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PART 1
ELECTRICAL GENERATION
University of Sunderland
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University of Sunderland
LESSON 1
SYSTEM MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCTION
This introductory lesson considers the management of a power
system in which the interconnection of power sources makes their
efficient operation a complex subject. The module "Electrical
Power Systems and Machines" introduced the principles of merit
order and the Electricity Pool to ensure that as far as possible the
most economic generating sets on offer are selected for use, but
economy has to be balanced against considerations such as
security of supply. The problem for the operator is to schedule
and dispatch available generation in merit order to meet demand
whilst meeting defined quality and security of supply standards,
including statutory levels of system frequency and voltage. In
addition, there is a need to administer the settlements process,
particularly the complex computer systems needed to calculate the
payments due as a result of trading in the electricity market or
pool.
An opportunity is taken to introduce the principles of
compensation for voltage drops in a power system and an analysis
made of the factors affecting voltage drop. Various forms of static
compensation are discussed and the application of tap-changing
transformers to compensate for voltage drop is described. Armed
with an appreciation of the strengths and limitations of this
technology, the student is better prepared for the lesson that
follows later in this module on Flexible A.C. Transmission
Systems.
YOUR AIMS
As a result of undertaking this unit you should be able to:
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Nuclear
Electric
Innogy
Interconnections
between Scotland
and France
PowerGen
National
Grid
Pumped
storage
Independent
generators
Directly connected
consumers
12 Regional
Electricity Companies
Independent
generators
Consumers
(REC customers)
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COMPUTATIONAL TASKS
These include tools to complete the following tasks:
1. demand prediction
2. generation scheduling (including dispatch)
3. economic dispatch
4. fuel and energy monitoring
5. assessment of generation/operating costs
6. assessment of alternative operation methods
7. load flows and prospective short-circuit fault levels
8. network configuration and state estimation
9. transient stability and protection performance
10. steady-state stability behaviour
11. longer term dynamic behaviour including complex Automatic
Voltage
12. Regulator and Steam Governor models.
The computational overhead of most of these tasks has been such
as to preclude the use of real time or on-line computation and
most are computed off-line or post-event. However, activities
such as state estimation, load flow and transient stability
prediction are being performed on an on-line basis with a clear
trend towards achieving full real time simulation. Most of the
activities above require data from the power system that needs to
be refreshed every few seconds. This is provided by SCADA
systems. The telemetered data may include equipment states (e.g.
open/closed/out of service, etc.), flows, voltages, frequencies,
alarms indicating status changes, protective gear operations and
operating variables outside limits. A hierarchy of displays will be
used in the form of block diagrams of the system showing basic
operating quantities in geographical areas to detailed system
diagrams of sections of the power system. What has been
described in this section is the receipt and display of data at a
central control point using a SCADA system but equally
important to the control engineer is the ability to control plant
safely from this remote point. This may include adjustment of the
start up of emergency generation, circuit breaker operation, tap
changing, changing of protective gear status and demand
disconnection and reconnection.
Post-event computational tasks linked to the SCADA system
include performance analysis of both day-to-day operations and
abnormal events such as major loss of supply. Typical on-line
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Quantity
Analysis
Number of times and duration of being outside
limits
Frequency
Tie line flows
Circuit flows
Generator outputs
Demands met
Voltages
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R+jX
P+jQ
(a)
E
IX
V IR
Ip
Iq
I
g
V
(b)
RP + XQ XQ
V
V
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This equation shows that for a fixed system voltage V, the voltage
drop across the system is proportional to the reactive power Q.
Recall also that if resistance is ignored, the formula for power
transfer through a reactance X is given by:
P=
EV
sin
X
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2
0.1 p.u.
0.04 p.u.
0.1 p.u.
0.1 p.u.
Load 50 MW
0.1 p.u.
0.04 p.u.
0.1 p.u.
p.f. = 1.0
0.1 p.u.
132 kV
11 kV
275 kV
200 MW
0.8 p.f.
lagging
Figure 3: Network for Example 1
SOLUTION
Voltage drops in the circuits will be neglected and nominal
voltages of 1 p.u. assumed on each of the network buses.
The reactive power loss in an inductive reactance is given by I2X
or in per- unit terms by:
(I )
p .u .
X p.u .
S p.u.
P 2 + Q p2.u.
X p.u . = p.u .
=
X p.u .
2
V
V
p
u
.
.
p .u .
Q132 loss =
Pp2.u . + Q p2.u.
V p2.u.
X p.u . =
0.5 2 + 0 2
0.1
12
= 0.025p.u.
At busbar 3,
Pload 3
sin + Q132 loss
power factor, cos
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Pp2.u. + Q 2p.u .
V p2.u.
X p.u. =
2.5 2 + 1.525 2
0.07 = 0.6 p.u.
12
The I2X loss in the generator transformer has been ignored in this
example and so the generator must deliver P = 2.5 and Q = 2.125
p.u. and therefore operate at a power factor of:
2.125
cos tan 1
= 0.762 lagging.
2.5
IN TEXT QUESTION
Suppose the generator transformer has a reactance of 0.05 p.u. What is the new generator
power factor?
ANSWER
At busbar 1 the real power PBus 1 = 2.5 p.u. and the reactive power by QBus 1 = 1.525 + 0.6 =
2.125 p.u. The reactive power consumed by the generator transformer is given by:
Pp2.u. + Q 2p.u .
V p2.u.
X p.u. =
2.5 2 + 2.125 2
0.05 = 0.5383 p.u.
12
The complex power supplied by the generator is then S = 2.5 + j2.66 p.u.
The new generator power factor is given by:
2.66
cos tan 1
= 0.684 lagging
2.5
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dV =
V
V
dP +
dQ
P
Q
dV =
dP
dQ
+
P Q
V V
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SOLUTION
Using
dV =
dQ
dP
+
P Q
V V
Hence,
dQ =
dP
dQ
+
=0
P Q
V V
dP Q
= 0.5 10 = 5MVAr
P V
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V = E V =
V
V
Hence,
(E V )V RP
X
Q E 2V
=
V
X
QM
V
and V = L
3
3
Q
M
Q
3
1 Q M
E
=
=
=
V
X
V
3 VL
L
3
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QM
E
= 3 = 3 I SC
VL
X
EXAMPLE 3
The short-circuit level at a substation is 8 kA. Determine the
MVAr compensation to correct a 1 kV drop on load at this point.
SOLUTION
QM
= 3 I SC = 3 8
VL
= 13.86 MVAr/kV
(capacitive compensation required)
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synchronous compensators.
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R + jX
Line
IR
V3
Vr
V1
V2
1 : ts
LOAD
Is
tr : 1
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V2 = 0.5 t s 2V1 t s
(t
)]
2
s
Nominal 132/11 kV
Line
11 kV
25 + j66
1 : ts
tr : 1
Load 100 MW
@
0.9 p.f.
lagging
Figure 6 shows a line diagram for the system. As the line voltage
drop is completely compensated, V1 = V2 = 11 kV = 1 p.u. Also ts
tr = 1. The load is P = 100MW and Q = 48.4 MVAr or 1 +
j0.484 p.u. in per-unit terms. The base impedance at 132 kV is
given by:
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Z Base =
(KV )2
S Base
132 2
= 174.24
100
25 + j 66
= 0.14 + j 0.38 p.u.
174.24
[(
1 = 0.5 t s2 1 t s
(t
2
s
)]
From this equation, if we take the positive root for one of the two
possible solutions we obtain:
t s = 1.21 and t r =
1
1
=
= 0.83
t s 1.21
IN TEXT QUESTION
Suppose the load at the end of the line in example 4 dropped to 50 MVA at a power factor of
0.8. What would be the new tap-changing transformer settings to maintain the load at
11 kV?
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ANSWER
As the line voltage drop is completely compensated, V1 = V2 = 11 kv = 1 p.u. Also ts tr = 1.
The load is P = 40 MW and Q = 30 MVAr or 0.4 + j0.3 p.u. in per-unit terms. The base
impedance at 132 kV is given by:
Z Base
2
(
KV )
=
S Base
132 2
=
= 174.24
100
25 + j 66
= 0.14 + j 0.38 p.u.
174.24
[(
1 = 0.5 t s2 1 t s
(t
2
s
)]
From this equation if we take the positive root for one of the two possible solutions we obtain:
t s = 1.098 and t r =
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1
1
=
= 0.911
t s 1.098
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SUMMARY
This lesson has been an introduction to the complexities of power
system management. It has, hopefully, given an overview of the
problems of such a process and laid the foundations for further
lessons in this module on subjects like: Performance of
Synchronous Machines, Power System Stability, Loadflow, Fault
Calculations and Selection of Switchgear, Flexible a.c. Systems,
and Power System Protection. The subject is vast, and having
studied this module and the others which follow, you should then
move on to various authors' texts on more detailed aspects of
power system behaviour. Some idea has been given in the lesson
of the computational tasks undertaken in power systems study but
it is left to more detailed texts to cover these in depth. The TMA
on topics 1, 2 and 3 is based on exercises taken from the
recommended textbook Power System Analysis and Design by
Glover and Sharma and published by Brooks/Cole. This reference
text comes with a software disc containing programs that enable
the student to carry out exercises in loadflow, short-circuit
analysis and system compensation.
The analytical sections of the lesson were devoted to the study of
voltage drop in a power system and its correction by the injection
of reactive power and the use of tap-changing transformers. Static
shunt capacitors, static series capacitors and synchronous
compensators were described as techniques to combat voltage
drop due to real and reactive power flow through a network.
Reactive power flow was identified as being the major contributor
to voltage drop, and the sensitivity of a voltage node to real and
reactive power flow was examined. The sensitivity of a voltage
node to reactive power flow was shown to be related to the shortcircuit current at the node in the form of the equation
QM
E
= 3 = 3 I SC
VM
X
Thus, if the short-circuit current level at a node is known, then the
reactive compensation to be added to correct for a particular
voltage drop can be computed directly from this relationship.
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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
QUESTION 1
Determine the power factor the generator must operate at in Figure 7 to deliver power at the
power factors stated. All p.u. values are referred to the voltage bases shown and 100 MVA. You
may ignore the reactive loss in the generator-transformer.
2
0.1
0.1
275 kV
3
0.1
4
0.15
0.1
0.15
132 kV
5
0.15
Load
100 MVA
@ p.f. = 1
0.15
11 kV
QUESTION 2
The sensitivity of a node to real power changes is 150 MW/kV of line voltage and that to reactive
power changes is 20 MVAr/kV of line voltage. How much reactive compensation would have to
be introduced at a point to maintain the voltage constant for a real power change of 1000 MW?
QUESTION 3
A 132 kV line is fed through an 11/132 kV transformer from a constant
11 kV supply. At the load end of the line another transformer of nominal ratio 132/11 kV
reduces the voltage. The total impedance of the line and transformers at 132 kV is (10 + j50) .
Both transformers are equipped with tap changing facilities, which are so arranged that the
product of the two off-nominal settings is unity. If the load on the system is 100 MW at 0.8 p.f.
lagging, calculate the settings of the tap changers required to maintain the voltage of the load
busbar at 11 kV. Use a base of 100 MVA.
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QUESTION 4
The load at the receiving end of a three-phase overhead line is 25 MW, power factor 0.8 lagging,
at a line voltage of 33 kV. A synchronous compensator is situated at the receiving end and the
voltage at both ends of the line is maintained at 33 kV. Calculate the MVAr of the compensator.
The line has resistance of 5 per phase and inductive reactance of 20 per phase.
QUESTION 5
Repeat Question 4 using the short-circuit current at a node method.
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(I )
X p.u .
p .u .
S p.u.
P 2 + Q p2.u.
X p.u . = p.u .
=
X p.u .
2
V
V
p
u
.
.
p
u
.
.
In this example the parallel per-unit reactance of the 132 kV lines and the transformers between
Bus 3 and the 100 MW load at Bus 5 evaluates to 0.15 p.u. The reactive loss in this 132 kV
section of line is therefore:
Pp2.u. + Q p2.u .
V p2.u.
At busbar 3,
X p.u.
1.0 2 + 0 2
=
0.15 = 0.15 p.u.
12
Pload 3
sin + Q132 loss
power factor, cos
1
0.6 + 0.15 = 0.9 p.u.
0.8
Pp2.u. + Q p2.u .
V p2.u.
X p.u. =
2 2 + 0.9 2
0.1 = 0.481 p.u.
12
The I2X loss in the generator transformer has been ignored in this example and so the generator
must deliver P = 2 and Q = 0.9 + 0.481 = 1.381 p.u. Therefore, the generator will operate at a
power factor of:
1.381
cos tan 1
= 0.823 lagging.
2
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ANSWER 2
dV =
Using
dQ
dP
+
P Q
V V
V
dQ =
dP Q
= 0.67 20 = 13.4MVAr
P V
Hence 13.4 MVAr of capacitive type compensation must be introduced to maintain voltage
constant.
ANSWER 3
Figure 8 shows a line diagram for the system. As the line voltage drop is completely
compensated, V1 = V2 = 11 kV p.u., also t s tr = 1.
Nominal 132/11 kV
Nominal 11/132 kV
Line
11 kV
25 + j66
tr : 1
1 : ts
Load 100 MW
@
0.9 p.f.
lagging
Figure 8
2
(
KV )
=
S Base
132 2
= 174.24
100
10 + j50
= 0.0574 + j 0.287 p.u.
174.24
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[(
(t
1 = 0.5 t s2 1 t s
2
s
)]
From this equation, if we take the positive root for one of the two possible solutions we obtain:
t s = 1.17 and t r =
1
1
=
= 0.85
t s 1.17
ANSWER 4
Using the formula for the magnitude of voltage drop along a line consisting of resistance and
inductive reactance of:
V = E V =
RP + XQ
V
RP
5 25
=
= 6.25MVAr
X
20
This value of Q is the total value of MVAr at the receiving end and consists of the sum of the
load and compensator contributions, i.e. Q = QL + QC.
The load MVAr is:
QL = 25 tan(cos1 0.8) = 18.75 MVAr
Hence the compensator MVAr is given by:
QC = Q QL = 6.25 18.75 = 25MVAr
the negative sign indicating the capacitive nature or source type injection of reactive power to be
produced by the compensator.
ANSWER 5
If the source voltage is
33000
3
short-circuit current at the load point is given by:
33000
3 = 952.63 90 0
A
j 20
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QM
= 3 I SC = 3 952.63
VM
= 1.65 MVAr/kV of line voltage
With 33 kV maintained at the load point, the load is 25 MW at 0.8 p.f. lagging and this equates to
a star connected phase impedance of:
Z load
p.f VL2
0.8 33 2
o
=
36.87 =
36.87 o
P
25
= 34.84836.87 o
With 33 kV as a source line voltage, the load voltage without any form of compensation present
will be:
33000
0 o
3
Vload =
34.84836.87 o
o
5 + j 20 + 34.84836.87
33000
3
Note:
The answers to Question 4 and Question 5 differ by 14% and this may be due to the
approximations made in the derivation of the voltage drop along the line. The technique of
Question 4 is to be preferred because of its simplicity.
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