #x V "
t #
p " = #[H, i!x ]" = #(x H)"
!
i.e. Expectation values follow Hamiltons classical equations of
motion.

Symmetry in quantum mechanics

Symmetry considerations are very important in both low and high
energy quantum theory:
1

Structure of eigenstates and spectrum reflect symmetry of the

underlying Hamiltonian.

Transition probabilities between states depend upon

transformation properties of perturbation = selection
rules.

Symmetries can be classified as discrete and continuous,

e.g. mirror symmetry is discrete, while rotation is continuous.

Symmetry in quantum mechanics

Formally, symmetry operations can be represented by a group of
such that
(typically) unitary transformations (or operators), U
U
O
U

O
Such unitary transformations are said to be symmetries of a
if
general operator O
O
U
=O

U
= U
1 (unitary), [O,
U]
= 0.
i.e., since U
H,
such unitary transformations are said to be symmetries of
If O
the quantum system.

Continuous symmetries: Examples

and r are generators of space-time transformations:
Operators p
For a constant vector a, the unitary operator
'
(
i

U(a)
= exp a p
!
(a)f (r)U(a)

effects spatial translations, U

= f (r + a).
Proof: Using the Baker-Hausdorff identity (exercise),
A

+ [A,
B]
+ 1 [A,
[A,
B]]
+
e A Be
=B
2!

= e a and B
f (r), it follows that
with e A U

1
(a)f (r)U(a)

U
= f (r) + ai1 (i1 f (r)) + ai1 ai2 (i1 i2 f (r)) +
2!
= f (r + a)
by Taylor expansion

Continuous symmetries: Examples

and r are generators of space-time transformations:
Operators p
For a constant vector a, the unitary operator
'
(
i

U(a)
= exp a p
!
(a)f (r)U(a)

effects spatial translations, U

= f (r + a).
Therefore, a quantum system has spatial translation symmetry iff
H
=H
U(a),

U(a)

=H
p
H

i.e. p

= H(
p) must be independent of position.
i.e. (sensibly) H
=rp
the angular momemtum operator),
Similarly (with L

U(b) = exp[ ! b r]
momentum translations

effects
spatial rotations
U()
= exp[ !i
en L]

time translations
U(t) = exp[ !i Ht]

Discrete symmetries: Examples

involves a sign reversal of all coordinates,

The parity operator, P,

P(r)
= (r)
2 = 1.
discreteness follows from identity P
Eigenvalues of parity operation (if such exist) are 1.
H]
= 0, parity is said to
If Hamiltonian is invariant under parity, [P,
be conserved.
Time-reversal is another discrete symmetry, but its representation
in quantum mechanics is subtle and beyond the scope of course.

Consequences of symmetries: multiplets

which is a symmetry of an operator
Consider a transformation U
i.e. [U,
A]
= 0.
observable A,
has eigenvector |a", it follows that U|a"

If A
will be an eigenvector
with the same eigenvalue, i.e.

A|a"

AU|a"
=U
= aU|a"
This means that either:
1

and U
(e.g. |p" is eigenvector
|a" is an eigenvector of both A
2
p

= e iap/! ), or
of H = 2m and U
eigenvalue a is degenerate: linear space spanned by vectors
n |a" (n integer) are eigenvectors with same eigenvalue.
U
is
e.g. next lecture, we will address central potential where H

= e ien L/!
invariant under rotations, U
states of angular
.
momentum, *, have 2* + 1-fold degeneracy generated by L

Heisenberg representation
Schr
odinger representation: time-dependence of quantum system
carried by wavefunction while operators remain constant.
However, sometimes useful to transfer time-dependence to
time-dependence of expectation value,
operators: For observable B,

i Ht/!
#(t)|B|(t)"
= #e i Ht/! (0)|B|e
(0)"

i Ht/!
= #(0)|e i Ht/! Be
|(0)"

i Ht/!
Heisenberg representation: if we define B(t)
= e i Ht/! Be
,
time-dependence transferred from wavefunction and

t B(t)
=

i i Ht/!
i

B]e
i Ht/!
e
[H,
= [H,
B(t)]
!
!
cf. Ehrenfests theorem

Quantum harmonic oscillator

The harmonic oscillator holds priviledged position in quantum
mechanics and quantum field theory.
2
p

H=
+ m 2 x 2
2m 2

It also provides a useful platform to illustrate some of the

operator-based formalism developed above.
we could seek solutions of linear second
To obtain eigenstates of H,
order differential equation,
'
(
2
! 2 1

x + m 2 x 2 = E
2m
2
However, complexity of eigenstates (Hermite polynomials) obscure
useful features of system we therefore develop an alternative
operator-based approach.

Quantum harmonic oscillator

2
p

H=
+ m 2 x 2
2m 2

Form of Hamiltonian suggests that it can be recast as the square

of an operator: Defining the operators (no hats!)
a=

m
2!

p
x +i
m

a =

m
2!

p
x i
m

m 2
p2
i
H
1
we have a a =
x +

[
p , x] =

2!
2!m 2! # $% & ! 2
i!

H
Together with aa = !
+ 12 , we find that operators fulfil the
commutation relations

[a, a ] aa a a = 1
Setting n = a a,

= !(
H
n + 1/2)

Quantum harmonic oscillator

= !(a a + 1/2)
H

Ground state |0" identified by finding state for which

/
0
1
m
p
a|0" =
x +i
|0" = 0
2!
m
In coordinate basis,
0
1
!
!
$
$
$
#x|a|0" = 0 = dx #x|a|x "#x |0" = x +
x 0 (x)
m
i.e. ground state has energy E0 = !/2 and
0 (x) = #x|0" =

* m +1/4
!

e mx

/2!
N.B. typo in handout!

Quantum harmonic oscillator

= !(a a + 1/2)
H

Excited states found by acting upon this state with a .

Proof: using [a, a ] aa a a = 1, if n|n" = n|n",
n(a |n") = a #$%&
aa |n" = (a #$%&
a a +a )|n" = (n + 1)a |n"
n
a a + 1

equivalently, [
n, a ] = na a n = a .

Therefore, if |n" is eigenstate of n

with eigenvalue n, then a |n" is
eigenstate with eigenvalue n + 1.
Eigenstates form a tower; |0", |1" = C1 a |0", |2" = C2 (a )2 |0", ...,
with normalization Cn .

Quantum harmonic oscillator

= !(a a + 1/2)
H

Normalization: If #n|n" = 1, #n|aa |n" = #n|(

n + 1)|n" = (n + 1),
1
i.e. with |n + 1" = n+1
a |n", state |n + 1" also normalized.
1
|n" = (a )n |0",
n!

#n|n$ " = nn!

with eigenvalue En = (n + 1/2)! and

are eigenstates of H

a |n" =

n + 1|n + 1",

a|n" =

n|n 1"

a and a represent ladder operators that lower/raise energy of

state by !.

Quantum harmonic oscillator

In fact, operator representation achieves something remarkable and
far-reaching: the quantum harmonic oscillator describes motion of a
single particle in a confining potential.

Eigenvalues turn out to be equally spaced, cf. ladder of states.

Although we can find a coordinate representation n (x) = #x|n",
operator representation affords a second interpretation, one that
lends itself to further generalization in quantum field theory.
Quantum harmonic oscillator can be interpreted as a simple system
involving many fictitious particles, each of energy !.

Quantum harmonic oscillator

In new representation, known as the Fock space representation,

vacuum |0" has no particles, |1" a single particle, |2" has two, etc.
Fictitious particles created and annihilated by raising and lowering
operators, a and a with commutation relations, [a, a ] = 1.
Later in the course, we will find that these commutation relations
are the hallmark of bosonic quantum particles and this
representation, known as second quantization underpins the
quantum field theory of relativistic particles (such as the photon).

Quantum harmonic oscillator: dynamical echo

How does a general wavepacket |(0)" evolve under the action of

the quantum time-evolution operator, U(t)

= e i Ht/! ?

For a general initial state, |(t)" = U(t)|(0)".

Inserting the
resolution of identity on the complete set of eigenstates,
"
"

i Ht/!
|(t)" = e
|n"#n|(0)" =
|n"#n|(0)"e iEn t/! e i(n+1/2)t
n

For the harmonic oscillator, En = !(n + 1/2).

it/2
Therefore, at times t = 2
m,
m
integer,
|(t)"
=
e
|(0)"

leading to the coherent reconstruction (echo) of the wavepacket.

At times t = (2m + 1), the inverted wavepacket

(x, t) = e it/2 (x, 0) is perfectly reconstructed (exercise).

Quantum harmonic oscillator: time-dependence

=
In Heisenberg representation, we have seen that t B

i
[H, B].
!

a] = !a (exercise),
Therefore, making use of the identity, [H,
t a = ia,

i.e. a(t) = e it a(0)

it
Combined
with
conjugate
relation
a
(t)
=
e
a (0), and using
2
2
!

x = 2m
(a + a), p = i m!
(a

a
)
2

p(t) = p(0) cos(t) m

x (0) sin(t)
p(0)
x(t) = x(0) cos(t) +
sin(t)
m

i.e. operators obey equations of motion of the classical harmonic

oscillator.
But how do we use these equations...?

Quantum harmonic oscillator: time-dependence

p(t) = p(0) cos(t) m
x (0) sin(t)
p(0)
x(t) = x(0) cos(t) +
sin(t)
m
Consider dynamics of a (real) wavepacket defined by (x) at t = 0.
Suppose we know expectation values, p02 = #|
p 2 |", x02 = #|x 2 |",
and we want to determine #(t)|
p 2 |(t)".
In Heisenberg representation, #(t)|
p 2 |(t)" = #|
p 2 (t)|" and
p2 (t) = p2 (0) cos2 (t) + (mx(0))2 sin2 (t)
m(x(0)
p (0) + p(0)x(0))
Since #|(x(0)
p (0) + p(0)x(0))|" = 0 for (x) real, we have
#|
p 2 (t)|" = p02 cos2 (t) + (mx0 )2 sin2 (t)
2

and similarly #|
x (t)|" =

x02

cos (t) +

p02
(m)2

sin2 (t)

Coherent states
The ladder operators can be used to construct a wavepacket which
most closely resembles a classical particle the coherent or
Glauber states.
Such states have numerous applications in quantum field theory and
quantum optics.
The coherent state is defined as the eigenstate of the annihilation
operator,
a|" = |"
Since a is not Hermitian, can take complex eigenvalues.
The eigenstates are constructed from the harmonic oscillator ground
state the by action of the unitary operator,

|" = U()|0",

U()
= e a a

Coherent states
a a

U() = e

|" = U()|0",

The proof follows from the identity (problem set I),

aU()
= U()(a
+ )
is a translation operator, U
()aU()

i.e. U
= a + .
By making use of the Baker-Campbell-Hausdorff identity
Y

e e

=e

+Y
+ 1 [X
,Y
]
X
2

, Y ] is a c-number, we can show (problem set)

valid if [X
a a
||2 /2 a a

U() = e
=e
e e

i.e., since e

|0" = |0",
|" = e ||

/2 a

|0"

Coherent states

a|" = |",

|" = e

||2 /2 a

|0"

Expanding the exponential, and noting that |n" =

can be represented in number basis,
|" =

"
(a )n
n=0

n!

|0" =

"

e ||

1 (a )n |0",
n!

|"

/2
|n"
n!

i.e. Probability of observing n excitations is

2

Pn = |#n|"| = e

||2

||2n
n!

a Poisson distribution with average occupation, #|a a|" = ||2 .

Coherent states
a|" = |",

|" = e ||

/2 a

|0"

Furthermore, one may show that the coherent state has minimum
uncertainty x p = !2 .
In the real space representation (problem set I),
'
(
2
(x x0 )
i
(x) = #x|" = N exp

p0 x
2
4(x)
!
where (x)2 =

!
2m

and
/

!
( + ) = A cos
2m
/
!m
p0 = i
( ) = mA sin
2
x0 =

where A =

2!
m

and = ||e i .

Coherent States: dynamics

|" =

a|" = |",

"
n

||2 /2

n
|n"
n!

Using the time-evolution of the stationary states,

|n(t)" = e iEn t/! |n(0)",

En = !(n + 1/2)

it follows that
|(t)" = e it/2

"
n

e ||

/2
e int |n" = e it/2 |e it "
n!

Therefore, the form of the coherent state wavefunction is preserved

in the time-evolution, while centre of mass and momentum follow
that of the classical oscillator,
x0 (t) = A cos( + t),

p0 (t) = mA sin( + t)

Summary: operator methods

Operator methods provide a powerful formalism in which we may
bypass potentially complex coordinate representations of
wavefunctions.
Operator methods allow us to expose the symmetry content of
quantum systems providing classification of degenerate
submanifolds and multiplets.
Operator methods can provide insight into dynamical properties of
quantum systems without having to resolve eigenstates.
Quantum harmonic oscillator provides example of
complementarity states of oscillator can be interpreted as a
confined single particle problem or as a system of fictitious
non-interacting quantum particles.