Oxygenated treatment

Oxygenated treatment (OT) is a technique used to reduce corrosion in a boiler and its
associated feedwater system in flow-through boilers.
Traditionally, corrosion was prevented by keeping the oxygen in the system below 10 ppb by
using a deaerator and injecting an oxygen scavenger. This process is called All-volatile treatment
(AVT) in reference to the volatile alkalizing agents added to the feedwater. Ammonia (NH3) is
added to keep the feedwater pH high, thus reducing the risk of FAC. In AVT(R), a reducing
agent is added. AVT(R) causes the formation of a protective layer of magnetite (Fe3O4), which is
a combination of FeO and Fe2O3. In AVT(O), no reducing agent is added and residual oxygen is
present. AVT(O) allows a layer of hematite to form on top of the magnetite, similar to
oxygenated treatment.
With oxygenated treatment, oxygen is injected into the feedwater to keep the oxygen level
between 30-50 ppb. "Common injection points are just after the condensate polisher and again at
the deaerator outlet." [1] This forms a thicker protective layer of hematite (Fe2O3) on top of the
magnetite. This is a denser, flatter film (vs. the undulation scale with OT) so that there is less
resistance to water flow compared to AVT.[2] Also, OT reduces the risk of flow-accelerated
corrosion.[3]
When OT is used, conductivity after cation exchange (CACE) at the economiser inlet must be
maintained below 0.15S/cm [4] this can be achieved by the use of a condensate polisher.[5]

Comparison of AVT to OT[edit]

Characteristic

Feedwater
system piping

All-Volatile
Treatment
(Reducing)
ferrus or mixed
metallurgy (e.g.
copper feedwater
train)

All-Volatile
Treatment
(Oxidizing)

Oxygenated
Treatment (Neutral
Water Treatment)

Oxygenated
Treatment
(Combined
Water
Treatment)

all-ferrous
metallurgy

all-ferrous metallurgy

all-ferrous
metallurgy

1 to 10 ppb

30-50 ppb (drum),

30-50 ppb (drum), 3030-150
150 (supercritical)
(supercritical)

Dissolved
oxygen level

< 10 ppb

Chemicals
added

a reducing agent
(such as hydrazine), ammonia to
ammonia to raise
raise pH
pH

an oxidizing agent
(such as hydrogen
peroxide or oxygen)

an oxidizing
agent, ammonia to
raise pH

pH[6]

9.0-9.3

9.2-9.6

8.0-8.5 (oncethrough), 9.0-9.4

9.2-9.6

Top layer
composition

magnetite (Fe3O4)
on steel piping,
cuprous oxide
(Cu2O) on copper
piping

Advantages

Can be used with

mixed metallurgy
piping

(drum)
hematite
ferric oxide
(Fe3O4) forms ferric oxide hydrate
hydrate (FeOOH)
on top of the
(FeOOH) or hematite or hematite
porous
(Fe3O4) forms over the (Fe3O4) forms over
magnetite
porous magnetite
the porous
magnetite
(Fe3O4)[7]
Less flow resistance,
More protection lower dissolved
against FAC
feedwater iron
than AVT(R), concentrations,
minimizes
FeOOH film is more
orifice founling stable, reduced boiler
[8]
cleaning frequency

Increased risk of
FAC, a deaerator is
required, more
frequent chemical
A deaerator is
Disadvantages cleaning is required,
required.
hazardous
chemicals
(hydrazine) are
used.

Condensate
Air leakage is more
serious. Two-phase
polishers are
FAC can be a concern. required.

Flow-accelerated corrosion
Flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC), also known as flow-assisted corrosion, is a
corrosion mechanism in which a normally protective oxide layer on a metal surface
dissolves in a fast flowing water. The underlying metal corrodes to re-create the oxide,
and thus the metal loss continues.
By definition, the rate of FAC depends on the flow velocity. FAC often affects carbon
steel piping carrying ultra-pure, deoxygenated water or wet steam. Stainless steel does
not suffer from FAC. FAC of carbon steel halts in the presence of small amount of
oxygen dissolved in water. FAC rates rapidly decrease with increasing water pH.
FAC has to be distinguished from erosion corrosion because the fundamental
mechanisms for the two corrosion modes are different. FAC does not involve
impingement of particles, bubbles, or cavitation which cause the mechanical (often
crater-like) wear on the surface. By contrast to mechanical erosion, FAC involves
dissolution of normally poorly soluble oxide by combined electrochemical, water
chemistry and mass-transfer phenomena. Nevertheless, the terms FAC and erosion are
sometimes used interchangeably because the actual mechanism may, in some cases, be
unclear.
FAC was the cause of several high-profile accidents in power plants, for example, a
rupture of a high-pressure condensate line in Virginia Power's Surry nuclear plant[1] in
1986.