r

C-HAPTER 1

JJJJJJ I I I I U IIII.IIJJJJJJJDJDUJ
The Process of
Measu rement:
An Overview

1.1

Introduction

It has been said: "Whatever exists, exists in some amount." The determination

of the amount is what measurement is all about. If those things that exist are
related to the practice of mechanical engineering, then the determination of
their amounts constitutes the subject of mechanical measurements. *

The process or the act of measurement consists of obtaining a quantitative

comparison between a predelined standard and a measurand. The word

measurand is used to designate the particular physical parameter being

observed and quantified; that is, the input quantity to the measuring process.
The act of measurement produces a result (see Fig. 1.1).

The standard of comparison must be of the same character as the

measurand, and usually, but not always, is prescribed and defined by a legal-or

recognized agency or organization-e.g., the National Institute of Standards

and Technology (NIST), formerly called the National Bureau of Standards

(NBS), the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), or the

American National Standards Institute (ANSI). The meter, for example, is a

clearly defined standard of length.

Mechanical measurements are not necessarily accomplished by mechanical means: Rather, it is to

the measured quantity itself that the term mechanical is directed. The phrase measurement of
mechanical quantities, or of parameters, would perhaps express more completely the meaning
intended. In the interest of brevity, however, the subject is simply called mechanical

measurements.

Figure 1.1

Measurand
(Input)

The Process of Measurement: An Overview

Fundamental measuring process

Process of
comparison
( Measurement)

Result
( Readout)

Such quantities as temperature, strain, and the parameters associated with

fluid flow, acoustics, and motion, in addition to the fundamental quantities of
mass, length, time, and so on, are typical of those within the scope of
mechanical measurements. Unavoidably, the measurement of mechanical
quantities also involves consideration of things electrical, since it is often
convenient or necessary to change, or transduce, a mechanical measurand into
a corresponding electrical quantity.

1.2

The Significance of Mechanical Measurement

Measurement provides quantitative information on the' actual state of physical

variables and processes that otherwise could only be estimated. As such,
measurement is both the vehicle for new understanding of the physical world
and the ultimate test of any theory or design. Measurement is the fundamental
basis for all research, design, and development, and its role is prominent in
many engineering activities.
All mechanical, design of any complexity involves three elements: ex
perience, the rational element, and the experimental element. The element of
experience is based on previous exposure to similar systems and on an
engineer's common sense. The rational element relies on quantitative en
gineering principles, the laws of physics, and so on. The experimental element
is based on measurement-that is, on measurement of the various quantities
pertaining to the operation and performance of the device or process being
developed. Measurement provides a comparison between what was intended
and what was actually achieved.
Measurement is also a fundamental element of any control process. The
concept of control requires the measured discrepancy between the actual and

1.3

Fundamental Methods of Measurement

the desired performances. The controlling portion of the system must know the
magnitude and direction of the difference in order to react intelligently.
In addition, many daily operations require measurement for proper
performance. An example is in the modern central power station. Tempera
tures, flows, pressures, and vibrational amplitudes must be constantly moni
tored by measurement to ensure proper performance of the system. Moreover,
measurement is vital to commerce. Costs are established on the basis of
amounts of materials, power, expenditure of time and labor, and other
constraints.
To be useful, measurement must be reliable. Having incorrect information
is potentially more damaging than having no information. The situation, of
course, raises the question of the accuracy or uncertainty of a measurement.
Arnold O. Beckman, founder of Beckman Instruments, has stated, "One thing
you learn in science is that there is no perfect answer, no perfect measure."* It
is quite important that engineers interpreting the results of measurement have
some basis for evaluating the likely uncertainty. Engineers should never simply

read a scale or printout and blindly accept the numbers. They must carefully
place realistic tolerances on each of the measured values, and not only should
have a doubting mind but also should attempt to quantify their doubts. We
will discuss uncertainty in more detail in Section 1.8 and as the subject of
Chapter 3.

1.3

Fundamental Methods of Measurement

There are two basic methods of measurement: (1) direct comparison with
either a primary or a secondary standard and (2) indirect comparison through
the use of a calibrated system.
1.3.1

Direct Comparison

How would you measure the length of a bar of steel? If you were to be
satisfied with a measurement to, let us say, in. (approximately 3 mm), you
would probably use a steel tape measure. You would compare the length of
the bar with a standard, and-would find that the bar is so many inches long
because that many inch-units on your standard are the same length as the bar.
Thus you would have determined the length by direct comparison. The
standard that you have used is called a secondary standard. No doubt you
could trace its ancestry back through no more than four generations to the.
primary length standard, which is related to the speed of light (Section, 2.5).
Although to measure by direct comparison is to strip the measurement
process to its barest essentials, the method is not always adequate. The human

Emphasis added by the authors.

Th Pro:ess of Measurement: An Overview

senses are not equipped to make direct comparisons of all quantities with equal

facility. In many cases they are not sensitive enough. We can make direct

comparisons of small distances using a steel rulel with a preciseness of about

1 mm (approximately O.04in.). Often we require greater accuracy. Then we

must call for additional assistance from some more complex form of measuring
system. Measurement by direct comparison is thus less common than is

measurement by indirect comparison.

Using a Calibrated System

1.3.2

Indirect comparison makes use of some form of transducing device coupled to

a chain of connecting apparatus, which we shall call, in toto, the measuring

system. This chain of devices converts the basic form of input into an
.

analogous form, which it then processes and presents at the output as a known

function of the original input. Such a conversion is often necessary so that the

desired information will be intelligible. The human senses are simply not
designed to detect the strain in a machine member, for instance. Assistance is

required from a system that senses, converts, and finally presents an analogous
output in the form of a displacement on a scale or chart or as a digital readout.

Processing of the analogous signal may take many forms. Often it is

necessary to increase an amplitude or a power

through

some form of

amplification. Or in another case it may be necessary to extract the desired

information from a mass of extraneous input by a process of filtering. A

remote reading or recording may be needed, such as ground recording of a

temperature or pressure in a missile in flight. In this case the pressure or

temperature measurement must be combined with a radio-frequency signal for

transmission to the ground.

In each of the various cases requiring amplification, or filtering, or remote

recording, electrical methods suggest themselves. In fact, the majority of

transducers in use, particularly for d ynamic mechanical measurements, convert

the mechanical input into an analogous electrical form for processing.

1 w4

The Generalized Measuring System

Most measuring systems fall within the framework of a general arrangement

consisting of three phases or stages.:

Stage 1
Stage

stage

Stage 3

A detection-transduction, or sensor-transducer, stage

An intermediate stage, which we shall call the signal-conditioning
A terminating, or read out-recording, stage

Each stage consists of a distinct component or group of components that

performs required and definite steps in the measurement. These are calld

1.4

The Generalized Measuring System

Figure 1.2

,
,

Block diagram of the generalized measuring system

Auxiliary
power (usually

Auxiliary
power (not
always required)

Calibration
input

required)

Measurand

Sensortransducer

Transduced
signal
(analogous to
input)

Signal
conditioner

Analogous
driving
signal

Indicator

Recorder
Computer

r-

Proeessor

Controller

basic elements; their scope is determined by their function rather than by their

construction. Figure 1.2 and Table 1.1 outline the significance of each of these
stages.

1.4.1

First, or Sensor-Transducer, Stage

The primary function of the first stage is to detect or to sense the measurand.

At the same time, ideally, this stage should be insensitive to every other

possible input. For instance, if it is a pressure pickup, it should be insensitive

to, say, acceleration; if it is a strain gage, it should be insensitive to

temperature; if a linear accelerometer, it should be insensitive to angular

acceleration; and so on. Unfortunately, it is rare indeed to find a detecting

device that is completely selective. Unwanted sensitivity is a measuring error,

called noise when it varies rapidly and drift when it varies very slowl .

Frequently one finds more than a single transduction (change in signal

character) in the first stage, particularly if the first-stage output is electrical

(see Section 6.3).

1.4.2

econd, or Signal-Conditioning,

Stage

The purpose of the second stage of the general system is to modify the

transduc d information so that it is acceptable to the third"

or terminating,

stage. 11\ addition, it may perform one or more basic operations, such as

!
e required.
Proably the most

selective filtering to remove noise, integration, differentiation, or telemetering,

as may

common function of the second stage is to increase

either amplitude or power of the signal, or both, to the level required to drive
the final terminating device. In addition, it must be designed for proper

matching characteristics between the first and second and between the second

and third stages.

Table 1.1

The Process of Measurement: An Overview

Stages of the general measurement system

Stage 1: Sensor-Transducer

Stage 2: Signal Conditioning

Stage 3: Readout-Recording

Senses desired input to

Modifies transduced signal

Provides an indication or

exclusion of all others and

into form usable by final

recording in form that can be

provides analogous output

stage. Usually increases

evaluated by an unaided

amplitude and/or power,

human sense or by a

depending on requirement.

controller. Records data

May also selectively filter

digitally on a computer

unwanted components or
convert signal into pulsed
form

Types and Examples

Types and Examples

Types and Examples

Mechanical: Contacting

Mechanical: Gearing,

Indicators Displacement

spindle,spring-mass,elastic

cranks,slides,connecting

types: Moving pOinter and

devices (e.g:,Bourdon tube

links,cams,etc.

scaJe,moving scale and index,

for pressure,proving ring for

light beam and scale,electron

force),.gyro

beam and scale

(oscilloscope),liquid column

Hydraulic-pneumatic: Buoyant

Hydraulic-pneumatic: Piping,

Digital types: Direct

float, orifice,venturi,vane,

valving,dashpots,plenum

alphanumeric readout

propeller

chambers

Optical: Photographic film,

Optical: Mirrors,lenses,

Recorders: Digital printing,

photoelectric diodes and

optical filters,optical fibers,

inked pen and chart,direct

transistors, photomultiplier

spatial filters (pinhole,slit)

tubes,holographic plates

photography, magnetic
recording (hard disk or tape)

Electrical: Contacts,

Electrical: Amplifying or

Processors and 9omputers:

resistance,capacitance,

attenuating systems,

Various types of computing

inductance,piezoelectric

bridges,filters,telemetering

systems,either special

crystals and polymers,

systems,various special

purpose or general,used to

thermocouple,semiconductor

purpose integrated-circuit

feed readout/recording

junction,etc.

devices

devices and/or controlling

systems
Controllers: All types

1.4.3

Third, or Terminating Readout, Stage

The third stage provides the information sought in a form comprehensible to

one of the human senses or to a controller. If the output is intended for
immediate human recognition, it is, with rare exception, presented in one of
the following forms:
1.

As a relative displacement, such as movement of an indicating hand, or

displacement of oscilloscope trace or oscillograph stylus
.

1.4

The Generalized Measuring System

2.

In

digital form, as presented by a counter such as an automobile odometer,

or by a liquid crystal display (LCD) or light-emitting diode (LED) display

as on a digital voltmeter

To illustrate a very simple measuring system, let us consider the familiar

tire gage used for checking automobile tire pressure. Such a device is shown in

Fig.

1.3().

It consists of a cylinder and piston, a spring resisting the piston

movement, and a stem with scale divisions. As the air pressure bears against

the piston, the resulting force compresses the spring until the spring and air

Figure 1.3

(a) Gage for measuring pressure in automobile tires. (b) Block

diagram of tire-gage functions. In this example the spring
serves as a secondary transducer (see Section 6.3).

Stem

Compression
spring

- Piston

_Cylinder

(a)

.---------..,

Sensor-transducer
Input
pressure

Piston/cylinder

Spring

(Pressure to
force)

(Force to

Signal

_
I conditioning

I
I
I
I (None)
I
I
L________ J

displacement)

(b)

Readout

I
(Scale and
index)

Figure 1.4

Block diagram of a relatively complex measuring system

I
I
I
I
Stage 1
I
Sensor-transducer ---+1-

ij
E
!?
GO

.,

Stage 2
Signal-conditioning system

Integrating

Filter

Amplifier

circuit

"8

!.

_,..;.
' "'I
l

...
o

Stage 3
Recording-readout system

Data-acquisition

computer.

..,j

Printer

....

-t

"

"'G

Vohage OU!put

Signal with

from accelerometer

noise removed

with unwanted "noise"

Time-integrated
voltage analogous to
velocity

Increased votlage
for computer recording

III

S.

m
III

;;
;

"
:I

on
"-

>

:I

Time. m/s
Computer graph

.
;

1.5

Types of Input Quantities

11

forces balance. The calibrated stem, which remains in place after the spring
returns the piston, indicate-the-applied pressure.

The piston-cylinder combination constitutes a force-summing apparatus,

sensing and transducing pressure to force. As a secondary transducer (see

Section 6.3), the spring converts the force to a displacement. Finally, the

transduced input is transferred without signal conditioning to the scale and

index for readout [see Fig. 1.3(b)].

As an example of a more complex system, let us say that a velocity is to ,be

measured, as shown in Fig. 1.4. The first-stage device, the accelerometer,

provides a voltage analogous to acceleration. *

In addition to a voltage

amplifier, the second stage may also include a filter that selectively attenuates

unwanted high-frequency noise components. It may also integrate the analog

signal with respect to time, thereby providing a velocity-time relation, rather

than an acceleration-time signal. Finally, the signal voltage will probably need

to be increased to the level necessary to be sensed by the third, or recording

and readout, stage, which may consist of a data-acquisition computer (Chapter

8)

and printer. The final record will then be in the form of a computer

generated graph; witn the proper calibration, an accurate velocity-versus-time

measurement should be the result.

Types

1.5
1.5.1

of

Input Quantities

Time Dependence

Mechanical quantities, in addition to their inherent defining characteristics,

also have distinctive time-amplitude properties, which may be classified as

follows:

1.
2.

Staticonstant in time
Dynamic-varying in time
B.

b.

Steady-state periodic
Nonrepetitive or transient

i.
ii.

Single pulse or aperiodic

Continuing or random

Of course, the unchanging, static measurand is the most easily measured.

If the system is terminated by some form of meter-type indicator, the meter's

pointer has no difficulty in eventually reaching a definite indh::ation. The

rapidly changing, dynamic measurand presents the real measurement
challenge.

Although the accelerometer maybe susceptibl to an analysis of "stages" within itself, we shall

. forgo such an analysis in this example.

12

The Process of Measurement: An Overview

Two general forms of dynamic input are possible: steady-state periodic

input and transient input. The steady-state periodic quantity is one whose
magnitude has a definite repeating time cycle, whereas the time variation of a
transient quantity does not repeat. "Sixty-cycle" line voltage is an example of a
steady-state periodic signal. So also are many mechanical vibrations, after a
balance has been reached between a constant input exciting energy and energy
dissipated by damping.
An example of a pulsed transient quantity is the acceleration-time
relationship accompanying an isolated mechanical impact. The magnitude is
temporary, being completed in a matter of milliseconds, with the portions of
interest . existing perhaps for only a few microseconds. The presence of
extremely high rates of change, or wavefronts; can place severe demands on
the measuring system. The nature of these inputs is discussed in detail in
Chapter 4, and the response of the measuring system to such inputs is covered
in Chapter 5.
1.5.2

Analog and Digital Signals

Most measurands of interest vary with time in a continuous manner over a

range of magnitudes. For instance, the speed of an automobile, as it starts
from rest, has some magnitude at every instant during its motion. A sensor
that responds to velocity will produce an output signal having a time variation
analogous to the time change in the auto's speed. We refer to such a signal as
an analog signl because it is analogous to a continuous physical process. An
analog signal has a value at every instant in time, and it usually varies smoothly
in magnitude.
Some quantities"however, may change in a stepwise manner between two
distinct magnitudes: a high and low voltage or on and off, for instance. The
revolutions of a shaft could be counted with a cam-actuated electrical switch
that is open or closed, depending on the position of the cam. If the switch
controls current from a battery, current either flows with a given magnitude or
does not flow. The current flow varies discretely between two values, which we
could represent as single digits: 1 (flowing) and 0 (not flowing). The amplitude
of such a signal may thus be called digital.
Many electronic circuits store numbers as sets of digits-strings of 1s and
Os-with each string held in a separate memory register. When digital circuits,
such as those in computers, are used to record an analog signal, they do so
only at discrete points in time because they have only a fixed number of
memory registers. The analog signal, which has a value at every instant of
time, becomes a digital signal. A digital signal is a set of discrete numbers,
each corresponding to the value of the analog signal at a single specific instant
of time. Clearly, the digital signal contains no information about the value of
the analog signal at times other than sample times.
Mechanical quantities-such as temperatures, fluid-flow rates, pressure,
stress, and strain-normally behave timewise in an analog manner. Howevex:,
\

1.7

Calibration

13

distinct advantages are often obtained in converting an analog signal to an

equivalent digital signal for the purposes of signal conditioning and/or readout.
Noise problems are reduced or sometimes eliminated altogether, and data
transmission is simpler. Computers are designed to process digital information,
and direct numerical display or recording is more easily accomplished by
manipulating digital quantities. Digital techniques are discussed at length in
Chapter 8.

1.6

Measurement Standards

As stated earlier, measurement is a process of comparison. Therefore,

.
regardless of our measurement method, we must employ a basis of
comparison-standardized units. The standards must be precisely defined, and,
because different systems of units exist, the method of conversion from system
to system must be mutally agreed upon. Chapter 2, "Standards and Dimen
sional Units of Measurement," provides a detailed discussion of this subject.
Most importantly, a relationship between the standards and the readout
scale of each measuring system must be established through a process known
as calibration.

1.7

Calibration

At some point during the preparation of a measuring system, known

magnitudes of the input quantity must be fed into the sensor-transducer, and
the system's output behavior must be observed. Such a comparison allows the
magnitude of the output to be correctly interpreted in terms of the magnitude
of the input. This calibration procedure establishes the correct output scale for
the measuring system.
By performing such a test on an instrument, we both calibrate its scale and
prove its ability to measure reliably. In this sense, we sometimes speak of
proving an instrument. Of course, if the calibration is to be meaningful, the
known input must itself be derived from a defined standard.
If the output is exactly proportional to the input (output
constant x
input), then a single simultaneous observation of input and output will suffice
to fix the constant of proportionality. This is called single-point calibration.
More often, however, multipoint calibrations are used, wherein a number of
different input values are applied. Multipoint calibration works when the
output is not simply proportional, and, more generally, improves the accuracy
of the calibration.
If a measuring system will be used to detect a time-varying input, then the
calibration should ideally be made using a time-dependent input standard.
Such dynamic calibration can be difficult, however, and a static calibration,
using a constant input signal, is frequently substituted. Naturally, this
=

14

The Process of Measurement: An Overview

procedure is not optimal; the more nearly the calibration standard corresponds
to the measurand in all its characteristics, the better the resulting
measurements.
Occasionally, the nature of the system or one of its components makes the
introduction of a sample of the basic input quantity difficult or impossible. One
of the important characteristics of the bonded resistance-type strain gage is the
fact that, through quality control at the time of manufacture, spot calibration
may be applied to a complete lot of gages. As a result, an indirect calibration
of a strain-measuring system may be provided through the gage factor supplied
by the manufacturer. Instead of attempting to apply a known unit strain to the
gage installed on the test structure-which, if possible, would often result in an
ambiguous situation-a resistance change is substituted. Through the pre
determined gage factor, the system's strain response may thereby be obtained
(see Section 12.4).

1.8

Uncertainty: Accuracy of Results

Error may be defined as the difference between the measured result and the
true value of the quantity being measured (see Section 3.1). We do not know
the true value; hence, we do not know the error. We can discuss an error and
can estimate the size of an error, but we can never know its actual magnitude.
If we estimate a likely upper bound on the error, that bound is called the
uncertainty. We estimate, with some level of odds, that the error will be no
larger than the uncertainty. There are two basic types of error (remember, we
can discuss it without ever knowing its magnitude): bias, or systematic, error
and precision, or random, error.
Should an unscrupulous butcher place a ball of putty under the scale pan,
the scale readouts would be consistently in error. The scale would indicate a
weight of product too great by the weight of the putty. This zero offset
represents one type of systematic error.
Shrink rules are used to make patterns for the casting of metals. Cast steel
shrinks in cooling by about 2%; hence the patterns used for preparing the
molds are oversized by the proper percentage amounts. The pattern maker
uses a shrink rule on which the dimensional units are increased by that
amount. Should a pattern maker's shrink rule for cast steel be inadvertently
used for ordinary length measurements, the readouts would be consistently
undersized by fa in one (that is, by 2%). This is an example of scale error.
In each of the foregoing examples the errors are constant and of a
systematic nature. Such errors cannot be uncovered by statistical analysis;
however, they may be estimated by methods that we discuss in Chapter 3.
An inexpensive frequency counter may use the 60-Hz power-line fre
quency as a comparison standard. Power-line frequency is held very close to
the 6O-Hz standard. Although it does wander slowly above and below the
average value, over a period of time-say, a day-the average is very close to
60 Hz. The wandering is random and the moment-to-moment error in the

1.9

Reporting

Results

15

frequency meter readout (from this source) is called precision, or random,

error.
Randomness may also be introduced by variations in the measurand itself.
If a number of hardness readings is made on a given sample of steel, a range of
readings will be obtained. An average hardness may be calculated and
presented as the actual hardness. Single readings will deviate from the average,
some higher and some lower. Of course, the primary reason for the variations
in this case is the nonhomogeneity of the crystalline structure of the test
specimen. The deviations will be random and are due to variations in the
measurand. Random error may be estimated by statistical methods and is
considered in more detail in Chapter 3.

1.9

Reporting Results

When experimental setups are made and time and effort are expended to
obtain results, it normally follows that some form of written record or report is
to be made. The purpose of such a record will determine its form. In fact, in
some cases, several versions will be prepared. Reports may be categorized as
follows:
1.

Executive summary

2.

Laboratory note or technical memo

3.

Progress report

4.

Full technical report

5.

Technical paper

Very briefly, an executive summary is directed at a busy overseer who

wants only tfeatures of the work: what was done and what was
concluded, outlined in a few paragraphs. A laboratory note is written Ito be
read by someone thoroughly familiar with the project, such as an immediate
supervisor or the experimentalist himself. A full report tells the complete story
to one who is interested in the subject but who has not been in direct touch
with the specific work-perhaps top officials of a large company or a review
committee of a sponsoring agency. A progress report is just that-<>ne of
possibly several interim reports describing the current status of an ongoing
project, which will eventually be incorporated in a full report. Ordinarily, a
technical paper is a brief summary of a project, the extent of which must be
tailored to fit either a time allotment at a meeting or space in a publication.
Several factors are common to all the various forms. With each type, the
first priority is to make sure that the problem or project that has been. tackled is
clearly stated. There is nothing quite so frustrating as reading details in a
technical report while never being certain of the raison d'etre. It is extremely
important to make certain that the reader is quickly clued in on the why before
one attempts to explain the how and the results. A clearly stated objective can

16

The Process of Measurement: An Oven<iew

be considered the most i mportant part of the report. The

entire report

should

be written in simple language. A rule stated by Samuel Clem e ns is not

ina ppropriate: "Omit unnecessary adverbs and adjectives."

laboratory Note or Technical Memo

1.9.1

The laborato ry note is written for a very limited audience, possibly even only
as a memory j ogger for the experimenter or, perhaps more often, for the
information of an immediate superviso r who is thoroughly familiar with the
work. In some cases, a single page may be sufficient including a sentence or
two stating the problem, a block di agram of the experimental setup, and some
data presented either in tabular form or as a plotte d diagram. Any pertinent
observations not directly evide nt from the data should also be included.
Sufficient i nformation should be included so that the experimenter can
mentally reconstruct the situation and results 1 year or e ve n 5 years hence. A
date and signature should always be included and, if there is a possibility of
important developments stemming from the work, a second witnessing
signature should be included and dated.
,

Full Report

1.9.2

The full report must relate all the facts pertinent to the project. It is even more
important in this ca se to make the purpose of the project compl etel y clear, for
the report will be read by persons not closely associated with the work. The
full report should also include e nough detail to allow another professional to
repeat the measurements and calculations.
One format that has much merit is to make the re port proper the main
body-short and to the point relegating the supporting materials, data,
detailed qescriptions of e q uipment, review of literature, sample calculations,
and so on, to appendixes Frequent refe rence to these materials can be made
throughout the report proper, but the option to peruse the details is left to the
reader This scheme also provides a good basis for the technical paper, should
it be planned
-

1.9.3

Technical Paper

a technica l paper is to make known (to advertise) the

this reason, two particularly important portions of the
writing are the problem statement and the results. Adequately done, these two
items will attract the attention of other workers interested in the particular
field who can then make direct contact with the writer(s) for additional details
and discussion
Space , number of words, limits on illustrations, and per haps time are all
factors making the prepa ration of a technical paper particularly challenging.
O nce the problem statement and the primary results have been adequately
A primary purpose of

work of the writer. For

1.10

final Remarks

figure 1.5

17

Conceptual organization of this book

Time-Dependent
Signals

-----l
l

Digita Data
Acquisition
Sensors

I
I
I
I
I
L

Chapter 6, Part II

Signal
Conditioners

Chapter 8

Chapter 7

Readout and
Processing
Devices

Hardware
_______________

Chapter 9
-------------

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

Uncertainty
Analysis
Chapter 3

established, the remammg available space may be used to summarize

procedures, test setups, and the like.

1.10

Final Remarks

An attempt has been made in this chapter to provide an overall preview of the
problems of mechanical measurement. In conformance with Section 1. 9, we
have tried to state the problem as fully as possible in only a few pages. In the
remainder of the book, we will expand on the topics introduced in this chapter.
Figure 1.5 illustrates the interrelation of these topics and their organization
within this book.

Suggested Readings

J. W., W. F. Riley, and K. G. McConnell. Instrumentation for Engineering

Measurements. New York: John Wiley, 1984.

Dally,

The Process of Measurement: An Overview

18

Ibrahim, K. F. Instruments and Automatic

New York: John Wiley, 1988.
Jones,

Test Equipment: An Introductory Testbook.

B. E. Instrument Science and Technology, 3

vol. New York: Adam Hilger,

1982-85.

Monison, R.

Instrumentation Fundamentals and Applications.

New York: John Wiley,

1984.
Handbook of Measurement SCience. 2

Sydenham, P. H.

vol. New York: John Wiley,

1983.

Tse, F., and I. Morse. Measurement

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and Instrumentation in the Laboratory.

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Laboratories. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall, 1990.

New York:

Instrumentation

Problems
1.1

From the list of Suggested Readings at the end of this chapter, select one book,
and write a short executive summary of a chapter discussing pressure, tempera
ture, force, strain or motion measurement.

1.2

Consider a mercury-in-glass thermometer as a temperature-measuring system.

Discuss the various stages of this measuring system in detail.

1.3

For the thermometer of Problem

calibration may be obtained.

1.4

Set up test procedures you would use to estimate, with the aid only of your
present judgment and experience, the magnitudes of the common quantities
listed.
Distance between the centerlines of two holes in a machined part
8.
b. Weight of two small objects of different densities
.

Figure 1.6

1.2,

specify how practical single point

Impact test frame for Problem 1.5

I

I :

I
W/#,

Test
Item

I
"-///////////J:

1.10

Problems

c.

d.
e.

1.5

19

Time intervals
Temperature of water
Frequency of pure tones

Consider the impact frame shown in Figure 1.6. Mass M is raised to an initial
height H and released from rest. Discuss how you would measure the mass
velocity just prior to impact with the test item in order to account for friction
between mass M and the guide rails.