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95
When welding a workpiece, not only the weld
6
cm
4
300C
400C
6
cm
4
600C 700C
800C
900C
500C
-2
-2
-4
-4
600C
700C
-6
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
temperature
-6
-14
500C
400C
300C
cm
-8
-6
-4
-2
0 cm 2
C
1750
1250
1000
723C
oxy-acethylene welding
750
manual metal
arc welding
500
250
-60 mm
-40
-20
20
40
mm
60
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ISF 2002
Temperature Distribution of
Various Welding Methods
Figure 8.1
(process 1, 2, 7, and 8), influence directly the mechanical properties of the weld. In addition,
the chemical composition of the weld metal and adjacent base material are also influenced
by the processes 3 to 6.
10
10
Sustainable alteration of
material properties
of
intensely
elevated
7
8
5
9
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these
greatly
areas
because
reduced
of
critical
Figure 8.2
96
austenite grains. This zone of the weld is the area, where the worst toughness values are
found.
In Figure 8.4 you can see how much the forma-
hardness peak
hardness sink
weld bead
can be influenced.
1500
incomplete melt
C
1300
standard
transformation
800
recrystallisation
1147
1000
G
incomplete
crystallisation
1200
ageing
blue brittleness
Temperature
coarse grain
723
P
600
400
300
100
0,2
2,06
0,8
Hardness
1
2 % 3
carbon content
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Figure 8.3
ing. Particularly with high-strength fine grained steels and high-alloyed materials, which are
specifically optimised to achieve special quality, e.g. corrosion resistance against a certain
attacking
medium,
this
97
100
1536
C
d - solid solution
A4 1392
cbc
atomic lattice
1600
melt +
d - solid solution
1493C
H
B
d - solid
solution + austenite
N
melt
1300
1200
2,06
1100
coarse grain
heat treatment
1000
40
stress relieving
600
cbc
500
atomic lattice
dark red
brown red
300
0,5
5
eutektoidic
steel
0
Fe
0
200
hypereutectoidic steel
hypoeutectoidic steel
ISF 2002
cherry-red
700
dark brown
MS
100
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light red
800
500
tempering
hardening
200
20
yellow red
900
400
300
gas metal
arc welding
yellow
1000
600
400
12
light yellow
cm
cfc
no
atomic lattice
rm
A3 911 G ha alis
rde ing
austenite
nin +
austenite
austenite + secondary
g
(g - Mischkristalle)
+ ferrite
cementite (Fe3C)
A2 800M 769C
O
S
K
A1
P 723C
soft annealing
ferrite700
(a-solid solution) recrystallisation heat treatment
1200
1147
1100
100
0,8
1,5
1
Carbon content in weight %
10
15
20
25
Cementite content in weight %
20
30
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Metallurgical Survey of
Heat Treatment Methods
Figure 8.5
Figure 8.6
intense
heating
austenite
long time
several hours
900
Temperature
austenite
+ ferrite
A3
A1
Temperature
ferrite +
perlite
500
in
300
0,4
0,8
C-Content
Time
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the following.
Figure 8.7
98
Figure 8.7 shows in the detail to the right a T-t course of coarse grain heat treatment of an
alloy containing 0,4 % C. A coarse grain heat treatment is applied to create a grain size as
large as possible to improve machining properties. In the case of welding, a coarse grain is
unwelcome, although unavoidable as a consequence of the welding cycle. You can learn
from Figure 8.7 that there are two methods of coarse grain heat treatment. The first way is to
austenite at a temperature close above A3 for a couple of hours followed by a slow cooling
process. The second method is very important to the welding process. Here a coarse grain is
formed at a temperature far above A3 with relatively short periods.
Figure 8.8 shows schemati-
900
mecha-
500
400
300
To
determine
t8/5,
distribution,
MS
200
100
2
bainite
structure
martensite
running
A1
perlite
600
ferrite
700
A3
e lin
haviour in a TTT-diagram.
austenite
ferrit
Temperature
0
0,1
are
3
1
10
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Time
4
10
6
s
1: Normalizing
2: Simple hardening
3: Broken hardening
4: Hot dip hardening
5: Bainitic annealing
6: Patenting (isothermal
annealing)
10
ISF 2002
Figure 8.8
99
To harden a material, austenisation and homogenisation is carried out also at
austenite
900
A3
A1
Temperature
Temperature
austenite
+ ferrite
700
ferrite +
perlite
quick heating
500
air cooling
transformation to marten0,4
0,8
C-Content
Time
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ing
Normalizing
follows
until
the
ing quenching must be high enough to cool down from the austenite zone directly into the
martensite zone without any further phase transitions (curve 2 in Figure 8.8). Such quenching
processes build-up very high thermal stresses which may destroy the workpiece during hardening. Thus there are variations of this process, where perlite formation is suppressed, but
due to a smaller temperature gradient thermal stresses remain on an uncritical level (curves
3 and 4 in Figure 8.8). This
can be achieved in practice
for example- through stopa
water
quenching
900
austenite
+ ferrite
Temperature
austenite
ferrite +
perlite
quenching
in water
500
start of martensite
formation
start of martensite
formation
300
0,4
0,8
C-Content
Time
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Hardening
A1
700
A3
Temperature
ping
Figure 8.10
100
Figure 8.11 shows the quenching and tempering procedure. A hardening is followed by another heat treatment below Ac1. During this tempering process, a break down of martensite
takes place. Ferrite and cementite are formed. As this change causes a very fine microstructure, this heat treatment leads to very good
mechanical properties like
austenite
ness.
A3
A1
Temperature
austenite
+ ferrite
Temperature
900
700
ferrite +
perlite
quenching
slow
cooling
500
300
0,4
Time
0,8
C-Content
br-eI-04-11.cdr
structure
Figure 8.11
for
machining.
formed cementite particles, while the lamellar structure of the perlite is resolved (in Figure
8.12 marked by the circles, to the left: before, to the right: after soft-annealing). For hypoeutectic steels, this spheroidizing of cementite is achieved by a heat treatment close below A1.
With these steels, a part of the cementite bonded carbon dissolves during heat treating close
below A1, the remaining cementite lamellas transform with time into balls, and the bigger
ones grow at the expense of
the smaller ones (a transfor-
thermodynami-
Hypereutectic
austenite
+ ferrite
oscillation annealing
+ / - 20 degrees around A1
10 to 20C
below A1
A3
A1
Temperature
reduced
900
Temperature
austenite
700
ferrite +
perlite
or
500
steels
300
0,4
network
on
0,8
C-Content
Time
cementite
the
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grain boundaries.
Soft Annealing
Figure 8.12
101
austenite
900
A3
A1
Temperature
Temperature
austenite
+ ferrite
700
ferrite +
perlite
between
450 and
650 C
500
avoids
300
0,4
0,8
C-Content
annealed
Time
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Stress Relieving
microstructure
Figure 8.13
Figure 8.13 shows the principle of a stress-relieve heat treatment. This heat treatment is
used to eliminate dislocations which were caused by welding, deforming, transformation etc.
to improve the toughness of a workpiece. Stress-relieving works only if present dislocations
are able to move, i.e. plastic structure deformations must be executable in the micro-range. A
temperature increase is the
commonly used method to
Stress releaving
Normalising
Hardening (quench
hardening)
Quenching and
tempering
Solution or
quenching heat
treatment
Fast cooling of a workpiece. Also fast cooling of austenitic steels from high
temperature (mostly above 1000C) to develop an almost homogenuous
micro-structure with high ductility is called 'quenching heat treatment'.
Tempering
make
such
deformations
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treated
below
tempering
Type and Purpose of Heat Treatment
temperature.
Figure 8.14
102
Figure 8.14 shows a survey of heat treatments which are important to welding as well as their
purposes.
Figure 8.15 shows princi-
heat
treatment
before
welding
combination
accompanying
heat treatment
combination
simple
step-hardening
welding
annealing
stress
releaving
stress
releaving
combination
preheating
simple
preheating
local
preheating
increase of
working
temperature
preheating of the
complete workpiece
pure
step hardening
welding
constant
working
temperature
isothermal
welding
modified
step hardening
welding
solution tempering
heat
treatment
Normally a stress-relieving
postheating
(post weld heat
treatment)
heat treatment
of the complete
workpiece
local heat
treatment
ment
is
applied
before
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Figure 8.15
C
700
Temperature T
the following.
500
400
300
200
TA
MS
(1)
(2)
(3)
100
10
102
Time t
103
104
105
tH
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TTT-Diagram for
Different Welding Conditions
curve 2. The proportion of martensite is reduced in the forming structure, as well as the
Figure 8.16
103
level of hardening. If the material is hold at a temperature above MS during welding (curve 3),
then the martensite formation will be completely suppressed (see Figure 8.8, curve 4 and 5).
seam
start
end
TS
Temperature T
transformation
range
A1
TV
Time t
tV
tS
tA
Course of resulting
temperature in the
area of the heat
affected zone of
the base material.
Temperature
distribution by
preheating,
Course of
temperature
during welding.
Temperature-Time-Distribution
During Welding With Preheating
ISF 2002
Figure 8.17
A3
A1
TA
Time t
tV
tS
tA
Temperature of workpiece,
Temperature of weld point
br-eI-04-18.cdr
Figure 8.18
constant
temperature.
working
This
is
104
achieved through further
warming during welding to
A3
Temperature T
TV
TA
MS
Time t
tS
tV
tH = 0
tA
tH
br-eI-04-19.cdr
is heated up to a working
temperature
Figure 8.19
above
MS
after welding until a transformation of the austenitised areas has been completed. The aim of
isothermal welding is to cool down in accordance with curve 3 in Figure 8.16 and in this way,
to suppress martensite formation.
1. Post-heating
A3
Temperature T
A1
TN
tS
tN
tA
sketch shows a combination of pre- and poststeels which have such a strong tendency to
Temperature T
A3
A1
TN
TV
TA
tV
tS
tN
tR
tS:
tA:
tN:
tR:
tA
Welding time,
Cooling time (room temperature),
Postheat time
Stoppage time
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Welding With
Pre- and Post-Heating
105
Temperature T
THa
A1
TAnl
MS
TAnl
Time t
tS
tH
tA
tH
tHa
tAnl
tA
tAb
TA: Working temperature,
TAnl: Tempering temperature,
TH: Hardening temperature,
should
A3
TA
TSt
welding
Temperature of workpiece,
Temperature of weld point
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Figure 8.21
weld pass
heat affected zone
welded without cooling down to a certain temperature. As a result, working temperature in-
4
3
weld pass
2
1
observed point
TS
second pass is welded under a preheat temperature which is already above martensite
start temperature. The heat which remains in
Temperature T
TV
MS
tS
tV
tA
Temperature-Time Distribution
During Multi-Pass Welding
ISF 2004
Figure 8.22
106
tion effects in the HAZ. The coarse grain zone with its unfavourable mechanical properties is
only present in the HAZ of the last layer. To achieve optimum mechanical values, welding is
not carried out to Figure 8.22. As a rule, the same welding conditions should be applied for all
passes and prescribed t8/5 times must be kept, welding of the next pass will not be carried
out before the previous pass has cooled down to a certain temperature (keeping the interpass temperature). In addition, the workpiece will not heat up to excessively high temperatures.
Figure 8.23 shows a nomogram where working temperature and minimum and maximum
heat input for some steels can be interpreted, depending on carbon equivalent and wall thickness.
If e.g. the water quenched and tempered fine grain structural steel S690QL of 40 mm wall
thickness is welded, the following data can be found:
- minimum heat input between 5.5 and 6 kJ/cm
- maximum heat input about 22 kJ/cm
- preheating to about 160C
- after welding, residual stress relieving between 530 and 600C.
Steels which are placed in
the hatched area called
soaking
area,
must
be
Figure 8.23