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{NASA-TW-555TTJ SPACE; THE NEW F R O N T I E R N84-75119

( N d t i o n a l Aeronautics and Space
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ) 52 p
Dnclas
00/12 21252

THE NEW FRONTIER

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION
 I oday, as the result of both Executive and Congressional action and the enthusiastic re-
lod
sponse of the American people^ we are on our way toward the realization of this new national goal
of a round trip to the moon before the end of the 1960's. This goal is by no means the ultimate
objective of our space efforts. That objective, as the President has made clear, is nothing less than
over-all leadership, across-the-board, in the exploration of space and its utilization for peaceful
purposes.
"It is a task which we now have every reason to believe can be undertaken successfully before
this decade is out if we are willing to marshal our scientific and technological resources in a great
national effort.
"Science and technology are rightly regarded by the world's peoples today as the keys to
economic progress and military strength. At this time in history, space exploration dramatizes, more
effectively than anything else can do, the forward march of science and technology. In the minds of
millions, space achievements have become today's symbol of tomorrow's scientific and technical
supremacy.
"Having set for ourselves this goal, the indirect benefits to the American people, I am con-
vinced, will be enormous. Many of these are not predictable at this time and their worth cannot be
calculated, but some are clearly foreseeable. The goal of commencing manned exploration of the
moon before the end of this decade will cause us to accelerate to the maximum pace our entire
research and development effort in space technology. Calling, as it does, on the most diverse re-
sources in our economy, it is bound to result in a great variety of new consumer goods and industrial
processes that will raise our standard of living and return tremendous benefits to us in almost every
aspect of our national life."

Jamas E. Webb, NASA Administrator

 table of contents

SPACE AND YOU

THE HISTORY OF SPACE'PLIGHT
THE SOLAR
SPACE PROBES AND SATELLITES—GENERAL PRINCIPLES
UNMANNED SATELLITES AND SOUNDING ROCKETS
UNMANNED LUNAR AND INTERPLANETARY SPACECRAFT
MANNED SPACE EXPLORATION
PROJECTS MERcuRir
PROJECT APOLLO

X-15 AND DYNA SOAR

THE SPACE' LAUNCH VEHICLES -

THE BIOLOGY OF'Sp'ACi;; ;':•;.•;• '.
SPACE EXPI_ORATION--THE'TECHNIQUES
; :
•:'. ROCKETpROPeu.Ait'iri! ;r'-'; : •• ' '-' : ,'\^
GUIDANCE IN SPACE
COMMUNICATIONS
TRACKING

GLOSSARY OF SPACE TERMi','; "• '' • •

Inside Front Cov«r— Statement of President John P. Kennedy

Page 1— Statement of James E. Webb, NASA Administrator
Inside Back Cover— Statement of Hugh l_. Dryden, Deputy Administrator, NASA
 THE NATIONAL AERONAUTICS

AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

In the summer of 1958, Congress passed an act creating the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration. The act declared "that it is the policy of the United States that activities in
space should be devoted to peaceful purposes for the benefit of mankind." On October 1, 1958
this new agency was established.
Congress provided that aeronautical and space activities sponsored by the United States
shall be directed by this civilian agency, "except for activities peculiar to or primarily associated
with the development of weapons, military operations, or the defense of the United States."
The act further states: The aeronautical and space activities shall be conducted so as to con-
tribute materially to one or more of the following objectives:
The expansion of human knowledge of phenomena in the atmosphere and space;
The improvement of the usefulness, performance, speed, safety, and efficiency of
aeronautical and space vehicles;
The development and operation of vehicles capable of carrying instruments, equip-
ment, supplies, and living organisms through space;
The establishment of longe-range studies of the potential benefits to be gained from,
the opportunities for, and the problems involved in the utilization of aeronautical and
space activities for peaceful and scientific purposes;
The preservation of the role of the United States as a leader in aeronautical and space
science and technology and in the application thereof to the conduct of peaceful
activities within and outside the atmosphere;
The making available to agencies directly concerned with national defense of dis-
coveries that have military value or significance, and the furnishing by such agencies,
to the civilian agency established to direct and control non-military and space activi-
ties, of information as to discoveries which have value or significance to that agency;
Cooperation by the United States with other nations and groups of nations in work
done pursuant to this Act and in the peaceful application of the results thereof; and
The most effective utilization of the scientific and engineering resources of the United
States, with close cooperation among all interested agencies of the United States in
order to avoid unnecessary duplication of effort, facilities, and equipment.
WHAT IS SPACE?
Space has been defined as that part of the universe between—
and possibly beyond—celestial bodies. It may be infinite and limitless.
Man's knowledge is not yet comprehensive enough to tell him if there
are boundaries.
As far as man on Earth is concerned, space begins at the high
border of the Earth's atmosphere and extends to infinity. The atmosphere
of the Earth is divided into layers. The lowest layer is the troposphere.
The highest layer is the stratosphere. Where the stratosphere fades into
nothingness—there space begins.
Space is populated by stars and planets, by asteroids, meteoroids,
comets and satellites. For the past billions of years, perhaps, these
satellites have been, as far as we know, the creations of celestial nature.
Lately, very lately in the cosmic time span, man has added satellites
of his own making.
Natural celestial bodies in space range in size from microscopic
up to colossal. They number in billions times billions.
Space, man believes, is airless except as some planets may create
their own atmospheres. It may contain life as we know it or it may con-
tain life that is strange and unknown to Earth. It may contain no life.
Space is as cold as absolute zero on some of its frozen bodies and
as hot as 50 million degrees Fahrenheit on others.
For as long as he has had the intelligence to realize space exists,
man has dreamed of escaping the layers of atmosphere which surround
his planet and of exploring the vastnesses of the universe which
lie beyond.

SEARCHING OUT THE UNKNOWN

Man's curiosity has always driven him to search out the unknown
and has led him to devise the means of exploring it. As man achieved
the technological advances which permitted him to reach space it was
inconceivable that he should not explore it. As it was impossible in
1492 to forecast the benefits of the voyages of Columbus, so it is impos-
sible now to foretell what man will gain from the exploration of space.
It is, however, safe to predict that in the long run the most important
and valuable return from space exploration will be the vast addition to
man's store of knowledge about the universe in which he lives.
Man will establish permanent stations in space — laboratories,
observatories, experimental testing platforms and way stations. He will
visit the Moon, Venus and Mars. He will send probes to more distant
planets and even the far distant stars. He will probably discover that
life exists in space. He may communicate with other beings in space.
Regardless of what form his exploration takes or what other results he
may achieve—man's greatest benefits will still be the knowledge he
brings back for the benefit of mankind.
Man's achievements in space since the first satellites were launched
only a few short years ago have been tremendous, but they pale to
feeble ventures in contemplation of future space explorations. Only government has spent billions on research, development, testing and
in the light of what man has already done could he possibly look ahead production in the space field. Thousands of scientists, engineers and
with the almost certain knowledge that many of the projects he now other technicians are engaged in space activities.
looks forward to will be realized. Space exploration has altered the trend of science. If you are a
Man dreams of visiting or at least taking a look at the other planets student at any level, space is probably affecting your studies. Before long
in our solar system. He casts an eye at the other stars of our galaxy, the it may alter your entire course of education.
Milky Way. Whatever age you may be it is probable that you come into almost
daily contact with some product or by-product which is the result of
BY STEP INTO SPACE space research.
Among the nine planets which revolve about our Sun, Earth ranks space and weather
only fifth in size. Pluto, a "neighbor" in our solar system, is more than
Satellites equipped with television cameras and infrared sensors are
3', 2 billion miles distant and yet it, like the Earth, is held in its orbit
making possible observations over areas not previously covered. They are
by the massive gravitational attraction of the Sun, and the Sun is one
also providing types of meteorological measurements which could not be
hundred times as massive as the largest planet in its family of nine.
obtained with other facilities. The reduction and analysis of these in-
Yet, this Sun itself is only a minor star. Its nearest neighboring star
creased data, particularly from areas otherwise lacking observation, will
is so far away that even billions of miles are too puny a measure of
distance. We must use instead the light year, the distance travelled in
one year at the speed of light. Light travels 186,300 miles per second,
making one light year about six trillion miles. Proxima Centauri, the
star nearest our Sun is 4'/i light years distance. The farthest galaxy man
can see through his biggest telescope is two billion light years distant.
Both Proxima Centauri and our Sun are stellar members of the
galaxy we call the Milky Way, a grouping of an estimated 200 billion
stars so immense it would take 100 thousand years at the speed of light
to traverse its length. And, this galaxy is only one of several billion
within the range of the world's largest telescope.
Viewed in man's terms of time and distance, the challenge of space
exploration might seem insuperable. Yet one has only to review the
technological accomplishments of mankind in the 20th century and the
"impossible" becomes merely "difficult."
Space does not submit readily to conquest. The exploration of
space is following the pattern by which man mastered flight within the
atmosphere, each new development providing a platform from which
to take the next step and each step an increment of scientific knowledge
and technological skill.
The first goal, of course, is the exploration of our own solar system.
This in itself is an assignment of awesome dimensions, but one which
few in a position to evaluate doubt can be accomplished. There are no
plans, at the present, for exploration beyond our solar system— only
dreams. But, who would say these dreams will not some day be realized.

THE EXPLORATION OF SPACE AND YOU Information from mosaic of TIROS

The exploration of space affects your life today; it will continue to (Meteorological Satellite) cloud pic-
affect your life more and more. tures (top) Is overlaid on map (cen-
Man's activities in space affect your thinking, your reading, your ter) and reduced to operational
weather data (bottom) for incorpora-
conversation and many facets of your everyday life. tion in Weather Bureau analyses and
Space exploration is an issue in national and world politics. Our forecasts.
TIROS MM ANALYSIS
01111 70S IIMOTI
20/0110Z MAY
lead to better short-range forecasts, and may eventually permit improved
long-range weather predictions.
With long-range prediction of rainfall or drought, communities
could better prepare for control of their water-sheds. Satellite observa-
tions may be expected to assist in providing warnings of tornadoes,
floods, blizzards, hurricanes, and other catastrophic weather, enabling
people to strengthen levees, take shelter, and make other preparations to
minimize loss. Weather-sensitive industries such as shipping, airlines,
agriculture, and construction would gain enormously by improved
weather forecasts that satellites can make possible. Increased meteoro-
logical knowledge attained by study of satellite data may eventually
enable man to modify weather to his advantage.
navigation by satellite
It is estimated there are 20 thousand surface craft at all times on
the Atlantic Ocean alone. Hundreds of aircraft crowd the skies over
much of the world. Accurate information as to his exact location has
become a necessity to the navigator of every sea or air craft.
Satellites can provide a reliable navi-
gation system, useful by day or night
In any weather.
By using time signals and a radar locating phenomenon known as
the Doppler Shift,* air and sea craft can receive information from
navigational satellites which will pinpoint their location any time of
day or night and in all kinds of weather.
communication via satellite
Sighted by millions as bright as a star moving across the evening
sky, the Echo I satellite dramatized for the world a new era in global
communications. Echo I, in conjunction with other experiments, proved
that man-made satellites can be employed for voice, record, and picture
communication on a world-wide scale.
Communications satellite systems offer a means for global televi-
sion and for other types of transoceanic communication not now pos-
sible. In addition, the communications industry appears unanimous in its
agreement that increased future demands for transoceanic telephone
and telegraph services can be supplied at less cost by satellite systems
than by laying new submarine cables.
Several types of communications satellite systems are being studied.
One would be made up of huge aluminized plastic spheres substantially
larger than the 100-foot diameter Echo I. These are called passive satel-
lites because telephone and other messages are sent by bouncing radio
waves from the satellites' reflective surfaces, much as a ball is bounced
*The Doppler principle was set forth in 1842 by Christian Johann
Doppler of Prague. He discovered that if the distance is changing
between an observer and a source of constant vibration, the wave num-
ber appears to become greater than the true values if the distance
between the observer and the source is being diminished—and appears
to be less as this distance becomes greater. This is true of such constant
vibrations as sound or light. The Doppler principle is applied to electro-
magnetic radiation in connection with radio and radar equipment to
determine the speed and distance of moving objects in the air or in
space. As measured from a ground station electromagnetic signals
change frequency as the satellite from which they are sent, approaches
and passes over a ground station. (This is known as the Doppler Shift.)
By measurement of this shift, the future orbit of the satellite can be
accurately predicted for as long as several days ahead. In the satellite
navigation system, this Doppler Shift can be checked automatically by
a ground station against a time and frequency standard. This informa-
tion is teletyped to a computing center where the satellite's position is
accurately computed. Since the Doppler Shift is a direct measure of the
rate of change of distance when the transmitter and the receiver are at
a known location on the ground, future positions of the satellite can be
} calculated. (The satellite's orbit is governed by astronomical laws.)
The navigator either in the air or at sea receives this data from the
ground station. Thus knowing the satellite's positions at future times, the
navigator can combine this information with other signals received from
the satellite to determine his own position on the surface of the Earth.
Active-Repeater Satellite Systems -Medium
Altitude (top), Synchronous Orbit (right).

Bright as a star moving across the evening

sky, Echo I tested feasibility communica-
tions satellites

off a wall. Passive satellites require no complicated instrumentation.

Another system would employ "active-repeater" satellites. Such
satellites are equipped with radio receivers and transmitters and other
instruments to receive, store, amplify, and retransmit messages. They
serve in effect as microwave towers in the sky.
Experimental programs are underway to test "active-repeater" satel-
lites in medium-altitude (about 5,000 miles above the Earth) orbits and
in high-altitude "synchronous" orbits (approximately 22,300 miles above
the equator). "Synchronous" satellites orbit the Earth in the same length
of time as the Earth takes for one full rotation on its axis (24 hours).
Thus, each satellite is fixed over one spot on Earth, like the relation of
a point on a wheel rim to the nearest point on the hub. To an observer
on Earth, the satellite would appear to stand still.
Eventually, operational communications satellite systems will be
developed which incorporate the most advantageous features of the ex-
perimental programs. Such systems would make world-wide television
broadcasts a reality and relieve the anticipated future overload on global
communications facilities.

Model of the orbiting astro-
nomical observatory (OAO).
The first unmanned Mercury Spacecraft to orbit the Earth photographed
the west African coast.
astronomical observations by satellite
Astronomers have always been hindered in their observations by
the Earth's atmosphere which, like a veil, distorts or blots out electro-
magnetic radiation from space. Orbiting astronomical observatories will
enable man to see the universe from a vantage point above the haze of
the atmosphere.
From such observatories, man will be able to acquire new informa-
tion about the nature and origin of our solar system. He will be able to
view in detail the physical features of the Moon, the canals of Mars, and
the day-to-day behavior of the Sun. Man will also be able to gather new
data about distant galaxies. Perhaps, man would even learn about the
existence of other solar systems such as ours and about other planets
which resemble Earth.
geodesy and space
Satellites are aiding in determining exact distances and precise
shapes of land and sea areas on Earth. Such information will advance
the preparation of accurate global maps.
medicine, mall and meals
The study of aerospace medicine promises benefits for mankind in
the treatment of heart and blood illnesses. Significant studies have been
made on human behavior and performance under conditions of great
stress, emotion and fatigue. Discoveries have been made as to what type
of man can best endure long periods of isolation and removal from his
ordinary environment. A derivative of hydrazine (isoniazid), developed
as a liquid space propellant, has been found to be useful in treating
tuberculosis and certain mental illnesses. And the space industry is
producing such reliable and accurate miniature parts—such as valves—
that they may someday be used to replace worn out human organs.
Mail is already being carried by rockets on a regular experimental
basis from Cuxhaven, Germany, to Baltic Sea islands. Although these
rockets do not actually leave the atmosphere, it is expected that in the
not too far distant future intercontinental postal rockets travelling in
and out of space will permit letters to be sent and answers received
on the same day.
Scientists and dieticians are working directly on the problem of
space feeding and nutrition. The information gained from this research
can have a profound influence on future food and agricultural processes.
This involves the growth of synthetic and new foods, and the process
of compressing large numbers of calories into pill size packages. It
involves also new methods of food growth and storage.
NEEDED: SPACE SCHOLARS
No enterprise in history has so stirred the human imagination as
the reaching of man into space.
New knowledge to cope with this new science is needed in almost
every branch of technology. This need encompasses the basic sciences of
physics, chemistry, engineering and mathematics. It also includes biology,
psychology and almost every field of medicine.
Many colleges and universities have been setting up courses dealing
with astronautics. From the degree of interest shown by high school
students and teachers it seems certain that many of the studies relating
to space will be incorporated into the high school curriculum.
 ckapier H
THE HISTORY OF SPACE FLIGHT
Illustration from first edition "of Jules Verne's From the
Earth to the Moon, published in 1865. Space ship pas-
sengers are enjoying weightlessness.
The beginnings of thought about space flight were a mixture of
imagination and vague concepts. The idea of leaving Earth to travel
to a distant world developed only as understanding of the universe and
the Solar System evolved.
In 160 B.C. a part of Cicero's Republic, entitled "Somnium
Scipionis" (Scipio's Dream), presented a conception of the whole uni-
verse, a realization of the comparative insignificance of Earth and the
visualization of a vast panorama in which appear "stars which we never
see from Earth." Lucian of Greece wrote his Vera Historia in 160 A.D.,
the story of a flight to the Moon. For centuries no further stories of
space travel appeared. Only with the renaissance of science and the
work of such men as Tycho Brahe, Copernicus, Kepler, Newton and
Galileo did men's minds again become receptive to the possibility of
travelling to other worlds.
In rapid succession, such writers as Cyrano de Bergerac, Voltaire,
Dumas, Jules Verne, Edgar Allan Poe, H. G. Wells and many other
lesser known authors filled the pages of literature with imaginative tales
of space travel.
Today one has only to go to the closest magazine stand or book
store to find similar stories. Dramatizations have appeared on the
motion picture screen, radio, television and the legitimate stage.
The history of rocket development is interwoven with evolving ideas
of the universe and space travel, because only with the rocket principle
is travel in space possible.
When the first rocket was fashioned remains a secret of the past,
but there is no doubt that the earliest known direct ancestor of our
present day rockets was a Chinese invention. In 1232 A.D., at Kai-
fung-fu the Chinese repelled attacking Mongols with the aid of "arrows
of flying fire." This was the first recorded use of rockets. These early
rockets reached Europe by 1258. They are mentioned in several 13th
and 14th century chronicles. In 1379 a lucky hit by a crude powder
rocket destroyed a defending tower in the Battle for the Isle of Chiozza.
This was during the third and last Venetian-Genovese war of the 14th
Century. The Genovese fleet sailed up the Adriatic, laid siege to and
took Chiozza, although later losing the war when the Venetians bottled
up the fleet in the Chiozza estuary.
The early 19th century brought a period of intense interest in the
military rocket. Great Britain's Sir William Congreve was the foremost
name in rocketry at that time. He developed a solid propellant rocket
which was used extensively in the Napoleonic Wars and the War of
1812. One of the more spectacular of the Congreve rocket achievements
was the razing of the greater part of Copenhagen in 1807.
As so often happens with articles designed for war use, the Con-
greve rocket was adapted to humanitarian purposes. The most useful
outgrowth was a life saving rocket first patented in Britain in 1838. This
device (using a Congreve rocket) carried a line from shore to a stranded
 vessel, enabling the distressed crew to be pulled back to shore on a
breeches-buoy. This rocket was subsequently used by coastal rescue units.
Congreve developed the black powder rocket to just about its
maximum capability. Almost a century passed before rocketry advanced.
In 1903 a Russian school teacher, Konstantin Ziolkovsky, published the
first treatise on space travel advocating the use of liquid fuel rockets.
This paper remained unknown outside Russia, and at that time little
attention was given it by other Russians.
While the theories of Ziolkovsky remained in obscurity, Hermann
Oberth, a Rumanian-German, and Robert H. Goddard, an American,
working separately, laid the basis for the age of modern rocketry. Pro-

Or. Goddard with one of his rockets at his Roswell, New Mexico shop, 1935.

March 16, 1926—a momentous day for rocket flight. Dr. Robert H. God-
dard, American rocket pioneer, launched first liquid fuel rocket at Auburn,
Massachusetts. Dr. Goddard stands beside rocket.

fessor Oberth provided the chief impetus for experimental rocket work
in Germany when, in 1923, he published his book, "The Rocket into
Interplanetary Space." Professor Oberth discussed many of the problems
still faced by present day rocket scientists and explained the theories
and mathematics involved in lifting an object from the surface of the
Earth and sending it to another world. The inspiration for the formation
of the German Society for Space Travel (Verein fur Raumschiffahrt)
came from Hermann Oberth's book. Both Oberth and Goddard favored
the liquid fuel rocket. Much of the rocket work done in Germany was
based upon the research and some of the patents of Dr. Goddard.
Dr. Goddard, a professor at Clark University in Massachusetts,
sent a finished copy of a 69-page, manuscript to the Smithsonian Institu-
tion in 1919 as a report on the investigations and calculations that had
occupied him for several years. This paper entitled, "A Method of Reach-
ing Extreme Altitudes", caught the attention of the press because of a
small paragraph on the possibility of shooting a rocket to the moon and
exploding a load of powder on its surface.
Almost simultaneously with the publication of this paper, Dr. God-
dard concluded that a liquid fuel rocket would overcome some of the
difficulties encountered with the pellets of powder he had used to power
his rockets. For the next six years, Dr. Goddard worked to perfect his
ideas. By 1926 he was ready for an actual test flight. On March 16 of
that year the world's first liquid fuel rocket was launched. The flight,
while not spectacular in distance covered (184 feet), did prove this
type of rocket would perform as Dr. Goddard had expected.
Public reaction to the increasing noise and size of Dr. Goddard's
10 rockets forced him to leave Clark University for the southwestern
United States where he could continue his work in more open spaces
without endangering his neighbors. Through continual improvement,
his rockets reached 7,500 feet by 1935 and speeds of over 700 miles
per hour.
By the late 1930's Dr. Goddard was recognized, at least in pro-
fessional circles, as probably the world's foremost rocket scientist. His
work and patents were well known for years to the German Society for
Space Travel. Members of this society developed the German V-2
guided missile used during World War II.
American rocket enthusiasts formed the American Interplanetary
Society in 1930, later changing their name to the American Rocket
Society. The test firings and meetings of this group stimulated a grow-
ing awareness of rocketry and its capabilities in the American public.
Many members of this early society are responsible for current space
programs.
The first instrumented rocket was launched by Dr. Robert H.
Goddard on July 17, 1929. Its instruments consisted of a barometer and
a thermometer with a small camera focused to record their readings at
maximum altitude.
On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union put the first man-made Delta launch vehicle carrying TIROS
satellite, Sputnik I, into orbit. On January 31, 1958, the United States III meteorological satellite rises from
launch pad at Cape Canaveral, Flor-
launched its first satellite, Explorer I. ida. July 12, 1961.
The world then entered the Age of Space.
Blockhouse 34, Cape Canaveral, Flor-
ida, during first flight test of 1.5-mil-
lion-pound-thrust Saturn, October 27,
1961.
American Rocket Society members ground test a liquid fuel rocket in 1935.
 'THE SOLAR SYSTEM
URANUS
•-K \?»»'
JUPITER '•*••.
SATURN
The solar system man hopes to explore is tiny in relation to the
universe as a whole, but it is an area of tremendous magnitude in Earth
terms. Its primary, our Sun, is a star located at the center of the system
with nine planets revolving around it in near-circular orbits. Some of
the planets, like Earth, have natural satellites of their own (Jupiter has
twelve), and there are thousands of other bodies moving within the
system.
The planets are held in their orbits by the Sun's gravity. They all
move in the same direction around the Sun and their orbits lie in nearly
the same plane, with Pluto the exception. Their orbital speeds are higher
near the Sun. Mercury, the planet nearest the Sun, makes a circuit in
88 days. Earth's period of revolution is 365 VA days. Distant Pluto, more
than three and a half billion miles from the Sun takes 248 Earth years
to make one circuit.
THE SUN
The Sun represents more than 99 per cent of the total mass of the
solar system. Its mass is 330,000 times that of Earth's and its volume
more than a million times greater. The surface temperature of the Sun
is about 10,300 degrees F. and the temperature at the interior some
50 millions of degrees F.
Every eleven years, the number of dark spots on the solar surface,
called sun spots, reaches a maximum. These spots show strong magnetic
fields. During the maximum of a sun spot period, the Sun shows marked
12 activity in shorter "wavelengths"—X-rays and ultraviolet radiation.
NEPTUNE
Frequent solar eruptions and solar flares occur. These produce definite
effects on Earth, such as ionospheric disturbances, magnetic storms,
interruptions of radio communications, unusual auroral displays and a
lowering of the average cosmic ray intensity. Giant solar flares are a
hazard to manned space exploration in that they may subject man to
dangerously lethal doses of radiation. These major flares can be charted,
however, and probably avoided.
THE EARTH
The Earth is fifth in size among the nine planets. It has a diameter
of 7,927 miles at the equator and 7,900 miles at the poles. The Earth's
circumference is about 25,000 miles and it has an area of approximately
196,950,000 square miles. It travels around the Sun an average speed
of 18.52 miles per second.
Life on Earth is sustained by the light and the heat of the Sun.
Earth's weather and even its atmospheric conditions are greatly affected
by solar energy.
Atmospheric pressure at the surface of the Earth amounts to about
one ton per square foot. This pressure decreases as the altitude increases.
Thus, 99 per cent of the atmosphere lies below 20 miles and all but
one-millionth of the atmosphere lies below 60 miles.
Although there is no exact or recognized boundary, this fact has
led many space scientists and space writers to place the beginning of
space—as far as Earth is concerned—at 60 miles above the Earth's
surface.
THE MOON
The Moon is a satellite of the Earth and revolves about Earth from
west to east every 27 days, 7 hours and 43 minutes. It accompanies
Earth on its annual revolution about the Sun. The Moon's distance from
Earth varies from 221,463 miles when the Moon is at perigee (nearest
to the Earth) to 252,710 miles when the Moon is at apogee (farthest
from the Earth). The mean distance is 238,857 miles.
The Moon is 2,160 miles in diameter. Its mass is about one-
eightieth that of Earth and its volume one-forty-ninth. The area of the
Moon is about one-fourth the surface of the Earth and its circumference
about 6,800 miles.
Moon's orbit around Earth is an ellipse and its orbital speed aver-
ages 2,287 miles per hour. It travels faster near perigee and slower near
apogee. Because it rotates in exactly the same length of time as it takes
to revolve about Earth, the Moon always presents its same side toward
Earth. To all intents and purposes the Moon has no atmosphere and
probably never did have.
The Moon has definite mountain ranges and many of its areas are
covered with closely ranged peaks. Many of these tower 20,000 feet high
and some rise to nearly 30,000 feet. On the side visible to Earth, the
Moon has about 30,000 craters of varying depths, probably caused
by meteors.
Early day astronomers thought that certain dark areas of the
Moon were covered with water and named them seas and oceans.
Actually, the Moon has had no trace of water within historical time and
most astronomers believe that it is covered by a layer of dust.
From the scientific standpoint, exploration of the Moon is of great
importance. Having neither wind nor rain nor significant mountain-
building activity, the Moon's surface is almost changeless. Thus, the
Moon offers an opportunity to study the matter of the solar system
practically as it was billions of years ago. Such study may help answer
some of the key questions of science—how was the solar system created;
how did it develop; how did life originate?
THE PLANETS
The planets of the solar system, in order of distance from the Sun,
are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
and Pluto.
Of these, space explorers are most interested in Venus and Mars,
again because they are closest and because we know more about them.
The orbit of Mars is, of course, outside that of Earth. At most
favorable opposition. Mars is just over 34 million miles away (as com-
pared to the 221,463 miles which separate the Earth and the Moon at
most favorable opposition).
Mars and the Earth move about the Sun in the same direction but
not at the same speed or distance. Mars makes one revolution about the
Sun in 687 Earth days, while the Earth makes the same trip in 36514
days.
Mars has a diameter of 4,140 miles, a little more than half that
of Earth while its mass is only 0.1078 that of the Earth.
Mars has an atmosphere but not one in which man could live. It
has been compared to Earth's at an altitude of 56,000 feet. At the
Martian equator the temperature ranges from 50 degrees F. above zero
at noon to about 90 degrees F. below zero at night.
Mars is frequently called the red and green planet because to the
naked eye Mars appears as a dot of pale red. Through a telescope Mars
is ordinarily a reddish disc. At certain seasons of the Martian year green
areas appear. These may or may not be green vegetation conforming to
seasonal changes. After several months the green shades change to
yellow and finally into chocolate brown.
If these colors actually denote vegetation, most scientists believe it
to be some kind of lichen which can grow in very little soil, live on a
minimum of moisture and withstand extreme cold.
Most Earth scientists believe there is some form of primitive plant
life on Mars but discourage any speculation about little green men.
DESERT OK GREENHOUSE?
The orbit of Venus, inside that of the Earth, at times brings the
cloud covered planet to within 26 million miles, nearer to the Earth
than any of the other planets.
Venus has a diameter of 7,610 miles or just about 317 miles smaller
than the Earth. Its mass is 82 per cent of the Earth's and its surface
gravity 86 per cent of Earth's.
Venus has an atmosphere, but one so dense it completely prevents
Earth from getting any view of the actual surface. This atmosphere is
believed to be about 200 miles deep and is in the form of white clouds,
composed largely of carbon dioxide with probably some nitrogen. There
is no free oxygen or water vapor.
On the surface of Venus the day, temperature is about 150 degrees
F. while that of the dark or night side is a little below zero. Venus
rotates slowly. Its day is believed to be 15 to 30 Earth days. Venus orbits
the Sun in 225 Earth days.
There are two prevailing theories about life on Venus. One—the
most widely held—is that since there is no trace of water vapor or water
in the atmosphere of Venus it may be a dry and barren desert.
The second theory is that the carbon dioxide atmosphere seen from
Earth may be a shell around the planet—and that under this shell there
may be an atmosphere containing both water and oxygen. This could
make Venus a veritable global greenhouse—warm and wet with at least
the possibility of luxuriant vegetable growth. 13
 ckopter TV
SPACE PROBES AND SATELLITES-
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
MOTION OF BODIES IN SPACE
Any man-made vehicle launched into space will move in accord-
ance with the same laws that govern the motions of the planets about
the Sun, and the Moon about the Earth.
Prior to the time of Copernicus, man generally accepted the belief
that the Earth was the center of the solar system. His efforts to explain
the motion of the planets on this assumption failed. Copernicus pointed
out that the difficulties in explaining the planetary movement observa-
tions disappeared if one assumed that the Sun was the center of the solar
system, and that the planets revolved about the Sun.
Years later, Galileo took up the defense of Copernicus' theory.
With experiments such as the dropping of two different size masses from
the Leaning Tower of Pisa, he started the thinking which led to our
current understanding of the laws of motion.
In the early 17th century, Johannes Kepler formulated three laws
which described the motions of the planets about the Sun. They are:
1. Each planet revolves about the Sun in an orbit that is an ellipse,
with the Sun at one focus of the orbital ellipse.
2. The line from the center of the Sun to the center of a planet
(called the radius vector) sweeps out equal areas in equal periods of time.
3. The square of a planet's period of revolution is proportional to
the cube of its mean distance from the Sun.
These laws, together with Sir Isaac Newton's law of gravitation,
are important to space research. They make it possible to deduce mathe-
matically the motions of the planets and other bodies in the solar system
and to calculate flight paths to these bodies.
GRAVITY
Newton (in addition to his laws of motion) formulated the law of
gravitation, which is concerned with the mutual attraction, or "pull",
that exists between all particles of matter. In its most simple form,
Newton's law says this:
AH bodies, from the largest star in the universe to the smallest par-
ticle of matter, attract each other with what is called a gravitational pull.
The strength of their gravitational pull is dependent upon their
masses.
14 The closer two bodies are to each other, the greater their mutual
attraction. Specifically, the attraction varies inversely as the square of
the distance between the two bodies.
Earth, a body moving in space, has a gravitational pull. It pulls any-
thing within its sphere of influence toward the center of the Earth at
increasing speed. This acceleration of gravity on Earth at its surface is
used as a basic measi rement. It is known as one gravity or one "g".
Earth's gravitational influence is believed to extend throughout the
universe, although the force weakens with distance and becomes virtu-
ally impossible to measure.
Any vehicle moving in space is subject to gravity. The vehicle, hav-
ing mass, is itself a space body. Therefore it attracts and is attracted by
all other space bodies, although the degree of attraction of distant bodies
is too small to require consideration. A vehicle moving between the Earth
and the Moon would be influenced by both bodies, and also by the Sun.
SATELLITES AND SPACE PROBES
Man's activities in the field of space exploration have been con-
fined thus far to space probes and satellites.
A space probe has come to be known as any vehicle launched into
space which does not and is not intended to achieve Moon or planetary
orbit. (It may fall into Sun orbit.) It is an instrumented vehicle launched
into space for the purpose of obtaining new knowledge through the in-
struments it carries.
Sometimes the aim of such a probe is simply to make measurements
or gather data of any kind deep in space and without any particular
reference to any celestial body such as the Moon or a planet. In such
cases it is sufficient to simply project the object into space at speed great
enough to achieve the distance desired. In other instances, it may be
desired to project the space probe close to the Moon or Venus, for ex-
ample. In such cases exact guidance and timing requirements must be
met. Velocity requirements vary for different missions.
A satellite is an attendant body which revolves about another body,
usually with reference to the solar system. (The body revolved about is
known as the primary.) Up until the last decade the term had been used
almost exclusively in reference to natural celestial bodies, such as the
Moon revolving about the Earth. Since 1957 it has also come to mean
a man-made body placed in orbit around the Earth or around any other
celestial body—and in such case is an artificial satellite.
An artificial satellite ot the Earth, for example, is simply a man-
made Moon. In revolving about the Earth it must obey the same laws
that the natural Moon does, and that the planets obey in revolving
about the Sun.
WHAT KEEPS A SATELLITE UP
Any satellite, whether natural or artificial remains in orbit through
the.action of two physical phenomena—gravity and centrifugal force.
To understand more completely these two phenomena, try a very
simple experiment.
Fasten a weight on the end of a string, hold the string in your hand
and swing the weight.
When the weight has reached "orbital" speed it will stretch the '
string in a straight line from your hand.
The weight is held in its orbital position by the centrifugal force
created by the swinging motion. The string duplicates the pull of gravity
from the center of Earth.
If the string breaks the weight will fly outward in a straight line. If
you slow the swinging motion the weight will tend to fall back toward
your hand, which represents the center of gravity.
The Earth itself is a satellite of the Sun. The Earth is held in its
position orbiting the Sun by the same two forces as the weight on the
string—the pull of the Sun's gravity and the centrifugal force of Earth's
circling speed, about 18.5 miles per second.
This speed creates a centrifugal force which, for all practical pur-
poses, exactly equals the pull of gravity from the Sun.
Thus, it is held in constant orbital position. If the Sun's gravity
should increase, Earth would be pulled into it. If the Earth's speed should
increase it would fly away from the Sun.
A man-made satellite around any cosmic body is in exactly the
same physical situation as Earth in relation to the Sun or as the weight
on the string. Its speed in orbit creates sufficient centrifugal force to with-
stand the pull of gravity from the primary and thus keeps it "up".
LAUNCHING A SATELLITE INTO ORBIT
To place a satellite in orbit it is necessary to accelerate the vehicle
to orbital velocity. This velocity, of course, provides the centrifugal force
which counteracts the gravitational attraction of the Earth (See Figure 1).
Since this gravitational attraction decreases with the distance from
its center of gravity (the Earth in case of an Earth orbit) a different
orbital velocity is required for each distance from the primary.
In every case, the velocity must produce the amount of centrifugal
force needed to balance the pull of gravity.
For a satellite relatively close to Earth, around 200 miles, the
velocity required is about 18,000 miles per hour.
A vehicle placed in orbit as far away as the Moon (roughly 240,000
miles) would need only to have an orbital velocity of about 2,000 miles
an hour.
This does not mean that the far-out orbit would be easier. Consider-
able additional force must be used to push a satellite out to that distance.
It is virtually impossible to launch a satellite into an exactly circu-
lar orbit. (For one reason the Earth is not precisely circular.) Usually,
their paths are elongated circles or ellipses. The perigee (distance nearest
the Earth) may be only a hundred or so miles while the apogee (distance
farthest from the Earth) may be several thousand miles in some of the
more exaggerated ellipses.
A satellite launched into an orbit parallel to and 22,300 miles over
the equator is termed "synchronous," "fixed," or "stationary." This satel-
lite will take about 24 hours to complete one trip around the world, the
same time the Earth takes for one full rotation on its axis. Therefore,
the satellite remains fixed more or less over one spot on Earth. To a
ground observer, the satellite would appear to stand still.
ESCAPE VELOCITY
Any space probe or satellite launched on a space exploration mis-
sion must achieve escape velocity, that is, must overcome the pull of
Earth's gravity. This is done by accelerating the vehicle to a given speed.
Since the force of Earth's gravity declines with distance from the center
of Earth (as noted before) the minimum speed required to overcome
gravity varies.
At or near the Earth's surface, the speed required to overcome
gravity is slightly more than seven miles a second or 25,000 miles an

If Earth's gravity suddenly vanished, object would follow ••••••••••

straight line path into space.
Object will be pulled back to Earth along this path if gravita-
tional attraction exceeds centrifugal force of object.
Orbit of satellite which will be circular only if the launching
velocity and angle are precisely correct for a given altitude
above the Earth; otherwise an elliptical orbit will result.
 hour. At an altitude of 500 miles from the surface, the speed require-
ment drops to 23,600 miles an hour and at an altitude of 5,000 miles it
is only 16,630 miles an hour.
The minimum speed at which an object overcomes gravity is known
as "escape velocity".
Imagine a rocket leaving the surface of the Earth. It flies away from
Earth at a gradually decreasing speed until the force of Earth's gravity
succeeds in pulling it back to Earth.
The rocket we are imagining follows an elongated path which is
BP^BBB Parabolic path followed by probe reaching escape velocity
(from surface of Earth 25,000 miles per hour).
• ••••• Elliptical paths followed by probes not reaching escape
16 velocity.
part of an ellipse. Increasing the velocity of the spacecraft causes the
elliptical path to become more and more elongated and the spacecraft
travels farther into space.
If the velocity reaches 25,000 miles an hour, the ellipse never closes
itself. Instead, it extends on out to infinity and the spacecraft has com-
pletely escaped from the Earth's gravitational power. (See figure 2.)
Actually, the gravitational field of the Earth is not ended. This field
is permanent and extends to infinity, and will continue to do so as long
as the mass known as Earth remains. However, strength of this field does
decrease with distance, as we have said. Thus, if the space vehicle is
given a great enough initial momentum, even though it still feels the
effect of lessening gravity, it will continue outward never to return.
This is somewhat analogous to rolling a ball up a smooth, friction-
less hill whose slope is continuously decreasing. (The slope of the hill
compares to the force of gravity.) If the ball is not rolled fast enough, it
will gradually slow until its velocity is exhausted. At this point it will
momentarily pause before rolling back down hill, arriving at the bottom
at the same velocity at which it left. There are several ways to succeed
in getting the ball up the hill: (I) throw it with greater initial force; (2)
carry it part way up the hillside before throwing: or (3) apply continual
force until the top is reached.
Similarly—in space exploration a vehicle may be launched into
space by application of the same principles mentioned above. As in (1)
we can provide sufficient initial thrust to accelerate a rocket to 25,000
miles an hour, total escape velocity. It is possible to do this with a single
stage vehicle if we provide it with sufficient power to give it the thrust
necessary before burn out. The second method (2) involves using some
method to get the vehicle through the lower atmosphere while reserving
additional thrust for later stages of the flight through the upper and less
dense atmosphere and into space. This had been done by using a balloon
as a launch platform. That is, the balloon carries the space vehicle
through the lower atmosphere before launching. It is also possible to
use an aircraft to achieve this initial altitude as in the X-15 which is
launched from a B-52 aircraft. Normally, however, this first thrust
through the atmosphere is accomplished by using another rocket. The
third method of the analogy (3)—that of applying continual power—is
possible but not efficient with present propulsion systems.
Spacecraft launchings today are, as we said, usually accomplished
by the second method. Two or more rockets are placed on top of each
other and constructed so that the stages fire in sequence. The velocity
increases because each succeeding rocket before firing is travelling with
the velocity achieved by the preceding stage. In addition, the gravita-
tional attraction is less because of the altitude already reached by the
earlier stages. Lack of drag from atmospheric friction at high altitudes
also provides an advantage.
 r "V
UNMANNED SATELLITES AND
SOUNDING ROCKETS
This chapter describes other space programs in which satellites and
sounding rockets are employed to increase knowledge about the Earth
and its cosmic environment and about the universe. In the few short
years since orbiting of the first artificial satellite, man has gained from
his satellites and sounding rockets new and often startling knowledge
about Earth and the portion of space which surrounds it. Among these
findings are:
• Discovery of the two intense Van Allen Radiation Zones in space
around the Earth.
• Determination that the Earth is pear-shaped with the stem end
at the North Pole, and not a sphere flattened at the poles.
• Verification of a theory that sunlight exerts pressure.
• Mapping of the magnetic fields girdling the Earth.
• Increased understanding of the effects of solar events on the
upper atmosphere.
A resume of United States programs for the exploration and prac-
tical utilization of space by means of unmanned instrumented satellites
and sounding rockets is presented below.
SCIENTIFIC SATELLITES AND SOUNDING ROCKETS
EXPLORER—Explorer 1, launched on January 31, 1958, started
the space age for the United States. It was the first U.S. satellite launched
into orbit. Its launch vehicle was a modified Redstone with upper stages.
It carried a payload of 30.8 pounds designed to check cosmic rays, micro-
meteoroids and temperature. Explorer made what is usually recognized
as the most important discovery of the International Geophysical Year—
the first or lower Van Allen Radiation Zone. Succeeding Explorers fur-
nished information on micrometeorords, temperatures in space, radia-
tion and magnetic storms, ion and electron composition of the ionosphere,
bchuvior of energetic particles, gumma rays streaming earthward from
the Sun and other cosmic sources; they mapped the Van Allen Radiation
Zones and the Earth's magnetic fields; and indicated that part of the
interplanetary magnetic field near the Earth may be an extension of the
Sun's magnetic field.
VANGUARD—Project Vanguard was inaugurated as part of the
American program for the IGY. The first Vanguard satellite went into
orbit on March 17, 1958, reaching an apogee (highest point) of 2,453
miles and a perigee (lowest point) of 409 miles. Its scientific payload
weighed 3(4 pounds and returned geodetic observations including the
Contours of Explorer satellites are about
as diverse as their missions:
Explorer X (above) to acquire data on
magnetic fields in space. (Launched
March 25, 1961.)
Explorer XII (top right) to gather data
on radiation and magnetic fields In
space. (Artist's conception) (Launched
August 16,1961.)
Explorer XIII (bottom right) to obtain
data on micrometeoroids (cosmic dust).
(Artist's conception) (Launched August
25, 1961.)
determination that the Earth was slightly pear-shaped. Vanguard I is
still in orbit and is expected to be for the next several hundred years.
One transmitter, powered by solar cells, has continued to send signals.
The second Vanguard was launched in February, 1959, with a pay-
load of 20-Vi pounds for weather data collection. The third Vanguard,
launched September, 1959, carried 50 pounds of instruments and pro-
vided a comprehensive survey of the Earth's magnetic field, detailed
location data on the lower edge of the Van Allen Radiation Zones, and
count of micrometeoroid impacts.
INTERNATIONAL IONOSPHERE SATELLITES—These satel-
lites are a series in the U.S. International Program. Experiments pre-
pared by foreign scientists will be carried in U.S. vehicles. Experiments
for the first launching were selected by United Kingdom scientists who
are building the experimental devices. It will be instrumented to deter- 17
 pounds of experimental equipment such as telescopes, spectrometers,
and photometers. The scientific equipment will be supplied NASA by
leading astronomers.
The standardized OAO shell, which will be employed for many
different types of missions, will contain stabilization, power, and telem-
etry systems. Two silicon solar-cell paddles and nickel-cadmium bat-
Model of United Kingdom
teries will furnish a minimum average usable power supply of 270 watts.
satellite to be launched The height of the satellite is about 9% feet with sun shade down.
by NASA for intensive The satellite is about 16.2 feet wide with solar paddles extended. Shell
study of ionosphere. width is about 6.6 feet.
Orbiting Solar Observatory (OSO)—OSO is a series of satellites
intended for intensive study of the Sun and solar phenomena from a
point above the disruptive effects of the atmosphere. The observatory
will carry such instruments as X-ray and Lyman Alpha spectrometers,
mine electron densities and measure solar radiation. A second U.K.-U.S. neutron flux sensors, and gamma ray monitors. Like OAO, OSO scien-
satellite is underway. A joint U.S.-Canada project, the swept-frequency tific equipment will be supplied NASA by leading astronomers.
topside sounder, designated Alouette, will apply the radio-echo technique
to the upper portions of the ionosphere. The instrumentation is being
built by the Canadians with the U.S. furnishing the launch vehicle. Orbiting Astronomical
STANDARDIZED SATELLITES—Several types of standardized Observatory (OAO)
satellites are being developed, including the orbiting solar, astronomical,
and geophysical observatories.
The standardized satellite is a basic structure, complete with power
supply, telemetry, data storage facilities and other fundamental equip-
ment. Its modular compartments will be capable of carrying many differ-
ent experiments on any one mission. Thus far, U.S. satellites have been
custom designed and custom built, each for its own mission. This has
been necessary due to the number of launch vehicles employed and the
embryonic state of space science and technology. This new approach—
a standardized vehicle capable of performing many different missions—
is intended to save both time and money. Each of the standardized
satellite's modules will be a simple, plugged-in electronic building block.
Thus the structure can be fabricated independently, with any experiment
designed to fit one or more modules.
Orbiting Astronomical Observatory (OAO)—Man's study of the
universe has been narrowly circumscribed because the atmosphere blocks Orbiting Geophysical
much radiation from space and distorts that which reaches Earth. OAO Observatory (OGO)
will make it possible to observe the universe from a vantage point above
the shimmering haze of the atmosphere.
OAO will see celestial bodies shining steadily against a black back-
ground. It will clearly delineate features which from the Earth are either
fuzzy or indistinguishable. Astronomers predict that OAO will furnish a
wealth of new knowledge about the solar system, stars, and composition
of space.
OAO will be a precisely stabilized 3,200-pound satellite in a cir-
18 cular orbit about 475 miles above the Earth. It will carry about 1,000 Orbiting Solar Observatory (OSO)
 Early OSO satellites will be about 37 inches high, 44 inches in
diameter at the wheel-shaped section, and weigh about 350 pounds.
OSO will be launched into a circular orbit about 300 miles above the
Earth. Power supply will originate from solar cells and nickel-cadmium
batteries.
Orbiting Geophysical Observatory (OGO)—OGO is a standardized
satellite that can carry 50 different geophysical experiments on a single
mission. Scientific instruments may vary from mission to mission but
the basic satellite structure will be the same.
OGO will be launched on a regular schedule into preassigned trajec-
tories. When launched into an eccentric orbit (perigee about 150 miles,
apogee about 60,000 miles), OGO becomes EGO (Eccentric Geophysical
Observatory). EGO will study energetic particles, magnetic fields, and
other geophysical phenomena requiring such an orbit. Nike-Cajun Sounding Rocket
When launched into a low-altitude polar orbit (apogee about 500
miles, perigee about 140 miles) OGO is POGO (Polar Orbiting Geo-
physical Observatory). In this orbit, it will be instrumented chiefly for
study of the atmosphere and ionosphere, particularly over the poles.
OGO will be about six feet long and three feet square, excluding
solar paddles, and weigh about 900 pounds, including 150 pounds of
instruments. Later versions may weigh about 1,500 pounds and include a atmosphere and space were with sounding rockets. The first were accom-
spherical piggy-back satellite. Certain experimental sensors will be placed plished by the early rocket societies in several countries and more not-
on booms extending from OGO because they might be affected by the ably by Dr. Robert Goddard. Sounding rockets may be of one or more
satellite's body. Solar cells and nickel-cadmium batteries will provide stages. Generally speaking they are designed to attain altitudes up to
an average power supply of 50 watts. about 4,000 miles and return data by telemetry or capsule recovery.
DISCOVERER (U.S. AIR FORCE)—Using a Thor-Agena booster, Those designed for lower altitude may simply investigate geophysical
the first Discoverer was launched February 28, 1959 with a 245-pound properties of the upper atmosphere surrounding the Earth. These have
instrument payload. It was the first U.S. satellite to be placed in polar returned information on atmospheric winds, the Earth cloud cover and
orbit, that is, it circled the Earth at the poles instead of the equator. the properties of the ionosphere. Higher altitude sounding rockets have
The next six Discoverers were launched with the primary mission sent back data on cosmic rays, the radiation belts, ultraviolet rays, solar
of testing experimental techniques for space cabin recovery either at sea flares and many other cosmic phenomena. Literally hundreds have been
or in mid-air. The first such recovery—by a ship-helicopter team at sea launched in this country and by other nations. When sounding rockets
—was accomplished on August 11, 1960 from Discoverer XII which pass the 4,000 mile altitude they are more normally called space probes
had been launched the day before. and deep space probes depending upon the distance of the flight. Some
The first mid-air recovery was Discoverer XIV at 8,000 feet by a U.S. sounding rockets have been especially designed and built for that
C-l 19 aircraft 360 miles southwest of Hawaii on August 18, 1960. The purpose while in other cases early missiles were combined to make up
reentry vehicle weighed 300 pounds and was ejected from the satellite sounding rocket vehicles.
by a timing device. Its descent was slowed by retrorocket and parachute. Typical of sounding rockets employed in scientific programs are:
In addition to checking recovery techniques the Discoverer satel- Aerobee—First fired November 14, 1947, Aerobee launchings in-
lites carried devices to gather data on propulsion, communications and cluded the solar beam experiment program to monitor background
orbital performance. Several other ejected pay loads have been recovered radiation from the Sun during quiet periods of solar activity; studies of
in mid-air. Discoverer XXI, launched in February, 1961, achieved the ultraviolet radiation of the stars and nebulae; gamma radiation studies
first successful start of an engine (the Agena) in space. and many other scientific programs.
Discoverer satellites have provided significant data on atmospheric Nike—With upper stages, the Nike has been employed largely in
phenomena and on radiation in space. upper atmosphere experiments, the most well-known of which are the
SOUNDING ROCKETS—Man's first adventures into the upper sodium vapor shots. In these, the rockets release a sodium vapor along 19
 their trajectories which glows orange in twilight and can be observed
from great distances. Purpose of these experiments is to study high-
altitude winds.
Argo—Argo rockets have been utilized in a number of experiments,
the most spectacular of which was NERV (Nuclear Emulsion Recovery
Vehicle). On September 19, 1960, a four-stage Argo D-8 fired an 83.6
pound NERV from Point Arguello, California, to a maximum altitude of
1,260 miles. NERV carried a nuclear emulsion (a photographic film
extremely sensitive to charged particles) which was exposed during flight
to record radiation particles. NERV was recovered in the Pacific Ocean
about 1,300 miles from Point Arguello. Its emulsion has provided signif-
icant data on radiation, particularly in the Van Allen Radiation Zones.
APPLICATION SATELLITES
ECHO—Echo I, orbited on August 12, 1960, proved that it is pos-
sible to communicate between distant areas on Earth by reflecting radio
microwaves from a man-made satellite. Echo I is fabricated of alumi-
num-vapor-coated polyester film .0005 inch thick (about half the thick-
ness of the cellophane wrapping on a cigarette package). It is 100 feet
in diameter and weighs 132 pounds. Radio signals are literally bounced
off the satellite from one point on the Earth to another.
Echo's 31,000 square feet of surface space reflected hundreds of
transmissions—including teletype signals, facsimile photographs, two-way
telephone conversations, transcontinental and transatlantic signal relays.
Successors of Echo I will be 135 feet in diameter and have 20 times
the rigidity of Echo I. Each advanced Echo is made up of a laminate of
aluminum foil and polymer plastic about .00075 inch thick. It weighs
20 about 600 pounds.
TELEMETRY ANTENNAS
TWT POWER SUPPIV
RADIATION EFFECTS
RECEIVER EXCITER
Project Relay DECODER
RECEIVER i
Satellite (right) SUB CARRIER DEMOO
Nuclear Emulsion RECEIVER « TWT EXCITER
Recovery Vehicle RADIATION SENSORS
(NERV) (left)
'IDE BAND ANTENNA
REBOUND—In Project Rebound, three advanced Echo passive
communications satellites will be orbited by a single launch vehicle. Such
multiple sphere launchings are desirable because operational communi-
cations systems will require many satellites.
The United States and cooperating nations abroad will conduct
various communications experiments with the Rebound satellites which
will have circular orbits about 1,500 miles above the Earth. The initial
orbit of Echo I averaged about 1,000 miles above the Earth.
RELAY—Project Relay is NASA's program for determining the
feasibility of and developing the technology for a communications satel-
lite system which can receive, amplify, and retransmit messages. Relay
is an "active-repeater" satellite. Unlike passive satellites such as Echo
and Rebound which reflect signals and have no communications equip-
ment, active satellites carry receivers, transmitters, and other electronic
equipment. They would serve in effect as microwave towers in the sky.
A number of foreign nations plan to join with the United States in
communications experiments with the Relay satellite.
At first the 125-pound Relay satellites will be placed in elliptical
orbits ranging from 1,000 to 3,000 miles above the Earth. Later, the
altitudes may be extended to 6,000 miles.
In the first experiments, Relay satellites will traverse the lower Van
Allen Radiation Zone. Among the objectives of Relay is to evaluate the
effects of such radiation on communications equipment and solar cells
and to measure radiation encountered. Barrel-shaped, Relay is 29 inches
high and 26 inches in diameter, excluding antennas.
SYNCOM—Syncom is an experiment employing "active-repeater"
satellites in "synchronous" orbits for a global communications system.
"Synchronous" satellites, orbiting at 22,300 miles above the equator,
travel around the world in the same time that it takes the Earth to rotate
around its axis. Such satellites, therefore, are relatively stationary over
one point on Earth.
The potential advantage of a "synchronous" communications satel-
lite system is that fewer satellites, theoretically as little as three, are
needed for global coverage than if lower-altitude satellites are used.
However, such high-altitude satellites present certain technological
difficulties.
NASA does not intend to place Syncom in ? . equatorial orbit but
in an orbit inclined about 30 degrees to the ' juator. Because of this,
Syncom will travel north and south across the equator but remain fixed
more or less about a given longitude. Later satellites of this type will
be placed in an equatorial orbit where they will appear stationary to a
terrestrial observer.
Syncom weighs 55 pounds, excluding the solid propellant motor
which will help place it in circular orbit. Syncom is 28 inches in diam-
eter, 25 inches in length. Twenty watts of power will be supplied by
solar cells and nickel-cadmium batteries. The satellite's communications
equipment radiates 2'/i watts of radio frequency power.
TELSTAR—Telstar is an experimental "active-repeater" com- TELSTAR AT & T Satellite (top)
munications satellite developed by the American Telephone and Tele-
graph Company at its own expense. Telstar satellites will be launched
into elliptical orbits approximately 600 miles from the Earth at perigee
Model of Advent Communica-
and 3,000 miles at apogee. The spherically shaped 34-inch-diameter tions Satellite (right)
satellites will weigh about 150 pounds. In addition to communications
equipment, Telstar will carry a radiation measurement experiment.
Under a cooperative agreement, NASA will provide launching and
SYNCOM Active-Repeater
Communications Satellite (left)

COMMUNICATIONS.
"ANTENNA

tracking facilities and equipment and range and launch crew services for
satellites; AT&T will reimburse NASA for all facilities, materials, and
services; AT&T will report to NASA all experimental data and project
VERNIER
ROCKETS
results; and NASA will make these reports available to the world tech-
nical and scientific community.
ADVENT—In Project Advent, the U.S. Army is conducting re-
search and development to demonstrate the feasibility of long-distance
NITROGEN communication by "active-repeater" satellites in orbits 22,300 miles
GAS JETS
above the equator. Because the orbital period of satellites at these alti-
APOGEE
"ROCKET MOTOF; tudes is synchronous with the Earth's rotation, each Advent satellite
would appear to be stationary more or less over a point on Earth. Three
such satellites, spaced 120 degrees apart around the equator, could
provide virtually world-wide communication coverage. 21
TELEMETRY , SOLAR ANGLE
ANTENNAS / SENSORS
 transistors.
included 4 transmitters,
antennas, 4 whip antennas, a VHP diplexerT
space backup equipment. It received, stored and transmitted me
sent to it from several points on Earth, effectively proving the feasibility
of a satellite communications system.
Courier had an initial apogee (maximum altitude in orbit) of 658
miles, and perigee (minimum altitude in orbit) of 501 miles. It operated
successfully until October 23, 1960, when an undetermined malfunc-
tion rendered it inoperative.
SCORE—Score, a U.S. Army communications satellite, launched
December 18, 1958, accomplished the first transmittal of the human
voice from space. Its payload was 150 pounds of receiving, recording,
and transmitting apparatus. Among the messages it recorded and relayed
from ground stations was a 1958 U.S. Presidential Christmas message
to the world. Score operated successfully for the life of its chemical
batteries (approximately 30 days).
TRANSIT—Transit is a U.S. Navy program leading to an opera-
tional satellite system for world-wide all-weather navigation. The Transit
Courier Satellite (above) Transit IV-A Navigation Satellite (below) operational system, consisting of four satellites in proper orbit, will
provide accurate data for navigational fixes to ships and aircraft through-
out the world on an average of once every 1V4 hours. Transit I-B was
launched April 13, 1960, carrying a payload weight of 265 pounds.
This included two ultra-stable oscillators, an infrared scanner, two tele-
metering receivers and transmitters plus solar cells and nickel-cadmium
batteries for power. Transit I-B proved the feasibility of an all-weather
navigation satellite system.
The launch of Transit II-A, on June 22, 1960, was the first U.S.
experiment to put two payloads in orbit simultaneously. The satellites
were attached to each other and separated by a spring, just after going
into orbit. Data from Transit II-A were used in a continuing geodetic
study program.
Transit III-B, launched February 21, 1961, was the first satellite in
the Transit program to include as part of its instrumentation a memory
system. (A memory system enables Transit to receive information on its
orbital parameters [orbital path data] from an injection station and to
give this information to ships or aircraft for use in computing their
locations.) Tests with the Transit III-B memory system proved the feasi-
bility of injecting data into and recovering data from the satellite.
Transit IV-A, launched June 29, 1961, carried the first nuclear
power system into space, a SNAP (System for Nuclear Auxiliary Pro-
pulsion) type generator. This SNAP generator, shaped like a slightly
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 Man has been defying the elements since he appeared on Earth.
Driven by the necessity of survival, by his love of adventure and by an
insatiable curiosity where the unknown is concerned, he has braved the
oceans, the mountains, the deserts andfinally—the skies.

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since that time—slowly atfirstand then by great leaps. The sound
barrier (about 735 miles an hour) was broken in 1947. Present day
aircraftflyregularly at twice that speed. The X-15 has flown 4,093
miles an hour.
Now, in space, man has achieved altitudes measured in hundreds
of miles and speeds measured in thousands of miles per hour.
As far as the rigid requirements of space travel are concerned, man
is not the most efficient mechanism. He requires an environment very
close to the life he has always led. In order to survive he needs—
adequate oxygen, barometric pressure, temperature control and the
elimination of toxic agents. He is a relatively heavy object and the
equipment required to protect him in spaceflightof even short duration
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THE FIRST SPACE FLIGHTS

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how Mercury la launched
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whose three rocket engines produce a thrust of 360,000 pounds.
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same as for the suborbitalflightsmade by Astronauts Shepard and
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Mercury spacecraft about two hours before launch time.
During this two-hour wait, he is occupied making a series of checks
of the vehicle's instruments and equipment. Now and throughout the
flight he is in constant communication with the familiar and friendly
voice of another astronaut in the Control Center on the ground at Cape
Canaveral, the launch site.
As the countdown ends, the Atlas, with Mercury at the top, rises
slowly atfirstand then gains speed with altitude. After two minutes of
flight, the Atlas engines burn out and the escape tower, now unneeded,
is jettisoned.
Atfiveminutes the remaining engine burns out and the spacecraft
separates from the launch vehicle. Small jet rockets turn the spacecraft
around, blunt nosefirst,as it goes into orbit. The altitude is a little over
100 miles and the speed about 17,500 miles an hour.
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force of its motion equalizes the pull of gravity from Earth. Conse-
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 the Earth or aboard the craft or it can also be in a form of star tracking.
One of the basic requirements of the inertia! system is that the
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which can obtain a fix once it is out of the atmosphere, this necessity
is eliminated. The star tracker supplies the information by taking a fix
on a predetermined star and then computing the position of the space-
craft relative to Earth.
The use of command or radio guidance, of course, requires that
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Celestial bodies emit infrared rays. These rays can be detected by
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infrared guidance.
COMMUMIOI r/OMS
Telemetry in its modern usage refers primarily to the utilization
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In unmanned space exploration, telemetry has helped perfect the
design of every vehicle by monitoring its performance during flight.
When a space vehicle fails, the data which has been telemetered back
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In manned flight, telemetered signals supplement the messages
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equipment on the ground which would be much too heavy to carry in
the space vehicle.
The power required to send telemetered signals from satellites and
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and television stations. Signals of the five-watt transmitter of Pioneer V
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voice system of U» 6. Kano, Nigeria
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TRACKING tracking and data (East African Coast)
NASA operates k ^^ d ^

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 Boost-glide vehicle: A rocket-boosted winged vehicle under aerodynamic
control capable of leaving the atmosphere, entering space and re-
entering the atmosphere by gliding.
Burnout: The point in time or trajectory when the propellant of the
spacecraft is exhausted or cut off, resulting in the end of combustion.
Celestial mechanics: The study of motion in space, natural or man-made.
Centrifugal force: The apparent force tending to carry an object away
from a center of rotation.
Circular velocity: The speed required to maintain a body in circular orbit.
Cislunar: Space between the Earth and Moon.
Closed ecological system: A system which provides for the body's
metabolism in a spacecraft by means of cycling carbon dioxide,

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down ends with T-time, that is "T minus 60 minutes" indicates

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countdown narrows down to seconds, "4-3-2-1 -blastoff."
Deceleration: Negative acceleration (slowing down).
Doghouse: A protuberance or blister that houses an instrument on an
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Doppler principle: A principle of physics that states, "as the distance

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Egads button: A button used by the range safety officer to destruct a

missile inflight.The word "egads" is an acronym for Electronic
Ground Automatic Destruct Sequencer.
Environmental space chamber: A chamber (sometimes a simulated
spacecraft) in which humidity, temperature, pressure, fluid con-
tents, noise and movement may be controlled so as to simulate dif-
ferent space conditions. It is normally used for astronaut training.
Escape velocity: The velocity which if attained by an object will permit
it to overcome the gravitational pull of the Earth or other astro-
nomical body and to move into space. The escape velocity from
Earth's gravityfieldis approximately seven miles per second.
Fission: The release of nuclear energy through splitting of atoms.
Flight profile: It is the graphic portrayal of the spacecraft's line of flight
as seen from the side, indicating the various altitudes along the route.
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