Evaluation of effect of chromium on wear

performance of high manganese steel

I. El-Mahallawi, R. Abdel-karim, and A. Naguib
The effects of elements such as Ni, Mo, Cr, Cu, and V on the wear behaviour of high manganese steels have been
reported extensively. Most researchers agree on the influence of many of the elements but disagree on the effect of
Cr. A study has been conducted to evaluate the effect of 1.7 and 2.3 wt-%Cr on high manganese steel when subjected
to various wear conditions: impact loading, abrasion, combined impact abrasion, and combined abrasion
corrosion. The study has revealed that adding Cr to high manganese steel resulted in an increase in hardness and
hardenability, and a decrease in toughness. The effect on wear resistance was found to depend on the wear
conditions. Chromium alloyed high manganese steels showed superior wear resistance compared with plain Hadfield
steels where corrosion, abrasion, and combined impact abrasion conditions prevailed. Such conditions required a
high surface hardness. Plain Hadfield steel showed superior wear resistance in conditions where pure impact wear is
encountered. Such conditions required an increase in toughness rather than surface hardness.
MST/4821
The authors are in the Department of Metallurgy, Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Egypt. Manuscript received 7
August 2000; accepted 10 October 2000.
# 2001 IoM Communications Ltd.

Austenitic manganese steels are well known for their

marked work hardening characteristics that have qualified
them to be some of the major wear resisting materials for
wheels, conveyor chains, wear plates, shoes, etc., and for
applications in machinery for earth moving, mining,
quarrying, oil well drilling, rail roading, and cement
manufacturing. Yet they cannot be economically machined
and must be cast and ground to shape. The abrasion
resistance of these steels improves when the carbon content
is increased, but this practice is limited by the formation of
intergranular iron carbides that cause a marked embrittlement of the as cast condition. Moreover, higher carbon
contents cause heat treatment and foundry problems. The
standard1 toughening heat treatment, which involves
austenitising and water quenching, needs quenching
speeds that are usually difficult in practice. The use of
such steels is also limited by a lack of corrosion resistance.
For all the above reasons, research2 13 on austenitic high
manganese steel has been active ever since its evolution in
1882.
The logical solution to the previously mentioned
problems has been to add certain alloying elements to the
standard original Hadfield steel. Recommended alloying
elements have been selected to achieve the following:
(i) Production of well dispersed hard carbides in the
austenitic matrix so that the manganese content is
kept at the lower limit and the carbon is tied up as
types of carbides other than the intergranular iron
manganese carbides that cause embrittlement5,11
(ii) Increased critical cooling time such that more
practical quenching conditions are feasible and
there is a reduced tendency towards embrittlement
during slow cooling2,5,13
(iii) Increased yield strength4,6
(iv) Improved machinability1
(v) Compensation for lower carbon contents in welding
grades.1
Elements such as Ni, Mo, Cr, Cu, and V have been added to
high Mn steels and the results have been reported;1 6 most
researchers agree on the influence of Ni, Mo, V, and Cu, but
disagree on the effect of Cr. Recently, Cr has gained wide

ISSN 0267 0836

acceptance as an addition to Mn steels for the purpose of

corrosion resistance improvement.9 Previous researchers9,10
have identified the formation of M23C6 type carbides, rather
than M3C type carbides in the Cr containing steel, the
M23C6 type retards the tendency for intergranular failure in
binary Fe Mn alloys. Although the M23C6 type carbide
precipitates on the grain boundaries, it should still be
remembered that these carbides tend to precipitate within
the grain boundaries, on dislocations, and on solute atom/
vacancy clusters as well.11 The addition of 2 2.5 wt-%Cr to
high Mn steel has been reported4 to increase the yield
strength and flow resistance and, accordingly, increase the
wear resistance. However, in other cases,6 cracked castings
and low toughness and, accordingly, reduced wear resistance and premature service failure have been produced.
The aim of this work is to re-evaluate the effect of Cr on
high Mn steels in view of previous findings and to consider
its role in resisting the types of wear encountered during
service.

Experimental work
MATERIAL
The experimental work conducted in this work used three
different high manganese steels, the analyses of which are

dW/W (%)

Introduction

Time (h)
1 Change in weight dW/W with time in simulated
impact tested alloys: Cr compositions in wt-%

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November 2001 Vol. 17 1385

Hardness (HV)

El Mahallawi et al. Effect of chromium on wear of high manganese steel

Hardness (HV)

1386

Time (h)
2 Change in hardness with time in simulated impact
tested alloys: Cr compositions in wt-%

4 Change in hardness with time in simulated abrasion

tested alloys: Cr compositions in wt-%

dW/W (%)

dW/W (%)

Time (h)

Time (h)

Time (h)
3 Change in weight dW/W with time in simulated abrasion tested alloys: Cr compositions in wt-%

given in Table 1. The materials were provided in the form of

cast hammers that had been in service.
Specimens from each steel were selected, such that they
were free of any casting defects, prepared, solution treated
at 1100C for 1 h, and water quenched. The hardness and
impact values (Charpy unnotched specimens) of the alloys
were determined and their microstructures after solution
treatment were investigated.
Two types of wear tests were carried out: the ball mill test
and the standard pinon disc test. This was done to simulate
abrasion, impact, combined impact abrasion, and corrosion abrasion wear mechanisms.

5 Change in weight dW/W with time in simulated combined impact abrasion tested alloys: Cr compositions
in wt-%

(iii) Combined impact abrasion conditions using the

same eight grinding balls and 4 Kg of sand as
grinding media.
For all tests, each specimen was numbered and its initial
hardness and weight were determined. The hardness and
weight of each specimen were determined once again, at
intervals of 20 h, until the end of the test.
Microstructural investigations of the specimens after the
wear tests were undertaken to study the hardening
mechanisms. The worn surfaces of the alloys were also
studied by SEM for further investigation of the wear
mechanisms involved in each test condition.

Pin on disc test (corrosion abrasion test)

WEAR TEST
Ball mill test
In this test specimens of almost the same size
(50630610 mm) were cut and located in a ball mill of
160 mm diameter and 270 mm length rotating at 78 rpm for
100 h. The test was repeated using three different grinding
conditions, as follows:
(i) Simulated impact condition using only eight
17 wt-%Cr cast iron grinding balls as grinding
media, details of which are shown in Table 2
(ii) Simulated abrasion condition using only 5.5 Kg of
sand as grinding media

The corrosion abrasion tests were conducted using a

modified pin on disc machine The specimen was fixed in
a special Teflon holder under a static load of 1 kg. Three
test solutions were used separately: 1 vol.-% sand in water,
1 vol.-% sand and 1 vol.-%CaO in water, and 9 vol.-% sand
and 1 vol.-%NaCl in water. Tests were carried out at a
rotation speed of 220 rpm. The specimen surface was
electrically connected with a multimeter for continuous
open circuit potential measurements.
Before the pin on disc tests, the specimen surfaces were
polished with emery papers up to grade 600, cleaned with
Table 2 Size and weight of balls used

Table 1 Chemical composition of studied alloys, wt-%

Alloy number

Si

Mn

Cr

Fe

1
2
3

1.13
1.27
1.25

0.69
0.49
0.58

10.0
14.1
13.7

1.71
2. 3

Bal.
Bal.
Bal.

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November 2001 Vol. 17

Ball radius, mm

Weight, g

Number of balls

40
50
60
80

507
862
1035
3000

2
2
2
2

El Mahallawi et al. Effect of chromium on wear of high manganese steel 1387

Hardness (HV)

DH/H0

(a)

Time (h)

DH/H0

(b)

Time (h)
6 Change in hardness with time in simulated combined
impact abrasion tested alloys: Cr compositions in
wt-%

Time (h)
(c)

DH/H0

(Wi+l_Wi)/Wi (%)

(a)

Time (h)

Time (h)

(Wi+l_Wi)/Wi (%)

(b)

a impact test; b abrasion test; c impact abrasion test;

Y 0 wt-%Cr; & 1.7 wt-%Cr; + 2.3 wt-%Cr

8 Change in hardening capacity DH/H0 for three tested

alloys

Time (h)
(Wi+l_Wi)/Wi (%)

(c)

Time (h)
a impact test; b abrasion test; c impact abrasion test;
Y 0 wt-%Cr; & 1.7 wt-%Cr; + 2.3 wt-%Cr

7 Incremental change in weight (Wiz12Wi)/Wi for different alloys during ball mill tests

alcohol, and then dried before being subjected to the test

solution.

also refines the structure, as the grain size was smaller in alloys
2 and 3 compared with alloy 1. The microstructural study of
the alloys shows that the Cr containing alloys consisted of
austenite grains and embedded carbides. The carbides were
dispersed within the grains and on the grain boundaries. The
alloy containing 2.3 wt-%Cr had a reduced toughness
compared to that without Cr, while the alloy containing
1.7 wt-%Cr had a higher toughness. However, the general
toughness effect of adding Cr to the alloy can not be
concluded from these results as the difference between alloys
1, 2, and 3 may be attributed to the different casting qualities
of the alloys as the alloys were not prepared by the authors.

BALL MILL WEAR TEST RESULTS

Simulated impact conditions
Figure 1 shows the percentage cummulative weight losses
for the tested alloys after being subjected to the simulated
impact loading conditions in the ball mill. The obtained
results show that the Cr free alloy reached a higher hardness
than the Cr containing alloys, under this condition. The
higher hardness values recorded for alloy 1 relative to alloys
Table 3 Hardness, impact toughness, and grain size of
studied alloys

Results and discussion

ALLOY CHARACTERISATION

Alloy
number

Hardness,
HV20

Notched
impact
toughness,
J

Table 3 summarises the properties of the three alloys after

solution treatment. The data show the effect of Cr in raising
the hardness of the Mn steels; the hardness increases on
increasing Cr content from 1.7 to 2.3 HV20. Apparently, Cr

1
2
3

227
243
275

86
176
64

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Grain size,
mm
110
41
83

November 2001 Vol. 17

1388

El Mahallawi et al. Effect of chromium on wear of high manganese steel

a 0 wt-%Cr after impact test, 6190; b 2.3 wt-%Cr after impact test, 6190; c 2.3 wt-%Cr after impact abrasion test (SEM); d 2.3 wt-%Cr
after abrasion test (SEM)

9 Microscopic features of worn surfaces

others6 that both toughness and hardness are important

when impact loading is encountered.

Simulated abrasion conditions

Figure 3 shows the percentage cummulative weight losses of
the tested alloys after being subjected to simulated abrasion
wear conditions. The hardness measurements, as given in
Fig. 4, show increased hardening of the Cr alloyed alloys

Corrosion loss (mpy)

Corrosion loss (mpy)

2 and 3, as shown in Fig. 2, are accompanied by

correspondingly lower weight losses. These data suggest
that the addition of Cr does not improve the wear
performance of the Mn steels under conditions involving
impact. This may be explained in view of the reduced
toughness of the Cr containing alloys, which would
facilitate the attrition of the hardened surface layer more
rapidly after each impact blow during the test. This
observation agrees with the well documented findings of

Time (h)

Time (h)
10 Corrosion loss v. time for different alloys during
pinon disc test with sand in water: 1 mpy~25.4 mm/
year

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November 2001 Vol. 17

11 Corrosion loss v. time for different alloys in pinon

disc test with NaCl solution: 1 mpy~25.4 mm/year

relative to the plain Mn steel alloy under these test

conditions. The increased hardnesses of the Cr containing
alloys were accompanied by improved wear resistances, as
indicated by the lower percentage weight losses. The results
show the importance of hardness when abrasive wear
conditions prevail. These findings agree with earlier
studies14 that pointed out the fact that Mn steels show
inferior resistance compared to other harder materials in
low stress abrasion conditions. This could be explained in
view of the mechanisms suggested for work hardening in
Mn steels that relate the hardening to dynamic strain aging
accompanying impact on the surface.6,15

Potential (_mV)

El Mahallawi et al. Effect of chromium on wear of high manganese steel 1389

Combined impact abrasion conditions

Figure 5 shows the percentage cummulative weight losses of
the tested alloys after being subjected to combined impact
abrasion wear conditions. Figure 6 shows the changes in
hardness during the test. Again, the Cr containing steels
show lower weight losses and develop higher hardnesses
during the test.
These findings show that the wear behaviour of the alloys
under combined impact and abrasion conditions is different
from when only simulated conditions of either impact or
abrasion prevail, in the sense that there was a continual
increase in wear rate until the end of the test period. In the
simulated impact or abrasion wear tests, the alloys exhibited
a steady state wear rate after some time. This behaviour is
well illustrated by Fig. 7, which compares the percentage
incremental weight losses during the three tests under the
simulated impact or abrasion conditions. The alloys
exhibited an initial increase in wear rate, after which the
wear rate decreased, whereas the alloys show a sinusoidal
effect of increase decrease increase in wear rate for the
combined impact abrasion condition. This is explained by
the nature of abrasion, which scrubs away the hardened
layer provided by impact hardening.

Hardening capacity
Analysis of the hardening capacities of the alloys, i.e. the
change in hardness after some time DH divided by the initial
hardness H0, shows that the Cr free alloy exhibits the
highest hardening capacity in simulated impact conditions,
as shown in Fig. 8. The alloy containing 2.3 wt-%Cr
exhibits a higher hardening capacity in abrasive and
combined impact abrasion test conditions. The explanation of these findings, in view of earlier theories suggesting
that Cr reduces the stacking fault energy (SFE),12 is that the
presence of Cr lessens the reduction in SFE exhibited in
these alloys when subjected to continual impact, as
suggested previously.6

MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF
WORN SURFACE
Microstructural examination of the specimens at the end of
the impact test revealed the presence of slip lines and slip
bands produced on the exposed surface of the alloys, as
shown in Fig. 9. These agree with the observations and
suggestions of others:7,8 that the main hardening mechanism in Mn steels is work hardening involving surface
deformation by slip. The fact that slip becomes easier
suggests that there is a decrease in the SFE associated with
continuous impact.6 Figure 9a and b shows that the density
of the slip lines is higher for the alloy without Cr compared
to that containing 2.3 wt-%Cr. This observation agrees with
the hardening rate evidence for the Cr free and the Cr
containing alloys.
Observation by SEM of the worn surfaces showed the
features illustrated in Fig. 9c for the impact abrasion
simulated conditions, i.e. surface damage and gouging.
However, after exposure to the abrasive simulated

Time (h)
12 Potential change v. time for different alloys in pinon
disc test with sand and NaCl solution

conditions (Fig. 9d), sand particles attached to the surface

were revealed.
More investigations are still needed on the effects of Cr
on SFE and dislocations in high Mn steels, as reported
data8,9,12 suggest different effects: some indicate an increase
in SFE,9 others indicate a decrease in SFE.12 The fact shown
by this work that the Cr containing steels have a tendency
for decreased hardening rates, when exposed to simulated
impact conditions, which suggests that Cr is more likely to
reduce the SFE rather than increase it or not affect it.

CORROSION ABRASION TEST

Figure 10 shows the change in rate of corrosion loss (metal
loss in mpy: 1 mpy~25.4 mm/year), with time for Mn steels
of various chromium contents, tested in 1 vol.-% sand and
water solution. The investigated materials show high
corrosion loss rates until they reach the peaks after 3 h;
thereafter the rates gradually decrease. After almost 9 h, the
rates reached steady state values. The Cr free alloy gave the
highest maximum rate (30.28 mpy), while the alloy containing 2.3 wt-%Cr gave the lowest maximum rate (24.03 mpy).
In the test solution containing 1 vol.-% sand and
1 vol.-%CaO, the 2.3 wt-%Cr alloy showed the lowest
maximum corrosion loss rate value (7.7 mpy). Steady state
values for this alloy were achieved after only 6 h in the
solution.
In the chloride containing solution Fig. 11, the rate of
corrosion loss values drastically increased for both the 0 and
1.7 wt-%Cr alloys. The alloy with 2.3 wt-%Cr proved to be
the best in the presence of chlorides with a rate value of
40 mpy and a steady state value was only established after
9 h test duration.
The change in open circuit potential with test duration for
the two highly corroded specimens in the presence of
chlorides is illustrated in Fig. 12. At the beginning of the
test, the alloy with 0 wt-%Cr showed a more active potential
value than the alloy having 1.7 wt-%Cr: 20.3 and 20.5 V,
respectively. The difference between these two values
decreased with time. At the end of the test, both alloys
attained almost equal potential values of 20.56 and 0.55 V
respectively.
Figure 13 compares the weight loss percentage for the
Mn steel alloys. The best performance for these alloys
occurred in the test solution containing sand and CaO.
Also, the abrasion effect of contacting particles decreases as
their particle size becomes finer and as their hardness
decreases. This explains the lowest specific weight losses for
all alloys tested in the case of the sand and CaO solution.
The presence of chloride ions causes severe damage owing
to its high corrosivity for steels. In the case of solutions
containing only sand or sand and CaO, the wear mechanism
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November 2001 Vol. 17

El Mahallawi et al. Effect of chromium on wear of high manganese steel

terms of wear rate and hardening rate, in wear conditions

where impact loading prevails over abrasive conditions.
2. Chromium containing Mn steels perform better than
chromium free Mn steels under wear conditions where
abrasion and combined impact abrasion conditions prevail.
3. The alloy with 2.3 wt-%Cr proved to be superior to
other tested alloys under abrasion corrosion test conditions. The best performance for this alloy, reflected by the
lowest rate of metal loss, was detected in a test solution
containing sand and CaO.

DW/Wo (%)

1390

References
0 wt-%Cr

1.7 wt-%Cr

2.3 wt-%Cr

13 Weight loss of different alloys in various conditions

after 12 h in pinon disc test: Cr compositions in wt-%

was a slurry abrasion mechanism that gives a lower rate of

damage than in the presence of chloride solution. The
evidence given in Fig. 13 shows that the alloy containing
2.3 wt-%Cr proved to be the best alloy in all these test
conditions.
The findings support previous data that manganese steel is
generally not corrosion resistant. It rusts readily, particularly
when corrosion and abrasion are combined, as they
frequently are in mining and manufacturing environments.
The metal may deteriorate or be dissolved at a rate only
slightly lower than that of carbon steel. If the toughness or
non-magnetic nature of manganese steel is essential for a
marine application, protection by galvanising usually is
satisfactory. Chromium levels from 1.8 to 2.2 wt-%Cr are
employed in manganese steel to raise moderately the yield
strength and improve the corrosion resistance.1

Conclusions
1. Plain Hadfield steel containing no chromium proved
to be superior to similar steels containing chromium, in

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November 2001 Vol. 17

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