ISSN 2349-4379

Action and Passivity as Proportional to Available Self-Control

(Metabolic) Energy: Self-Control Use, Diabetes, and Action
Matthew T. Gailliot
Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, Texas

mattgailliot@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The capacity for action may be directly proportional to the amount of its available energy. After having used self-control,
participants showed reduced action, or increased passivity, in the form of reduced activity during a social interaction
(Studies 1 and 2) and less talking during a group discussion (Study 3). This effect occurred only among people who
typically are highly active in such situations those with low anxieties and high extraversion. A final study suggested that
the effect may be mediated by metabolism, showing that people with diabetes tend to watch more television than do
people without. Action might rely on the same energy as self-control and on that which is disrupted during diabetes,
indicating metabolic energy as underlying a broad capacity for action.

Indexing terms/Keywords
passivity, self-regulation, self-control, ego depletion, diabetes

Academic Discipline And Sub-Disciplines

Psychology; Social Psychology; Cognitive Psychology

SUBJECT CLASSIFICATION
Psychology Subject Classification

TYPE (METHOD/APPROACH)
Experimental

Council for Innovative Research

Peer Review Research Publishing System

Journal: Journal of Advances in Humanities

Vol. 3, No.3
jaheditor@gmail.com
www.cirjah.com
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INTRODUCTION
The capacity for work is directly proportional to the amount of energy available to perform that work. Action a form of
work thus should be directly determined by energy levels. The current work tested this hypothesis by examining whether
having used self-control would decrease action and whether this effect might concern metabolism.
Self-control is impaired after its use (Baumeister, Gailliot, DeWall, & Oaten, 2006; Baumeister, Vohs, & Tice, 2007;
Gailliot, 2009a; Muraven & Baumeister, 2000), likely because self-control can reduce glucose in the bloodstream yet is
impaired by low glucose (DeWall, Baumeister, Gailliot, & Maner, 2008; DeWall, Gailliot, Deckman, & Bushman, 2009;
Fairclough & Houston, 2004; Gailliot, in press; Gailliot, 2008, 2009a, 2009b, 2009c; Gailliot, 2012; Gailliot et al., 2007;
Gailliot & Baumeister, 2007a; Gailliot, Hildebrandt, Eckel, & Baumeister, 2010; Gailliot, Peruche, Plant, & Baumeister,
2009; Masicampo & Baumeister, 2008). One hypothesis was that having used self-control would decrease action, or
increase passivity, plausibly by depleting glucose. This would indicate that action is proportional to available energy
action decreases when the energy underlying self-control has been depleted.
Glucose is a primary energy for the brain. People with diabetes demonstrate problems with glucose they often
experience hypoglycemic or hyperglycemic glucose levels and glucose intolerance. A connection between diabetes and
action therefore suggests metabolism as a potential mediator of the link between self-control and passivity. Action is
proportional to energy action is reduced among people with a metabolic disorder that disrupts energy use.
The rationale for a connection between action and available metabolic energy is supported by work showing that having
used self-control increases passive choice and behavior (e.g., doing less to prepare for a task) (Baumeister, Bratslavsky,
Muraven, & Tice, 1998; Vohs & Baumeister, 2009), and by work linking self-control to vitality a tendency to be energetic
and active (Muraven, Gagne, & Rosman, 2008; Ryan & Deci, 2008). Other supporting evidence is that hunger increases
passivity (Alaimo, Olson, Edward, & Frongillo, 2001; Barrett, Radke-Yarrow, & Klein, 1982; Casey, Szeto, Lensing, Bogle,
& Weber, 2001; Chavez, & Martinez, 1979; Gailliot, 2013 ; Graves, 1976, 1978; Office of Disease Prevention and Health
Promotion, 1996; Pollitt, Golub, & Gorman, 1996; Sigman et al., 2005; Strupp & Levitsky, 1995; Wyon, Abrahamsson,
Jartelius, & Fletcher, 1997), as does low glycogen in the brain (Gailliot, 2008). Energy availability can be reduced during
hunger or when glycogen is low, and action likewise is reduced.
Studies 1 through 3 examined whether having used self-control would reduce activity in a social interaction (interacting
with another person or participating in a group discussion) among people likely to be most active (i.e., among those with
little anxiety and among those scoring high in extraversion). Study 4 examined whether activity would be reduced among
people with (v without) diabetes, such that they watch more television. Action, or passivity, is posited to be determined by
the same energy available for self-control or by metabolic energy.

STUDY 1
Using (v not using) self-control by controlling attention while watching a video was predicted to decrease subsequent
action in the form of being less active while teaching a person how to putt. To the extent that the effect is due to increased
passivity, then it might decrease activity primarily among people who typically would engage in high activity during the
interaction in this case, people with low trait anxiety.

Method
Only men participated. Participants completed the State-Trait Anxiety Index (STAI) during a mass testing session
(Spielberger, Reheiser, Ritterband, Sydeman, & Unger, 1995).
Participants returned to the laboratory for a separate experimental session, held at least 1 month later. Participants first
watched a 6-minute video (without sound) of a woman talking with words appearing in the corner of the screen.
Participants randomly assigned to the attention control condition were asked to use self-control by avoiding looking at the
words instead to focus on the womans face. Participants randomly assigned to the watch normally condition were asked
to watch the video as they would normally. After the video, participants completed the Brief Mood Introspection Scale
(BMIS) as a measure of mood valence and arousal (Mayer & Gaschke, 1988).
Participants then had a 4-minute social interaction with a female confederate, who posed as a student while the participant
was instructed to teach her how to putt. After the interaction, the confederate rated how each participant had acted on
various dimensions, including 3 items (i.e., talkative, active, shy) indicative of activity level ( = .87). The confederate was
blind to hypotheses.

Results and Discussion

A regression analysis that predicted activity scores from video condition, anxiety scores, and their interaction indicated a
significant interaction, = 1.94, t = 2.42, p < .05 (see Figure 1) that remained even when controlling for mood valence and
arousal, = 1.97, t = 1.88, p < .05 (one-tailed).

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Task Condition
Stroop

12

Reading Aloud
9
Activity Level
6
3

Low

Social Anxiety

High

Fig 1: Activity level as a function of video condition and anxiety (Study 1)

Tests of simple effects indicated that, among participants scoring low in anxiety (i.e., 1 SD below the mean), those in the
attention control condition were rated as less active than were those in the watch normally condition, = -2.41, t = -2.39, p
< .05. Thus, having used self-control reduced activity among people with low anxiety. Among participants scoring high in
anxiety (i.e., 1 SD above the mean), the two conditions did not differ in activity level, p = .21. Having used self-control
therefore decreased activity, or increased passivity, only among people who typically are socially active.

STUDY 2
People low in anxiety seem prone to exhibit higher activity levels during social interactions, then so should people who
seldom experience social anxiety during interactions. They therefore may exhibit passivity following self-control use. Study
2 tested this hypothesis.

Method
Participants completed the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS) during a mass testing session (Spielberger, Reheiser,
Ritterband, Sydeman, & Unger, 1995).
Participants came to the laboratory for a separate session, held at least 1 month later. Participants first completed a task
for 4 minutes. Participants randomly assigned to the Stroop condition completed a task in which they viewed color words
(red, blue, or green) on a list that appeared in an incongruent font color (red, blue, or green). Participants were asked to
state aloud the font color, which required self-control to override the prepotent tendency to automatically read the words.
Participants randomly assigned to the read aloud condition completed a similar task except the words appeared in black
font. After the task, participants completed the BMIS as a measure of mood valence and arousal (Mayer & Gaschke,
1988) and a measure of self-efficacy (i.e., How well do you think you did on the Stroop task?).
Participants then had a 3 minute conversation with the experimenter, during which they were asked to try to get to know
one another. After the interaction, the experimenter rated how each participant had acted on various dimensions, including
4 items (i.e., talkative, active, active during the conversation, shy) indicative of activity level ( = .91). The experimenter
was blind to hypotheses.

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Results and Discussion
A regression analysis that predicted activity scores from task condition, social anxiety scores, and their interaction
indicated a significant interaction, = .97, t = 2.23, p < .05 (see Figure 2), that remained even when controlling for mood
valence, arousal, and self-efficacy, = .68, t = 1.75, p < .05 (one-tailed).

Task Condition
Stroop

12

Reading Aloud
9
Activity Level
6

Low

High
Social Anxiety

Fig 2: Activity level as a function of task condition and social anxiety (Study 2)
Tests of simple effects indicated that, among participants scoring low in social anxiety, those in the Stroop condition were
rated as less active than were those in the read aloud condition, = -1.43, t = -2.32, p < .05. Thus, having used selfcontrol reduced activity among people low in social anxiety. Among participants scoring high in social anxiety, the two
conditions did not differ in activity level, p = .41. Having used self-control therefore decreased activity, or increased
passivity, only among people who typically are socially active, consistent with the results of Study 1.

STUDY 3
Extraverts are more talkative than introverts. They therefore may be more likely to talk less (show less action) during a
group discussion after having used self-control, to the extent that action relies on a broadly used, interchangeable energy
that is used for self-control.

Method
Participants first completed a 10-item measure of the Big 5 personality traits, including 2 items (i.e., reserved, quiet and
extraverted, enthusiastic) intended to assess extraversion ( = .71; Gosling, Rentfrow, & Swann, 2003). Participants next
completed either the Stroop or reading aloud task used in Study 2. Afterward, participants completed the BMIS as a
measure of mood valence and arousal (Mayer & Gaschke, 1988).
Participants then participated in a videotaped group discussion on parking for 8 minutes and were invited to comment on
different questions (e.g., Have you had any good or bad experiences? Do you know of any ways to improve parking?).
After the discussion, participants indicated the extent to which they had been motivated to talk and to share their opinions
( = .93) and to which they thought it was important or mattered that they talk ( = .88). The dependent measure of activity
was the amount of time each participant spent talking.

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Results and Discussion
A regression analysis that predicted amount of time spent talking from task condition, extraversion scores, and their
interaction indicated a significant interaction, = -1.17, t = -2.17, p < .05 (see Figure 3), that remained even when
controlling for mood valence, arousal, motivation to talk, and perceived importance of talking, = -.79, t = -1.72, p < .05
(one-tailed).

Task Condition
Stroop

Reading Aloud
6
Time Spent
Talking (sec)
4

High

Low
Extraversion

Fig 3: Amount of time spent talking as a function of task condition and extraversion (Study 3)

Tests of simple effects indicated that, among participants scoring high in extraversion, those in the Stroop condition talked
for less time than did those in the read aloud condition, = - 3.21, t = -2.07, p < .05. Thus, having used self-control
reduced activity among people high in extraversion. Among participants scoring low in extraversion, those in the two
conditions did not differ from one another in amount of time spent talking, p = .33. Having used self-control therefore
decreased activity, or increased passivity, only among people who typically talk often during social situations, consistent
with the results of Studies 1 and 2.

STUDY 4
Another form of passivity is watching television. The hypothesis was that people with diabetes would exhibit decreased
action in the form of watching more television, therefore suggesting metabolic energy as underlying the link between selfcontrol and action.

Method
Data were from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) 19881994 from the National
Center for Health Statistics. It included 9,113 participants (though not all participants completed all measures). Relevant to
the current study, participants reported whether (yes or no) a doctor had told them they have diabetes and the number of

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hours they had watched television or videos during the past 30 days, as well as their age, education level, and household
and family income levels. Participants also had their body mass index (BMI) assessed.

Results and Discussion

Participants who reported having been told they have diabetes (M = 3.07, SD = 1.67) indicated had watched television or
videos more frequently than did participants who reported they had not been told they have diabetes (M = 3.07, SD =
1.67), F (1, 9111) = 34.78, p < .001.
This difference remained when controlling for age, education level, household and family income, and BMI scores, F (1,
7077) = 14.44, p < .001. Having a metabolic disorder therefore predicted less activity in the form of increased passive,
television watching.

GENERAL DISCUSSION
The current work suggests that metabolic energy a common, widely used energy source may underlie the capacity for
action. After having used self-control, participants showed reduced action, or increased passivity, in the form of reduced
activity during a social interaction (Studies 1 and 2) and less talking during a group discussion (Study 3). This effect
occurred only among people who typically are highly active in such situations those with low anxieties and high
extraversion. A final study suggested that the effect may be mediated by metabolic energy (e.g, glucose), showing that
people with diabetes those with problems with metabolic energy tend to watch more television than do people without.
These findings are consistent with work on perceptual biases that emerge after having used self-control people perceive
themselves as having less subjective control and of having worsened abilities (Fischer, Greitemeyer, & Frey, 2007). These
biases may emerge partly because people have less energy for action.
Having used self-control has been found to increase some forms of action (i.e., those consistent with having weakened
self-control), including sexual, aggressive, and eating behaviors (DeWall, Baumeister, Stillman, & Gailliot, 2007; Gailliot &
Baumeister, 2007b; Hofmann, Rauch, & Gawronski, 2006; Kahan, Polivy, & Herman, 2003; Stucke & Baumeister, 2006;
Vohs & Heatherton, 2000). It is possible that in the presence of factors activating desires typically restrained by selfcontrol, having used self-control may either increase or change action. The current studies, in contrast, offered no food, no
sexual opportunities, no calls to aggression.
Metabolic energy is limited and is shared and diverted among processes (Gailliot et al., 2009). Increases in metabolic
demands (e.g., reproductive costs, increased immune activity) might therefore decrease action, or increase passivity.
Indeed, increased metabolic activity in the ovaries has been linked to increased passivity among women.
Reduced energys decreasing action may be attributable to conservation. When less energy is available, such as after
having used self-control or among people with diabetes, increased conservation mechanisms may sway thought and
decision away from action which uses more energy than does passivity. Indeed, diabetes demonstrates a pattern in
which the brain receives inadequate energy and so energy is diverted from fat, muscle, and other cells (Gailliot et al.,
2009), thereby suggesting conservation that may bias one toward passivity.
Action, or resisting passivity, requires developing inertia toward the active state, overriding conflicting motivations to
conserve energy or be passive, and increasing energy use for mental and mechanical activity. Action therefore should be
influenced by energy available, being reduced in step with reduced energy.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thanks to Roy Baumeister for his support in this research project.

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Author biography with Photo

Matthew T. Gailliot graduated with a Bachelors in Psychology from Kennesaw
State University in 2003 and a Masters and Ph.D. in Social Psychology from
Florida State University in 2005 and 2007. He has worked as a professor of
Psychology at The University of Amsterdam, Zirve University, and Stephen F.
Austin State University.

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