COMPLEX INTEGRATION

Introduction: The advantage of complex integration is that certain complicated real

integrals can be evaluated and properties of analytic functions can be established.
Line Integrals in Complex plane:
Introduction:
Curve: Let x(t ) and y (t ) be continuous functions of the real variable t , then the
equation z z(t ) x(t ) iy(t ), a t b represents a curve in the complex plane.
Example: z (t ) r cos t ir sin t reit , o t 2 represents a circle in the complex
plane.
Smooth curve: Suppose set of points ( x, y) defined by x f (t ), y g (t ) with the
parameter t in the interval (a, b) . If f and g are differentiable then the curve is said
to be smooth.
Simple curve: A curve C is said to be simple if it doesnot intersect itself.
Example: Semi-circle above x-axis, z reit , 0 t
Simple Closed curve: A curve is said to be a simple closed curve (Jordan curve) if
it is a simple curve and its endpoints coincide.
Example: Circle.
Contour: It is a continuous chain of a finite number of smooth curves.
Simply connected region: It is a region such that every simple closed curve in R
contains only points of R..
Example: Interior of a circle, rectangle, triangle and ellipse.
Multiply connected region: A region which is not simply connected is called
multiply connected.

Example: Open annulus.

Simply Connected

Doubly Connected

Triply Connected

Line integral in the complex plane:

Consider a function f ( z) defined at all

points of a curve C having end points
A and B . Divide C into n parts at the
points A z0 , z1 ,...., zn B . Let
zi zi zi 1 and ai be any point on the
n

curve zi 1 zi . Then nlim

f (ai ) zi is

zi 0 i 1

called the line integral of f ( z) taken along the path C. ie

f ( z )dz
c

f ( z )dz (u iv)(dx idy) (udx vdy) i (udy vdx)

c

Properties:
1)

(k f ( z) k g ( z))dz k f ( z)dz k g ( z)dz

1

2)
3)

f ( z )dz f ( z )dz

f ( z)dz f ( z)dz f ( z)dz

c

c1

c2

where C consists of the curve c1 and c2

4) | f ( z )dz | ML where M is a constant f ' | f ( z ) | M for all z on C and L is the

c

length of the curve C.

Problems:
2i

1) Evaluate

( z ) dz
2

along

The line y x / 2
The real axis to 2 and then vertically to (2 i) .

i)
ii)

Soln:
z x iy; dz dx idy; z x iy x(1 i / 2)

i)

Along the line y x / 2

z x ix / 2 x(1 i / 2); dz (1 i / 2)dx
2i

( z ) 2 dz (1 i / 2) 2 x 2 (1 i / 2)dx (1 i / 2) 2 (1 i / 2)
0

8
8 5
(1 i 1/ 4)(1 i / 2) (5 / 4 i5 / 8) (2 i).
3
3 3

ii)

Along x-axis
y 0; z x, dz dx
2

( z ) dz x dx 3 .
2

Along y-axis,
x 2, dz idy
z 2 iy

( z )2 4 i 4 y y 2
2i

2 0i

( z ) 2 dz (4 i 4 y y 2 )idy
0

1
1
(4 2i )i (4 )i 2
3
3
1
i2
3
8
1 1
c f ( z )dz 3 2 3 i 3 (14 11i)

8
3

2) Integrate f ( z) ( z z0 )m where m is an integer, z0 is a constant, in the

counter clockwise sense around the circle with radius r and centre z0 .
Soln:
c | z z0 | r
z z0 rei d
f ( z )dz

ir
c

m 1

m
( z z0 ) dz

e irei d

m im

i ( m 1)

e
|02
i (m 1)

r m1

(cos(m 1) |02
m 1
0 if m 1
If m 1
2
1
1
i
c ( z z0 ) dz 0 rei ire d 2 i

3) If C is a circle | z 2 | 1 , evaluate ( z )2 dz (Ans: 8 i )

c

4) Evaluate ( z z )dz where C is | z 2 | 3 (Ans: 30)

2

5) Evaluate Re zdz where C is

c

The path from 1 i to 3 2i

b) Along the straight line from (1,1) to (3,1) and then from (3,1) to (3,2)
6) Evaluate zdz where C is
a)

a) | z 2 | 3
b)

Square with vertices at z 0, 2, 2i, 2 2i

Theorem: If f ( z) is analytic on simple curve C, then the line integral

f ( z)dz

is

independent of the path chosen, it depends only on the end points.

7) Evaluate (4 z 3)dz where C is the straight line from I to i .
c

8) Evaluate zdz from z 0 to z 4 2i along the line from z 0 to z 2i and

c

then the line from z 2i to z 4 2i .

9) Evaluate z 2 dz
c

a)
b)

18 26i
3

Along the straight line from z 0 to z 3 i

Along the real axis from z 0 to z 3 and then vertically to z 3 i .

CAUCHYS INTEGRAL THEOREM

If () is analytic in a simply connected domain D then

f ( z)dz 0

for simple

closed curve C lying entirely within D

Proof:
Consider

f ( z)dz udx vdy i udy vdx , u and v have continued partial

derivatives in D because f ( z) is analytic and f '( z ) is continuous. Applying Greens

theorem in the plane i.e.) if M ( x, y) and N ( x, y) be continuous in a domain R of the
xy-plane bounded by a closed a curve C, then
N

Mdx Ndy ( x

M
)dxdy
y

f ( z)dz ( x y )dxdy i ( x y )dxdy

= (
R

v v
u u
)dxdy i ( )dxdy
x x
x x
R

=0.
Note: Cauchys Integral Theorem is also known as Cauchys theorem.
Ex.1:

f ( z)dz e dz 0
z

for any simple closed curve C because e z is an analytic

function.
Ex.2:

z
z

dz 0 but

1
is not analytic at z=0
z2

f ( z )dz 0 doesnot implies that f(z) is analytic.

C

Ex.3:

dz
1
3
2 i where R : z . Hence the condition that the domain D is
z
2
2
C

simply connected is essential. But f ( z )

1
1
3
is analytic in z .
2
z
2

Independence of path:
Let f ( z) be analytic in a simply connected domain D. Let C1 and C2 be any
two paths in D joining any two points z1 and z2
in D and having no further points in common
then f ( z)dz f ( z)dz both C1 and C2
C1

C2

traversed in the same direction ie) the integral

of f ( z) from z1 and z2 is independent of the path
joining them.
Proof:
The two curves C1 and C2 together form a simple closed curve C in D.
By Cauchys theorem,

f ( z)dz f ( z)dz f ( z)dz 0

(Or)

C1

C2

f ( z)dz f ( z)dz f ( z)dz .

C1

C2

C2

Cauchys theorem for multiply Connected Domains:

If f ( z) is analytic in the domain D between two simple closed curves C and C1 then

 f ( z)dz f ( z)dz .

C1

Proof:

By Cauchys integral theorem

f ( z )dz 0

ABC1BAC

i.e.

AB

f ( z )dz f ( z )dz
C1

BA

f ( z )dz f ( z )dz 0
C

f ( z)dz f ( z)dz f ( z)dz .

C1

C1

Where C and C1 are traversed in same direction.

Note: If C1 , C2 ,........, Cn be any number of closed curves within C then

f ( z)dz f ( z)dz ............ f ( z)dz

C1

C2

Cn

Examples: for Cauchys Integral Theorem

1)

z2
z 1 z 3dz 0 Since z=3 lies outside z 1 .

2)

1
dz 0 Since z 2i lies outside z 1 .
z 2
z 1

Derivative of analytic functions:

If a function f ( z) is analytic in a simply connected domain D, then its
derivative at any point z a of D is also analytic and is given by
f '(a)

1
f ( z)
dz

2 i C ( z a)2

Proof:
By Cauchys Integral formula f (a)
neighborhood of a.

1
f ( z)
dz .Let (a+h) be any point in the

2 i C z a

f ( a h)

1
f ( z)
dz .

2 i C z (a h)

f ( a h) f ( a )
1
f ( z) 1
1

dz

h
2 i C h z a h z a

=
f '(a) lim
h 0

1
f ( z) z a z a h
.
dz

2 i C h ( z a h)( z a)

f ( a h) f ( a )
1
f ( z)

dz .

h
2 i C ( z a) 2

In general f n (a)

n!
f ( z)
dz .

2 i C ( z a)n1

Problem:
1)

sin 2 z

( z 3)( z 1) dz , C is a rectangle with vertices at 3 i, 2 i, 2 i,3 i .

2

2) Evaluate
3)

z2
C z 2 4dz where C is the rectangle with vertices 2 i4 .

1
dz where C is the circles (i) z 3 1(ii ) z 1 1(iii) z i 1(iv) z 1 1.
1

z2 1
4)
dz where C: z 1
z
(2
z

1)
C

5)

(z

6)
7)

z
dz Where (i) C : z 2 (ii) C : z 2 2 .
1)( z 2 9)

z3 2z 1
( z i)2 dz Where C: z 2 10 i .
C

sin 2 z

dz; C : z 1.

( z )3
6

8)

sin z 2 cos z 2
( z 1)( z 2) dz Where C : z 3 .
C

9)

ez
( z 1)4 ( z 2)dz Where C : z 1 3 .
C

10)

z2 1
1
C z 2 1dz Where C is (i) z 2 (ii) z i 1 (iii) z i 1 (iv) z 2i 2 .

z3 z
( z 2)dz where C is (i) z 3 12 i (ii) z 2 1 12 i (iii) z 1 0 .
C

11)

Cauchys Integral Formula: If f ( z) is analytic inside and on simple closed curve C

and if a is any point within C then f (a)

1
f ( z)
dz .

2 i C z a

f ( z)
is not analytic at z=a and z=b. Then write
( z a)( z b)
f ( z)
A
B
then apply Cauchys theorem.

( z a)( z b) z a z b

Note: Suppose

Cauchys Integral Formula:

Let () be analytic in a simply connected domain . Let be any simple closed
curve in enclosing any point in . Then

f ( z)

z adz 2 if (a), where is traversed

in counter clockwise direction.

Proof:

Consider the function

f ( z)
which is
za

analytic at all points within except at

= . With as centre and radius ,
draw a small circle 1 lying entirely
within .
Now

f ( z)
being analytic in the region
za

enclosed by and 1 . We have by Cauchys Theorem for multiply connected

domains,

f ( z)

Consider

f ( z)

z adz z a dz (1) .
C1

f ( z)

z adz

C1

where C1 : z a r.

Therefore

C1

f (rei a )
rie d
rei

f (rei a )id (2)

As circle 1 shrinks to a point , i.e. r 0.

From (2),

C1

From (1),

f ( z)
dz
za

f (a )id 2 if (a ).

f ( z)

z adz 2 if (a) .

1. Evaluate

ez
z i dz over each of the following contours C: (i)
C

(iii)

z 2 (ii)

2
z 1 1 .

Solution:

ez
C z i dz is not analytic at z i .

( x, y) (0, )

(i)

z 2
z i lies

within the circle z 2 .

Therefore

z adz 2 if (a) 2 ie

f ( z)

2 i(cos i sin ) 2 i.

(ii)

(0, ) lies outside z

Therefore

f ( z)

z adz 0.

(iii)

z 1 1
z i lies

outside C.

Therefore

z adz 0.

f ( z)

2. Evaluate

(iv)

1
dz where C: (i)
1

z 1 1 .

z 1 1 (ii)

z 3 1

(iii) z i 1

1
1

z 1 ( z 1)( z 1)( z i)( z i)

Solution:

(i) z 1 1
Since z 1 lies onside C. We have
f ( z)

z adz 2 if (1) 2 i (1 1)((1)

1)

2 i
i
.
(2)(2)
2

z 3 1

(ii)

z 1,1, i, i lies outside C. We have

f ( z)

z adz 0.

(iii) z i 1
f ( z)

2 i

z i dz 2 i (i 1)(i 1)(i i) (2)(2i) 2 .

(iv) z 1 1
f ( z)
1
i
dz

.
C z a
(1 1)(1 1) 2

3. Evaluate

z2 1
C z(2 z 1) dz where C: z 1 .

1
2

Solution: z 0, z lies outside C, we have

5
1
z2 1
1
1 1
2
2


z (2 z 1) z (2 z 1) 2 2 z(2 z 1)
z

f ( z)

z adz 2 if (0) 2 if (

1
2

) 0 2 i 2 i(5)

4. Evaluate

(z

Solution:

(z

z
2
( z 9)

( z i )( z i )

i
2

z
dz where C: z 2 and z 2 2 .
1)( z 2 9)
z
dz 2 if (i) 2 if (i).
1)( z 2 9)
i
8( 2i )

z i

i
8(2i )

z i

f ( z)

z adz 2 i(16 16 )
1

i
4

z2 2

f ( z)

( z 1)( z 3i )( z 3i )

z
2
( z 1)( z 3i )

f ( z)

z 3i

3i

z adz 2 if (3i) 2 i (9 1)6i 8 .

5. Evaluate

(z

Solution:

z
dz where C: z 2 and z 2 2 .
1)( z 2 9)

f ( z)

z adz 2 i( f (i) f (i)) 2 i( 16 16 ) 5 .

1

f ( z)

z 3dz 2 if (3) 2 i(106 ) 10 .

3

6. Evaluate

sin z 2 cos z 2
C ( z 1)( z 2) dz where C: z 3.

sin z 2 cos z 2
1
1

( z 1)( z 2)
z 1 z 2

Solution:
f ( z)

z adz 2 i( f (2) f (1)) 2 i 2 i 4 i.

7. Evaluate

sin 2 z

(z )

Solution:
f ( z)

( z a)

n 1

8. Evaluate

dz where C: z 1.

1 . Therefore z

dz

lies outside C.

2 i ( n )
2 i ''

f (a)
f (a) i(2cos 2 z ) 2 i cos i.
n!
2!
3
6

z2 1
1
C z 2 1 dz where C: z 2 , z i 1, z i 1, z 2i 2.

Solution: C: z 12
z i, i lies outside z

1
.
2

Therfore

f ( z )dz 0 .

C : z i 1.

f ( z)

( 11)

z i dz 2 if (i) 2 i (ii) 2 .

C : z i 1.

f ( z)

z i dz 2 if (i) 2 i

( 11)
( i i )

2 .

C : z 2i 2.

f ( z)

z i dz 2 .

z2 2z 2

9. Evaluate

( z 1) z
2

Solution: f ( z )

dz where C: z i 2 .

z2 2z 2
z ( z i ) 2 ( z i )2

z i

lies inside C.
Therefore f ( z )dz 2 if '(i) (2i 1).
C

10.

z sin 3 z
3

(z

3
2

dz where C: z 2.

Solution:

f ( z)

( z a) dz
3

11.
C

z3

( z i)2

Solution:

dz where C: z 2.

ez

z3 dz

( z i)2 dz

Therefore

z4
z

2z 5

Solution:
(i)

2 i ''
f (0) ie0 i.
2!

2 i '
f (i ) 8 i( z 3 ) i 8 .
1!

ez

z3

12.

2 i ''
f ( ) i(6 z 9sin 3z ) z 3 i( 3).
2
2!
2

z4
( z i)2

dz (i 8) .

dz where C: (i)the circle z 1, (ii) z 1 i 2, (iii) z 1 i 2.

z4
z2 2z 5

z 1,

z4
z2 2z 1 4

f ( z )dz 0 .

z4
( z 1)2 22

z4
( z 1 2i )( z 1 2i )

f ( z ) has singularities at -1-2i and -1+2i i.e. ( x, y) (1, 2)and (1, 2)

f ( z ) is not analytic.

z 1 i 2,

(ii)

Centre at (-1,1) and radius 2.

Let d1 (1 1)2 (2 1) 2 3
Distance d1 is greater than radius.
Therefore (-1,-2) lies outside the circle.
d 2 (1 1) 2 (2 1) 2 1 r.

(1, 2) lies inside C .

f ( z)
(2i 3)

dz 2 if (1 2i)
( z 1 2i)
2
C

iii) | z 1 i | 2
Centre at (1, 1) and radius 2. Let d1 (1 1)2 (2 1) 2 1 r 2 .
(1, 2) lies inside

Let d 2 (1 1)2 (2 1) 2 3 r 2.
(1, 2) lies outside

f ( z)
dz 2 i f (1 2i)
z 1 2i

2 i (1 2i 4) (3 2i)

(1 2i 1 2i)
2
(2i 3)

13)

dz

z4

where C :| z | 1

Soln:

dz

z4 0

14) Evaluate

dz

z2

around

i) the circle z 2 4

ii) the circle z 1 5

iii) the rectangle with vertices at (3 2i), 2 2i .
iv) triangle with vertices at (0,0),(1,0),(0,1) .
Soln: i) since f ( z)

1
is not analytic at z 2 .
z2

We have z 2 4ei , 0 2
dz 4iei d
2

ii)

4iei
d 2 i
4ei

dz

z 2 2 i f (2) 2 i

iii) Along AB ,
3

I1

x 2i 2dx log( x 2i 2)

3
2

log(1 2i) log(4 2i)

Along BC , ( x 3, y varies)
2

I2

3 iy 2 idy log(3 iy 2)

2
2

log(1 2i) log(1 2i)

2

Along CD , ( y 2, x varies) I3
3

1
2
dx log( x 2i 2) 3
x 2i 2

log(1 2i) log(2i 4)

2

Along DA , ( x 2, y varies) I 4
2

1
2
idy log(iy 4) 2
2 iy 2

log(2i 4) log(2i 4)
I I1 I 2 I 3 I 4
log(1 2i) log(4 2i) log(1 2i) log(1 2i)
log(1 2i) log(2i 4) log(2i 4) log(2i 4)
0

iv) By Cauchys Integral Theorem,

dz

z 2 0.

Since, along OA , ( x varies,y 0) , we have

1

I1
0

dx
1
log( x 2) 0
x2

log(1) log(2) log 2

0

idy
0
log(iy 2) 1 log(2) log(i 2)
iy 2
1

I2

log 2 log(i 2)

Along AB , A (1,0), B (0,1) we have

y 0 x 1

y x 1 y 1 x, 0 x 1
1 0 0 1
dy dx
z x iy x i (1 x)
dz (1 i)dx
0
(1 i )
dx log (1 i ) x (i 2) 1
(1 i ) x i 2
1
0

I3

log(i 2) log(1 i i 2)
log(i 2)
I I1 I 2 I 3 log 2 log 2 log(i 2) log(i 2) 0

z2 z 1
dz where i) C : z 1 1 ii) z 2 iii) z 1
15) Evaluate
2
2
z

2
C

Soln: i) By Cauchys Theorem,

ii)

z2 z 1
z 2 dz 0
C

f ( z)

z 2 dz 2 if (2)

2 i (4 2 1)
6 i

iii) By Cauchys Theorem,

z2 z 1
z 2 dz 0
C

16) Verify Cauchys Theorem for the function z 2 with C as the boundary of the
rectangle with vertices 1, 1, 1 i, 1 i .
1

(1 iy )3
1
(1 i)3 1
Soln: Along BC , I1 (1 iy ) idy
3
3
y 0
0
1

( x i )3
(1 i)3 (1 i)3
Along CD , I 2 ( x i) dx

3 1
3
1
2

(1 iy)3
1 (1 i)3
Along DA , I3 (1 iy) idy

3
3
1
1
0

x3
Along AB , I 4 x dx
3
1

2
3

I I1 I 2 I 3 I 4 0

By Cauchys theorem,

f ( z)dz 0 .

Extra Problems:
e2 z
dz where C : z 2 .
1) Evaluate
( z 1) 4
C

Soln:

e2 z
2 i
2 i '''
(4 1)
C ( z 1)4 dz (4 1)! f (1) 3! f (1)

2) Evaluate

23 i 2 z
8 i
[e ]z 1 2
3
3e

ez
C z(1 z)3 dz where C is the circle i) z 12 ii) z 1 12 iii) z 2

Soln: i) Consider z 1 2
ez
e z (1 z )3
z(1 z)3 dz C z dz
C
2 if (0)
2 i

ii) Consider z 1 1 2 .
ez
ez
C z(1 z)3 dz C (1)3 ( zz 1)3 dz
(1)

Where f ' ( z )

2 i ''
f ( z)
2!

z 2 ( z 1)e z z 2e z ( z 1)e z 2 z
ze z e z
''
and
f
(
z
)

z4
z2

ez

dz ie
z (1 z )3
C

iii) Consider z 2 .
Since z 0, z 1 both lie inside C , we have
ez
ez
ez
ez
ez
z (1 z )3 dz C z dz C 1 z dz C (1 z )2 dz C (1 z )3 dz
C
ez
ez
ez
dz
dz

( z 1)3 dz
(1)( z 1)
( z 1) 2
C
C
C

2 if (0)

2 i 2 ie 2 ie ie
i (2 e)

3) Evaluate
Soln:

ez
( z 2 2 )2 dz where C : z 4
C

1
1

2 2
2
(z )
( z i ) ( z i ) 2
i 3
1 2
1 3 1 2
4

4
z i ( z i ) 2 z i ( z i ) 2
2

ez
1 '
i
1 '
i

C ( z 2 2 )2 dz 4 3 f (i ) 4 2 f (i ) 4 3 f (i ) 4 2 f (i ) 2 i
1
i
1
i

3 2 (1) 3 2 (1) 2 i
4
4
4
4

5z 2 4 z 3
dz where C is the
z
C

4) Determine (2), (4), (3i), '(i), ''( 2i) if ( )

ellipse 16 x 2 9 y 2 144 .
2

x
y
Soln: Given C :16 x 9 y 144 i.e, 1
3 4
2

5z 2 4 z 3
dz
z
C

i) Consider (2)

but f ( z) is not analytic at z 2 . It lies inside C .

By Cauchys Integral Formula,

5z 2 4 z 3
z dz 2 if (2)
C

where f ( z ) 5 z 2 4 z 3
5z 2 4 z 3
z dz 2 if (2) 2 i 5 4 4 2 3 30 i
C

ii)

5z 2 4 z 3
dz
z

4
C

(4)

z4

lies outside C. Hence by Cauchys integral theorem (4) 0

5z 2 4 z 3
(3i )
dz
iii)
z 3i
C

z 3i lies inside C. Hence by Cauchys integral formula,

5z 2 4 z 3
z 3i dz 2 if (3i)
C

2 i 5(3i) 2 4( 3i) 3
2 i 12i 42
12 i 2i 7

iv) For any lying inside C,

5z 2 4 z 3
is not analytic at z
z

By Cauchys formula,
5z 2 4 z 3
2
C z dz 2 if ( ) Where f ( z) 5z 4 z 3

( ) 2 i 5 2 4 3

' ( ) 2 i(10 4) and " ( ) 2 i(10)

" (i) 4 i(5i 2)

and " (2i) 20 i

4z2 z 5
dz where
z
C

5) Determine (4), (i), ' (1), " (i) , (3.5) if ( )

2

x
y
C: 1
2 3

4z 2 z 5
dz
z4
C

Soln : i) Consider (4)

By Cauchys integral theorem (4) 0, (3.5) 0

ii) Consider (i)
c

4z2 z 5
dz
z i

By Cauchys integral formula,

4z2 z 5
2
c z i dz 2 i 4i i 5 2 i(i 1)

iii) For any lying inside C,

4z2 z 5
is not analytic at z
z

By Cauchys integral formula,

4z2 z 5
c z dz 2 if ( )
2 i(4 2 5)

( ) 2 i(4 2 5)

' ( ) 2 i(8 1), " ( ) 2 i(8)

' (1) 2 i(8 1) 14 i, " (i) 16 i

3z 2 7 z 1
dz where
z

6) Determine F (3), F ' (1 i), F " (1 i), if F ( )

C: x 2 y 2 4
Sol:
3z 2 7 z 1
dz
z 3
C

F (3)

By Cauchys integral theorem,

f ( z)dz 0

F (3) 0
F ( ) 2 i(3 2 7 1)
F ' ( ) 2 i(6 7), F " ( ) 2 i(6)
F " (1 i ) 2 i (6 6i 7) 2 i(13 6i), F " (1 i) 12 i

7)

ez

z 1

( z 2)

dz Where C: z 1 3

Sol: Since z 1, z 2 lies inside C, we have

1

z 1

( z 2)

A
B
C
D
E

2
3
4
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1 Z 1 ( Z 2)

1 A( z z 3 3z 2 5 z 2) B( z 3 3 z 2) C ( z 2 z 2) D( z 2)
4

E ( z 4 4 z 3 6 z 2 4 z 1)

Upon solving we get,

A

1
3
1
1
1
, B ,C , D , E
81
81
9
3
81

z 1

( z 2)

3
1
1
1
1
81 81
9
3 81
( z 1) ( z 1) 2 z 13 z 14 ( z 2)

ez
1
3
2 i 1 2 i 1 1
1
1
2
C ( z 1)4 ( z 2) dz 81 2 ie 81 2 ie 9.2! e 3.3! e 81 2 ie
1 3 1 1 2 i 2
2 ie1
e
81 81 18 18 81
2 i 13 2 i

e 81 81e2

2 i 1

13
81e e