TEXTILE TERMS

1. Textile - A general term for fibers, yarn intermediates, yarn, fabrics, and products made from
fabrics that retain more or less completely the strength, flexibility and other typical properties
of the original fiber or filaments.
2. Fiber - A unit of matter, either natural or manufactured, that forms the basic element of
fabrics and other textile structures. A fiber is characterized by having a length at least 100
times its diameter or width. The essential requirements for fibers to be spun into yarn include
a length of at least 5 millimeters, flexibility, cohesiveness, and sufficient strength. Other
important properties include elasticity, fineness, uniformity, durability, and luster.
3. Staple Fibers - Natural fibers of short length are known as staple fibers.
4. Natural Fibers - Class name for various genera of fibers (including filaments) of: (1) animal
(i.e., silk and wool); (2) mineral (i.e., asbestos); or (3) vegetable origin (i.e., cotton, flax, jute,
and ramie).
5. Filament - A fiber of an indefinite or extreme length such as found naturally in silk.
6. Manufactured Fibers - A class name for various genera of fibers (including filaments)
produced from fiber-forming substances which may be: (1) polymers synthesized from
chemical compounds, e.g., acrylic, nylon, polyester; (2) modified or transformed natural
polymers, e.g., cellulose-based fibers such as acetates and rayons; and (3) minerals, e.g.,
glasses. The term manufactured usually refers to all chemically produced fibers to distinguish
them from the truly natural fibers such as cotton, wool, silk, flax, etc.
7. Yarn - Yarn is a continuous strand of fibrous material, twisted together, having sufficient
strength and which can be spun in to yarn. This yarn is further used to make fabrics either by
weaving or knitting or any other method.
8. Spun Yarn - A yarn consisting of staple fibers usually bound together by twist.
9. Spinning - The process or processes by which fibers are drawing, drafted, twisted together
and are wound on to the package.
10. Fabric - A planar textile structure produces by interlacing yarns, fibers, or filaments.
11. Weaving - The method or process of interlacing two yarns of similar materials so that they
cross each other at right angles to produce woven fabric.
12. Warp - The set of yarn in all woven fabrics, that runs lengthwise and parallel to the selvage
and is interwoven with the weft.
13. Weft - In a woven fabric, the yarn running from selvage to selvage at right angles to the
warp. Each crosswise length is called a pick. In the weaving process, the weft yarn is carried
by the shuttle or other type of yarn carrier.
14. Knitting - A method of constructing fabric by interlocking series of loops of one or more
yarns.
15. Nonwoven - An assembly of textile fibers held together by mechanical interlocking in a
random web or mat, by fusing of the fibers (in the case of thermoplastic fibers), or by
bonding with a cementing medium such as starch, glue, casein, rubber, latex, or one of the
cellulose derivatives or synthetic resins.
CLASSIFICATION OF TEXTILE FIBERS

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END-USES OF FIBERS
1. Cotton
Cotton seed is fed to cattle and crushed to make oil.
The cotton seed oil is used for cooking and in products like soap, emulsifiers, cosmetics,
pharmaceuticals, rubber and plastics.
Cotton is a food and a fiber crop.
In addition to textile products like underwear, socks and t-shirts, cotton is also used in
fishnets, coffee filters, book binding, etc.
2. Flax
Flax fiber is used to make different apparel products like shirts, jackets, etc.
It is used to make bed sheets, pillow covers, etc.
Flax fiber is also used to make high quality papers.
It is used in medical textile also to make surgical threads.
3. Wool
Wool fabric is used for all kinds of clothing, couch covers, bedspreads, toilet covers,
tablecloths and more.
Bedding and blankets are also created using wool or blend of different fabrics that
includes wool.
Most active wear is made from wool blended fabrics. Shirts, pants, dresses, ties, skirts
and jackets can be made from wool.
It is used to make carpets, rugs, etc.

4. Jute
Used to make packaging products like bags, sacks, wrapping material, i.e. cotton packs
and wool packs.
The fibers are also woven into curtains, chair coverings, carpets and rugs.
Used in geo textiles like landfill coverings, etc.
5. Silk
It is used in sewing thread for high quality articles, particularly silk apparel and in a range
of household textiles.
Medical uses are as biodegradable micro tubes for repair of blood vessels and teeth
reconstruction.
Interiors: pillows, wall hangings, draperies, upholstery.
Apparel: luxury items, wedding dresses, evening gowns, blouses, scarves, neckties, etc.
6. Camel Hair
Mens and womens coats, jackets and blazers, skirts, hosiery, sweaters, gloves, scarves,
mufflers, caps and robes.
Used especially for cloths, painters brushes and rugs.
7. Coir
Coir fiber is used to make ropes, matting, rugs and brushes.
It is used in insulation panels and packaging.
8. Bamboo
Bamboo fibers are used to make bath towels, under garments, socks, etc.
In medical textile products with bamboo fibers are made such as face mask, bandages,
etc.
In home textiles it is used to make bed sheets, pillow covers, table clothes, etc.
Hand towels and shower curtains are also made out of it.
9. Polyester
Polyester fibers are the first choice for apparel and are used in trousers, skirts, dresses,
suits, jackets, blouses and outdoor clothing.
Polyester fiber is used as cushioning and padding material in pillows, quilts and
upholstery stuffing.
Polyester fabrics are used for conveyor belts, safety belts, coated fabrics and plastic
supporting with high energy absorption.
10. Nylon
Nylon is a high strength fiber. It is used for making fishing nets, ropes, parachutes and
tyre cords.

It is used for making fabrics in textile industry.

Nylon is widely used as plastic for making machine parts.

11. Acrylic
Industrial end uses: filtration materials, reinforcement materials in construction, car
batteries, etc.
Household textiles: Carpet, blankets, area rugs, upholstery, pile fabrics, etc.
Outdoor end uses: Car tops, boat covers, awnings, outdoor furniture
Apparels: Sweaters, socks, fleece wear, circular knit apparels, sportswear and childrens
wear.
12. Viscose rayon
Rayon is used in a variety of textile applications, including shirts and skirts and appears
in both woven and knitted forms.
Home furnishings: Bedspreads, blankets, curtains, draperies, sheets, slipovers,
tablecloths, upholstery.
Industrial uses: Industrial products, medical surgical products, nonwoven products, tyre
cords.
13. Spandex
Personal care products like diapers are made out with spandex fibers.
Swim wear / swimming costumes are mostly made with this fibers.

FIBER MORPHOLOGY
1. Cotton
Cotton is obtained from a plant and is classified as a natural, cellulose, seed, mono-cellular,
staple fiber.
Its density is 1.52 g/cm3, which makes it a heavy fiber.
Macro-structure

Under a microscope, a cotton fiber appears very fine, regular fiber.

Its length ranges from about 10 mm to 65 mm.
Its diameter ranges from about 11 m to 22 m.
The fiber length to breadth ratio ranges from about 6000:1 to 350:1.

Microscopic Appearance

Under the microscope, the cotton fiber looks like a twisted ribbon or a collapsed and twisted
tube.

The appearance of cotton fibers cross-section under the microscope is referred to as being
kidney-shaped.

Morphological Structure

Cotton has a distinct cuticle, well developed primary and secondary walls and a lumen.
The cuticle is the very outside or skin of the cotton fiber.
The primary cell wall is immediately underneath the cuticle and is about 200 nm thick.
Beneath the primary cell wall lies the secondary cell wall, which forms the bulk of the fiber.
The hollow canal, running the length of the fiber, is called the lumen.

2. Flax
Flax is classified as natural, cellulose, bast, multi-cellular fiber.

Its density is 1.50 g/cm3, and is considered a heavy fiber.

Macro-structure

Flax is a thick, regular fiber with a subdued luster.

Its length ranges from about 10 cm to 100 cm, averaging about 50 cm in length.
Its diameter ranges from about 40 m to 80 m.
The fiber length to breadth ratio ranges from about 15000:1 to 1500:1.

Microscopic Appearance

The cross markings, known as nodes, on flax fibers give them their characteristic
microscopic appearance. There may be up to 800 nodes in a single flax fiber cell.
Whenever a node occurs, it indicates a change in the spiral direction of the fibrils which
constitute the cell walls.
It has a polygonal cross-sectional shape.

Longitudinal

Cross-section

Micro-structure

Although the flax fiber is covered with a wax film, this does not constitute as distinct a
cuticle as in the case of cotton.
The cell walls of flax are constructed of spiraling fibrils composed of cellulose polymers.
The flax cell is more sturdily constructed than that of cotton cell.

3. Wool
Wool is obtained from the fleece of sheep. It is a natural, protein, multi-cellular, staple fiber.
Its density is 1.31 g/cm3, which makes it a medium weight fiber.
Macro-structure

Wool is a crimped, fine to thick, regular fiber.

Wool may have 4 to 10 crimps per 10 cm.

Its length ranges from about 5 cm to 35 cm.
Its diameter ranges from about 14 m to 45 m.
The fiber length to breadth ratio ranges from about 2500:1 to 7500:1.
Wool fibers are off-white to light cream in color.

Microscopic Appearance

The longitudinal microscopic appearance of wool is the overlapping cell structure.

These surface cells are commonly called scales and point towards the tip of the fiber.
The scales give the wool fiber a serrated surface.
The cross-section of the wool fiber is usually oval in shape.

Cross-section

Longitudinal

Morphological Structure

The micro-structure of wool consists of three main components: the cuticle, cortex and
fibrils.
The cuticle is the layer of overlapping epithelial cells surrounding the wool fiber. It consists
of the epicuticle, exocuticle and endocuticle.
The epicuticle is the outermost layer, the overlapping epithelial cells form the exocuticle and
the layer cementing epithelial cells to cortex is the endocuticle.
The cortex, or core, of the wool fiber forms 90% of the fiber volume.
It consists of countless long, spindle-shaped cells, that is, they are thick at the middle and
tapering or pointed tips at each end.
The cortex of wool fiber is composed of two distinct sections ortho-cortex and para-cortex.

4. Silk
Silk is obtained from the larva of silk worm. It is classified as natural, protein filament.
Its density is 1.34 g/cm3, which makes it a medium weight fiber.
Macro-structure

The raw silk strand consists of two silk filaments encased by a protein called sericin.
The thickness of the raw silk strand and its uneven and irregular surface are due to the
coating of sericin, which gives raw silk a coarse handle.
Silk is very fine, regular, translucent filament.
It may be up to 600 m long, but averages about 300 m in length.
Its diameter ranges from about 12 m to 30 m.
The fiber length to breadth ratio is well in excess of 2000 : 1
The beauty and softness of silks luster is due to the triangular cross-section of the silk
filament.

Microscopic Appearance

The triangular cross-section of the silk filament can be used to identify silk.
The irregular, random, longitudinal striations seen on the raw silk strand and the silk filament
are not sufficiently distinctive to identify both forms under microscope.

Cross-section

Longitudinal

Micro-structure

The silk filament is a fine, coagulated stream of fibrion solution, and has no identifiable
micro-structure.
In this regard it resembles the manmade fibers.

5. Polyester
Polyester is a manmade, synthetic polymer, polyester filament or staple fiber.
The most common polyester apparel filament or staple fiber is usually composed of
polyethylene terephthalate polymers.
Its density is 1.39 g/cm3, which makes it a medium weight fiber.
Macro-structure

Polyester filaments or staple fibers are fine, regular and translucent.

The length of the polyester filaments is limited by the size of the yarn package onto which it
is wound.
The length of the staple fiber is comparable to cotton or wool and depends on the machinery
used for spinning the staple yarn.
Its diameter ranges from about 12 m to 25 m depending on the end-use requirement.
The fiber length to breadth ratio exceeds 2000 : 1.

Microscopic Appearance

Polyester has no identifiable microscopic appearance.

The longitudinal appearance of the fiber is very regular and featureless because of the near
circular cross-section.
In fact, the magnified appearance of polyester can be likened to that of a glass rod.

Cross-section

Longitudinal

Micro-structure

Polyester filaments or staple fibers do not display a discernable micro-structure.

6. Nylon
Nylon is a manmade synthetic polymer, polyamide filament or staple fiber.
Textile materials composed of nylon tend to be light in weight because the density of nylon is
1.14 g/cm3.
Macro-structure

Nylon is a regular, translucent, fine filament or staple fiber.

The length of the nylon filaments is limited by the size of the yarn package onto which it is
wound.
The length of the staple fiber is comparable to cotton or wool, depending on the end-use
requirements of the nylon fiber.
Its diameter ranges from about 14 m to 24 m depending on the end-use requirement.
The fiber length to breadth ratio exceeds 2000 : 1.

Microscopic Appearance

Nylon has no identifiable microscopic appearance.

The longitudinal appearance of the fiber is very regular and featureless because of the near
circular cross-section.
In fact, the magnified appearance of nylon can be likened to that of a glass rod.

Cross-section

Longitudinal

Micro-structure

Nylon filaments or staple fibers do not display a discernable micro-structure.

7. Acrylic
Acrylic fibers are manmade, synthetic polymer based, polyacrylonitrile filaments or staple
fibers.
The density of acrylic fiber averages 1.16 g/cm3.
Macro-structure

Acrylic appears as regular, translucent, slightly wavy filament or staple fiber.

The slight waviness of the acrylic fibers provides a slight bulkiness to their yarns.
Nearly all acrylic fiber production is in the form of staple fiber which is staple spun and
texturised to compete with wool equivalents.
Its diameter ranges from about 15 m to 25 m depending on the end-use requirement.
The fiber length to breadth ratio exceeds 2000 : 1.

Microscopic Appearance

The longitudinal appearance of acrylic fibers is regular in width.

The shape of cross-section depends on the particular acrylonitrile polymer or copolymer, the
type of coagulation solution in the spinning bath and the rate of coagulation.
The microscopic appearance cannot be used to identify the acrylic fiber.

Cross-section

Longitudinal

Micro-structure

Acrylic fibers or staple fibers do not display an identifiable micro-structure.

8. Viscose Rayon
Viscose is a manmade, natural polymer, cellulosic or regenerated cellulose filament or staple
fiber.
The density of viscose fiber is 1.49 g/cm3 which makes it a heavy fiber.
Macro-structure

Viscose is a fine, regular filament or staple fiber.

The length of the viscose filaments is limited by the size of the yarn package onto which it is
wound.
Usually they are cut to staple fibers depending on the end-use requirement.
Its diameter ranges from about 12 m to 22 m depending on the end-use requirement.
The fiber length to breadth ratio exceeds 2000 : 1.
The color of the extruded filaments is slightly off-white.

Microscopic Appearance

Viscose filaments have many tiny grooves throughout its length which give them their
characteristic microscopic appearance.
These are responsible for the irregularly serrated perimeter of their nearly round to oval
cross-section.

Cross-section

Longitudinal

Micro-structure

Viscose filaments or staple fibers do not display an identifiable micro-structure.

9. Spandex
Spandex is manmade, elastomeric, manmade, synthetic polymer based polyurethane
filaments.
The density of spandex filament is 1.00 g/cm3 making them the lightest apparel fiber in
common use.
Macro-structure

Spandex is usually available as fine, regular, off-white strands.

Spandex is available in form of elastic-type tapes.
They are usually produced with a dull luster similar in appearance to white rubber yarn or
elastic tape.

Microscopic Appearance

The longitudinal appearance has distinct striations and specks.

The cross-section of spandex is dumb-bell shaped or dog-bone shape of the individual
filaments.
Spandex cannot be identified by its microscopic appearance.

Micro-structure

Spandex does not display an identifiable micro-structure.

PROPERTIES OF TEXTILE FIBERS

a. Cotton
Physical Properties
a. Tenacity Dry Strength
The strength of cotton fibers is attributed to the good alignment of its long polymers, the
countless, regular, hydrogen bond formations between adjacent polymers and the
spiraling fibrils in the primary and secondary cell walls.
Its strength is 2 5 grams per denier.
b. Tenacity Wet Strength
The strength of cotton fiber increases by 25% in wet state.
This is due to a temporary improvement in polymer alignment in the amorphous regions
due to increase in the number of hydrogen bonds.
Washing and ironing or boiling for the purpose of sterilization is possible due to this
property.
c. Elongation / Elasticity

The cotton fiber is relatively inelastic and for this reason cotton textiles wrinkles and
crease readily.
% elongation of cotton is between 3 10%.
If the fibers are stretched to 5 10%, the recovery is only 45%.

d. Moisture Regain
The cotton fiber is very absorbent, owing to the presence of countless OH groups.
The moisture regain of cotton is around 6 8%, which contributes to the comfort
properties.
Thermal Properties
a.

Effect of Sunlight
Long exposure to sunlight deteriorates the strength of the fiber.
Sunlight has bleaching effect on cotton.
Prolonged exposure to sunlight leads to discoloration of the fibers.

b. Effect of Heat
Excessive application of heat energy causes the cotton fiber to char and burn, without any
prior melting.
It can withstand very high temperatures. Hence no special precautions are required while
ironing.
The safe ironing temperature is 220oF.
Chemical Properties
a.

Effect of Acids
Cotton fibers are weakened and destroyed by acids.
Cotton is affected by hot dilute acids or cold concentrated acids in which it disintegrates.
Cold weak acids do not affect cotton.

b. Effect of Alkalis
Cotton fibers are resistant to alkalis and are relatively unaffected by normal laundering.
This helps in mercerization and bleaching of cotton.
c. Effect of Bleaches
The most common bleaches used on cotton textile materials are sodium hypochlorite and
sodium perborate.
They bleach most effectively in alkaline conditions to which cotton textile materials are
resistant.
d. Effect of Microorganisms
Cotton fibers can resist moths and most insects but fungi and bacteria can attack it.
e. Color Fastness

Cotton is easy to dye and print.

The classes of dye, which may be used to color cotton are azoic, direct, reactive, sulphur
and vat dyes.
The polar polymer system easily attracts any polar dye molecules into the polymer
system.
Therefore, dye molecules, which can be dispersed in water, will be absorbed by the
polymer system of cotton.

b. Flax
Physical Properties
a. Tenacity Dry Strength
Flax is a very strong fiber because it is very crystalline polymer system permits its
extremely long polymers to form more hydrogen bonds than cotton polymers.
Its strength is 3 4 grams per denier.
b. Elongation / Elasticity
Flax is a very inelastic fiber which is due to its very crystalline polymer system.
Due to this inelasticity, the fabrics made from flax (linen) tend to wrinkle or crease easily
and are stiff.
If the fiber is stretched to 3%, the recovery is only 60%.
c. Moisture Regain
The same reasons that apply for cotton are applicable to flax.
Its moisture regain is 7%.
Thermal Properties
a. Effect of Heat
Flax has the best heat resistance and conductivity of all the commonly used textile fibers.
With regard to other thermal properties of flax, they are similar to cotton.
Chemical Properties

All the chemical properties of flax are similar to cotton.

However, flax textile materials are not mercerized.

3. Wool
Physical Properties
a. Tenacity Dry Strength
Wool is a comparatively weak fiber.

The low tensile strength is due to few hydrogen bonds that are formed.
The tenacity of wool is 1 1.7 grams per denier.

b. Tenacity Wet Strength

When wool absorbs moisture, the water molecules gradually force sufficient polymers
apart to cause a significant number of hydrogen bonds to break.
Hence, wool losses around 30% of strength in wet condition.
c. Elongation / Elasticity
Wool has very good elastic recovery.
The ability of wool fibers to recover from being stretched or compressed is partly due to
its crimped configuration and partly due to the alpha-keratin configuration of wool
polymers.
In dry state, wool shows elongation of around 25 35%, whereas in wet state it becomes
50%.
When wool fiber is stretched to 5%, it shows 100% elastic recovery.
d. Moisture Regain
Wool fiber is highly absorbent. In fact it is most hygroscopic of all fibers.
It has tendency of absorbing 13 18% moisture from the atmosphere.
e. Heat of Wetting
Wool is renowned for its ability to give off a small amount of heat whilst absorbing
moisture. This is known as heat of wetting.
This is due to the collision between water molecules and the polar groups in the wool
polymers.
The heat of wetting of wool is 113 grams/joule.
Thermal Properties
a. Effect of Sunlight
Wool fibers are very sensitive to sunlight.
The presence of moisture on wool fiber when exposed to sunlight leads to deterioration
and brittleness of fiber.
b. Effect of Heat
Wool decomposes at a temperature as high as 400oF.
Safe ironing temperature is around 150 - 200oF.
Chemical Properties
a. Effect of Acids
Wool is more resistant to acids than to alkalis.

Although the polymer system is weakened in acidic solutions, the fiber does not dissolve.

b. Effect of Alkalis
Wool dissolves readily in alkaline solutions.
Prolonged exposure to alkalis leads to complete destruction of the wool fiber.
c. Effect of Bleaches
Chlorine bleaching items are not used as they cause damage to the fiber.
Bleaching with hydrogen peroxide can be done under controlled conditions.
d.

Effect of Microorganisms
Wool when stored in damp conditions undergo bacterial degradation.
Insects directly eat the fibers.
It is observed in the form of holes on the fabric.

e.

Color Fastness
Wool, like cotton, is considered easy to dye.
It is colored most readily by acid dyes, mordant dyes and reactive dyes.
The polarity of the polymers and its amorphous nature is responsible for easy dyeing of
wool.

4. Silk
Physical Properties
a.

Tenacity Dry Strength

The silk filament is strong.
This strength is due to its linear and very crystalline polymer system.
Its tenacity is 2.5 5 grams per denier.

b. Tenacity Wet Strength

When wet, silk loses strength.
This is due to water molecules hydrolyzing a significant number of hydrogen bonds and
in the process weakening the silk polymer.
It loses around 20% of its strength when wet.
c. Elongation / Elasticity
Silk is considered to be more plastic than elastic because of its very crystalline polymer
system.
In dry state, silk shows elongation of 20 25%. In wet state, the elongation increases.
Silk has very low elastic recovery. If the filament is stretched to greater than 20%, it will
remain permanently deformed.

d.

Moisture Regain
Because silk has a very crystalline polymer system, it is less absorbent than wool.
The moisture regain of silk is 8 10% at 65% RH (relative humidity).
At 100% RH, silk can absorb 30% of moisture.

Thermal Properties
a. Effect of Sunlight
Sunlight causes damage to silk as a result of which the filaments lose their strength.
This is due to the lack of covalent cross-links in the polymer system of silk.
b.

Effect of Heat
Silk is more sensitive to heat than wool.
The filaments cannot withstand higher ironing and processing temperatures than wool.
Silk decomposes at 300oF.
Safe ironing temperature is 100 120oC.

Chemical Properties
a. Effect of Acids
Silk is degraded more readily by acids than wool.
The perspiration, which is acidic, will cause immediate breakdown of the polymer system
of silk.
Concentrated mineral acids dissolve silk faster than wool. Organic acids do not harm silk.
b. Effect of Alkalis
Alkaline solutions cause the silk filaments to swell.
Silk is not as sensitive to alkalis as wool but it can be damaged if temperature and
concentration is too high.
c. Effect of Bleaches
Chlorine bleaching agents harm silk, e.g. sodium hypochlorite.
Mild hydrogen peroxide and sodium per borate can be safely used on silk.
d. Effect of Microorganisms
Same as that of wool.
e. Color Fastness
Same as that of wool.
However, the luster of silk will cause its dyed and printed silk textile materials to appear
much brighter in color than any equivalent dyed or printed textile material.
5. Viscose Rayon

Physical Properties
a. Tenacity Dry Strength
Because the polymer system of viscose is very amorphous, its fibers are weaker than
cotton.
The tenacity of viscose rayon is 1.7 2.3 grams per denier.
b. Tenacity Wet Strength
When wet, viscose is only half as strong as when dry.
Water molecule enters into the amorphous regions of the polymer and break a significant
number of hydrogen bonds, resulting in the weaker fiber when wet.
c. Elongation / Elasticity
The amorphous nature and fewer hydrogen bonds of viscose, enable the polymers to slide
past each other when the fiber is put under strain.
When the strain is removed, the polymers do not return to the original position. Thus
viscose textile materials are wrinkled or creased readily.
It shows elongation of about 20 25 %.
If the filament is stretched to greater than 10%, then the recovery is only 40%.
d. Moisture Regain
The very amorphous polymer system of viscose, as well as its polar polymers, make
viscose the most absorbent fiber in common use.
Its moisture regain is 12 14%.
Thermal Properties
a. Effect of Sunlight
Prolonged exposure to sunlight weakens the fiber due to moisture and ultraviolet light of
the sunlight.
b. Effect of Heat
At 300oF or more, viscose rayon loses its strength and begins to decompose at 350 400oF.
Chemical Properties
a.

Effect of Acids
Resistance of rayon to acids is generally less than that of cotton.
Organic acids can be safely used in 1 2% concentration without injury to the fiber.
At higher temperatures and concentrations all acids will destroy rayon.

b. Effect of Alkalis
Similar to that of cotton.

c. Effect of Bleaches
Similar to that of cotton.
d. Effect of Microorganisms
Microorganisms like mildew, fungus, bacteria, etc. affect the color, strength, dyeing
properties and luster of viscose rayon.
Clean and dry viscose rayon is rarely attacked by microorganisms.
e. Color Fastness
Viscose rayon fibers will generally color more brightly, even when delustered, than
cotton.
This is due to greater amount of incident light reflected by viscose even when delustered.
The reflected light brightens, or increases the value and chroma of the dyed or printed
viscose.
6. Acrylic
Physical Properties
a. Tenacity Dry Strength
Because of the very crystalline nature of the polymer systems, as well as the long chain
polymers, acrylic has fairly high tenacity.
Its tenacity is 20 to 27 g/tex.
b. Tenacity Wet Strength
When wet, acrylic fibers lose strength which indicates that there is presence of
amorphous regions in the polymer system.
The wet strength of acrylic is 10 20% less than its dry strength.
c. Elongation / Elasticity
Acrylics have soft handle.
Although the polymer system is crystalline, the polymers are able to slide over each
other, leading to wrinkling or creasing.
Acrylics can be elongated to about 25% without break.
When extended to about 10%, the elastic recovery is only 45%.
d. Moisture Regain
Acrylic fibers are hydrophobic because the polymer system is highly crystalline.
The moisture regain of acrylic is about 1.2 2 % at 65% RH.
Thermal Properties
a. Effect of Sunlight
Acrylic fibers are the most sunlight resistant fibers in common use.

When exposed to sunlight, these fibers will initially show loss of tenacity. Then this effect
is leveled off and hence no further loss of tenacity is observed.

b.

Effect of Heat
Acrylic fibers are the most heat sensitive fibers if the commonly used synthetic fibers.
Prolonged exposure to heat leads to loss of strength.
When taken near a flame, acrylic fibers tend to ignite immediately, rather than melt.
They are most flammable synthetic fibers in common use.

Chemical Properties
a. Effect of Acids
The acrylic fibers are resistant to acids because their polymers do not contain any
chemical groups which will attract or react with acid radicals.
b. Effect of Alkalis
The very crystalline nature of acrylic polymer system prevents the ready entry of alkaline
solutions.
In presence of alkali, surface discoloration, yellowing or dulling of the acrylic textile
material.
c. Effect of Bleaches
Acrylic fibers are not usually bleached in practice.
d. Color Fastness
Acrylic fibers are most commonly dyed with basic and disperse dyes.
7. Nylon
Physical Properties
a. Tenacity Dry Strength
Due to very crystalline polymer system, nylon filaments have very good tenacity.
The dry tenacity of nylon filaments is 36 65 g/tex.
b. Tenacity Wet Strength
When wet, nylon filament loses strength due to hydrolyzing a significant number of
hydrogen bonds in the amorphous regions of the polymer system.
Nylon filament losses around 10 15% strength.
c. Elongation / Elasticity
The very good elastic property of nylon filaments is due to the very regular grid of strong
hydrogen bonds in the polymer system.
Nylon can be elongated to about 20% without break.

When extended to about 10%, the elastic recovery is only 90%.

d. Moisture Regain
Nylon filaments are not absorbent even though there is a relatively strong attraction for
water molecules by the polar amide groups.
Its moisture regain is 4 4.5 %.
Thermal Properties
a. Effect of Sunlight
Nylon has only a fair resistance to sunlight.
b. Effect of Heat
Nylon has very poor heat resistance.
Chemical Properties
a.

Effect of Acids
Nylon is less resistant to acids.
The amide group in nylon polymers is readily hydrolyzed under acidic conditions.
In presence of acids, white nylon materials will assume yellow hue, while colored nylon
may appear duller.

b. Effect of Alkalis
Prolonged and frequent exposure to alkalis will cause weakening of the nylon textile
material along with yellowing of white fiber and dulling of colored nylon.
c. Effect of Bleaches
Nylon textiles materials are inherently white and do not require bleaching.
d. Effect of Microorganisms
Not attacked by microorganisms.
e. Color Fastness
Nylon textile materials can be dyed with acid, disperse and metalized dyes.
8. Polyester
Physical Properties
a. Tenacity Dry Strength
Due to extremely crystalline polymer system, polyester filaments have very high tenacity.
The dry tenacity of polyester filaments is 25 - 60 g/tex.
b. Tenacity Wet Strength

Polyester filaments do not absorb moisture. Hence there strength is not affected when
wet.

c.

Elongation / Elasticity
The stiffness of polyester filaments is due to its extremely crystalline polymer system.
Polyester can be elongated to about 20 - 48% without break.
When extended to about 10%, the elastic recovery is only 80%.

d. Moisture Regain
Polyester filaments are hydrophobic.
The lack of polarity and extremely crystalline polymer resists the entry of water
molecules in the polymer system.
Its moisture regain is only 0.4 %.
Thermal Properties
a. Effect of Sunlight
The benzene rings of the polyester polymer provide stability to the whole polymer,
enabling the polymers to withstand the detrimental effects of the suns ultraviolet
radiation.
b. Effect of Heat
Polyester has very poor heat resistance.
Chemical Properties
a. Effect of Acids
The ester groups of polyester polymers are resistant to acid hydrolysis.
This resistance is further enhanced by the extremely high crystalline nature of polyester
which prevents the entry of any acid or water molecules into the polymer system.
b. Effect of Alkalis
Alkaline conditions during laundering may hydrolyze polymer system.
But the extreme crystalline system will restrict this hydrolyses to surface and hence after
repeated laundering polyester textile materials become thinner and finer.
c. Effect of Bleaches
Polyester textile materials are inherently white and do not require bleaching.
If bleaching is required this is effected using sodium chlorite.
d. Effect of Microorganisms
Not attacked by microorganisms.
e. Color Fastness

It is very difficult for the dye molecules to penetrate the extremely crystalline polymer
system of polyester fiber.
Only relatively small molecules of disperse dyes are used to dye or print polyester fibers.
COMPARISON OF NATURAL AND MANMADE FIBERS

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Natural Fibers
The fibers which we get from nature
are called natural fibers.
Generally fibers are hydrophilic.
Number of molecules in the polymer
chain is controlled by nature.
Length of the fiber is nature given.
We get fibers as staple or filament.
Less strength and durability.
Fineness varies from one fiber to other.

8.

The fabric made from natural fiber is

comfortable and good for health.
9.
Natural fibers have a great demand as
apparels.
10.
Natural fibers are environment friendly.
11.

Natural fibers have to undergo

bleaching process before wet processing.
12.
It is not possible to change the fiber
structure.
13.
They are expensive.
14.
These fibers are naturally crimpy.
15.
These fibers grow with their natural
color.
16.
17.

It is easy to dye natural fibers.

Natural fibers contain dust and other
impurities.
18.
These fibers are easily attacked by
microorganisms.
19.
Static charge is not developed on these
fibers.
20.
Most natural fibers are used only for
apparels.

Manmade Fibers
The fibers which are developed by man
are called manmade fibers.
2.
Generally fibers are hydrophobic.
3.
Number of molecules in the polymer
chain is controlled by man.
4.
Length of the fiber is controlled by
man.
5.
No question about long or short staple
fiber. It depends on mans will.
6.
More strength and durability.
7.
Fineness does not vary since it is
controlled by man.
8.
The fabric made from manmade fiber is
not comfortable and not good for health.
9.
Manmade fibers have great demand for
industrial applications.
10.
Manmade fibers are not environment
friendly.
11.
There is no need for bleaching of
manmade fibers as they are inherently
white.
12.
It is easy to change the fiber structure.
1.

13.
14.
15.

They are cheaper.

These fibers are given crimp manually.
Colors are added in the solution as
required.
16.
Manmade fibers cannot be easily dyed.
17.
These fibers do not contain dust and
other impurities.
18.
Microorganisms
do
not
attack
manmade fibers.
19.
These fibers are more prone to static
charge development.

20.

Most manmade fibers have technical

applications.

YARN MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Draw Frame - 2

Machine
1. Blow room

2. Carding

3. Draw frame

4. Lap Former
5. Comber

6. Speed frame /
Simplex

7. Ring frame

8. Rotor

Functions
Opening
Cleaning
Mixing or Blending
To individualize the fibers
Opening
Cleaning
Sliver preparation
To make the fibers parallel to
sliver axis.
Doubling
Drafting
To prepare lap for combing
To remove short fibers
To make the fibers parallel to
sliver axis.
Sliver preparation
To prepare package for ring
frame roving bobbin
Drafting
Twisting
Winding
Drafting
Twisting
Winding
Drafting / opening
Twisting
Winding

Input
Cotton Bale

Output
Blow room lap

Blow room lap

Card sliver

Card sliver

Drawn sliver

Drawn sliver
Comber lap

Comber lap
Combed sliver

Drawn sliver

Roving

Roving

Yarn

Drawn sliver

Yarn

YARN NUMBERING SYSTEM

IY
nr
dN
iu
rm
eb
ce
ti
Sg
yS
sysy

a
n

r
n

ss

t
em
m

Definition of Different Counts

Yarn Count
English Count, Ne
Metric Count, Nm
Worsted Count, Nw
Woolen Count, Now
Tex
Denier

Unit of Length
840 yards
1000 meters / 1 km
560 yards
300 yards
1000 meters
9000 meters

Unit of Weight
1 pound
1 kg
1 pound
1 pound
Grams
Grams

English Count It is the number of hanks each of 840 yards weighing in 1 pound.
Metric Count It is the number of hanks each of 1000 meters or 1 km weighing in 1 kg.
Worsted Count It is the number of hanks each of 560 yards weighing in 1 pound.
Woolen Count It is the number of hanks each of 300 yards weighing in 1 pound.
Tex It is the weight in grams of 1000 meters of yarn.
Denier It is the weight in grams of 9000 meters of yarn.

Conversion from One Count to Other Count

English Count, Ne
Tex

English Count, Ne
1
590.5 / Tex

Tex
590. 5 / Ne
1

Denier
5315 / Ne
9 x Tex

Denier

5315 / Denier

Denier / 9

*** Questions related to conversion from one count to other count will be asked in the
exam as discussed in the class.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SELECTION OF CLOTHING
Factors influencing selection of clothing can be broadly classified in 4 groups:
1. Climatic factors
2. Occasions
3. Age
i.
Infant wear
ii.
School going children
iii.
The later teen years
iv. Adults
v. Old age
4. Profession / Occupation
1. Climatic Factors
You wear cottons in summers and woolens in winters. As you know woolen clothes are
expensive and proper care is needed for their maintenance. People living in cold climate need to
wear woolen clothes to keep warm. People living in very hot climates as in deserts need to wear
turbans of thick cloth to protect their heads and wear long robes to stay cool.
2. Occasion
When you are attending a marriage you wear dresses in bright colors like lengha cholis,
ghagras and shararas often accompanied by bright accessories like bangles, chain and earrings.
Do you think these elaborate dresses could be worn on busy routine days? You would
rather feel comfortable in a dress which fits you well and allows for ease of movement. Simple
clothing with minimum accessories like a formal salwar kameez will give a more professional
look for an interview. Sari, formal trousers, shirt, tie would be a good option that will make you
feel active and confident.
3. Age
You must have noticed that the type of clothes worn change with age. Clothes worn by an
adultwoman are definitely not the same as those worn by a college going girl. Similarly, men
will prefer to wear light and comfortable clothes rather than fashionable ones. Let us see how the
type of clothes worn change with age.
i.

Infant Wear

The clothing requirements from birth to 12 months of age are few. The major
requirements of the newborn are for warmth, comfort and cleanliness. Clothes should be soft and
light as babies have tender and delicate skin. Since they are sleeping most of the time their
clothes should be simple to put on and take off. It is also important that they should be easy to
maintain. Cotton shirts that slip on or that have double-breasted front opening with snaps are
some easy to wear styles. The diapers should be made of absorbent and soft cotton material.
ii.

School going children

Children of this age group are in the growing stage. They like to run about and play and
are very active. Hence, their clothes must be made of strong and durable fabrics which can take a
lot of wear and tear.
While selecting, do take care to see that there is adequate cloth inside the seams which
can be opened up to fit rapidly growing children. The clothes must also be easy to launder as
they get dirty frequently.
iii.

The later Teen Years

This is the age when one starts going to college. Teenagers are very conscious about
clothes and want to wear the latest styles. They like to have variety in their clothes because they
do not want to repeat the same dress every day. For them, fit and style are important qualities of
clothes and construction is not often considered. It is advisable to select clothes which they can
mix and match so that they can achieve variety with few clothes e.g. few colors of churidars or
salwars can be combined with few Kameez which can go with all leg wears. Similarly if a
teenage boy gets a couple of pair of jeans and a few T-shirts, he can combine them to achieve
variety in his wardrobe.
iv.

Adults

Selection of clothes for adults depends to a large extent upon the type of work that a
person is engaged in. A working woman will need clothes which are easy to launder and which
do not need much ironing because she has very limited time. She will also prefer to wear clothes
which do not easily wrinkle as she must look good till the end of the day.
v.

Old age

Old age brings its own problems. The body becomes stiff, the eye sight becomes weak
and energy level is considerably reduced. You must have also observed that normally old people
wear light material. The clothes they wear must be loose and comfortable rather than
fashionable. Also, it would be advisable for the clothes to have front openings which are easy to
see and manipulate and large buttons and button holes.
4. Profession / Occupation

You must have seen doctor and nurses in white or light colored simple clothing. Such a
dress gives a neat and clean look to the wearer and also has a soothing effect on the patient. What
is the uniform of a soldier?
Many professions have a specific dress code which gives them a special identity for
example people working in the hotel industry, airlines, traffic policemen, security guards and so
on. Sportsmen especially athletes and tennis players wear tiny shorts and snug tops of highly
absorbent fabric. Such a dress may look out of place when worn on other occasion. Similarly a
swim suit would look appropriate only near a swimming pool. Clubs, hotels and often formal
parties have their own dress regulations.
What kind of clothes should you wear when you have to take a long bus or train journey?
Clothes for travelling should preferably of dark colors and should not crumple easily.
Certain specialized activities require special apparel for example special overalls are
worn in the laboratory, during mixing chemicals for pest control by people or by those who work
in nuclear power plants. They protect the workers against radiation hazards. Workers in mines
wear mining suits and special helmets fitted with torches. Divers wear wet suits with slippers that
help them move easily under water. Do you know astronauts wear space suits fitted with total life
support system to sustain and protect them from the harmful effects of outer space? Firemen
wear apparel made of fireproof fabrics. What should you wear while working in the kitchen?
Yes, go in for snug cotton clothing. Avoid loose fitting clothes and hanging dupattas and shawls.

SELECTION OF READY-MADE GARMENTS

In todays fast moving life, it is very difficult to take out time for getting clothes stitched.
You have to go to the market to buy a fabric, look for a tailor, order stitching and wait till the
dress is ready. Or you have an alternative of buying a ready-made dress.
There are markets which sell ready-made garments at a very low price. The only problem
is that these items are not made with your measurements hence may not fit you. Hence it is
important to know what you should look for when you are buying a readymade dress.
Guidelines to Purchase Market
1. Design of the Garment
The design of any item is guided by four important elements: basic style line, shape form,
color and texture or the type of fabric.
When these elements are put in a completed composition, they make a design which has
balance, proportion, emphasis, rhythm and unity.
2. Fit

After you have selected a dress from its outer appeal, you have to see the size and fit. In
fit, we look at the shoulders, bust, waist and length. It should be appealing to the figure. It should
not be undersize or oversize. Take the exact measurements of the person and buy the garment
accordingly.
3. Workmanship
Workmanship means the constructional details. So, look at the wrong side of the dress.
Pull one end of the seam to check the durability. All seams should be double. Seams should be
finished. There should not be any puckers in the seams. Check the fasteners and zippers by
opening and closing. There should be enough seam allowance. Edges of collars should be well
defined. No raw edges should be visible. Piping, facings, etc., should be neatly done.
4. Price
Price factor actually goes along with all other factors. The quality of fabric,
constructional details, embroidery, etc., will definitely influence the price. Normally, we have the
idea that high priced garments are expected to be of high quality, but this is not always true. So it
is essential on our part to see whether the price demanded actually provides us that much wear or
not.
5. Care and maintenance
Most of the time we buy a dress and after the first wash we find that the color of piping
spoils the whole dress. Or sometimes after ironing, the lace gets burnt or that you have to
repeatedly spend dry cleaning charges even for a cotton suit because its color is not fast.
For a wise selection of readymade garments we should read the care instructions at the
time of purchase and tally with the price. Buy a fabric which requires minimum of care and
maintenance.
GARMENT PRODUCTION PROCESS
Stepwise garment manufacturing sequence on industrial basis is given below:

D
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Operations of garment manufacturing are given below in detail:
Sr. No.
1

Operation
Design /
Sketch

Basic
Block

Working
Pattern

Sample
Garments

Approved

Job
It is given by buyers to manufacturers containing
sketches including measurements of particular styles.

Method
Manual /
Computerize
d
Basic block is an individual component of garments
Manual /
without any style of design (without allowance, style,
Computerize
design)
d
When a pattern is made for a particular style with net
Manual /
dimensions regarding the basic block along with
Computerize
allowance then it is called working pattern.
d
To make a sample, this will be approved by buyer. After Manual
making a sample, it is sent to buyer for approval to
rectify the faults.
After rectify the faults, sample is again sent to buyers.
Manual

6
7

Sample
Costing
Production
Pattern

If it is ok then it is called approved sample.

Fabric costing, making charges, trimmings and profit.
Making allowance with net dimensions for bulk
production.

Grading

If the buyer requires different sizes, so should be grade

as S, M, L, XL, XXL, etc.

Marker
Making

10

Fabric
Spreading

Marker is a thin paper which contains all the

components for different sizes for a particular style of
garments.
To spread the fabrics on table properly for cutting.

11

Cutting

To cut fabric according to maker dimensions.

12

Sorting /
Bundling
Sewing
Ironing /
Finishing

Sort out the fabric according to size and for each size
make in individual bundles.
To assemble full garments.
After sewing we will get a complete garment which is
treated with steam ironing and also several finishing
processes are done for example extra loose thread
cutting.
Should be approved as initial sample.
Treated by polyethylene bag.
After packing, it should be placed in cartons for export.
Ready for export.

13
14

15
16
17
18

Inspection
Packing
Cartooning
Dispatchin
g

Manual
Manual /
Computerize
d
Manual /
Computerize
d
Manual /
Computerize
d
Manual /
Computerize
d
Manual /
Computerize
d
Manual
Manual
Manual

Manual
Manual
Manual
Manual