03 Fatigue How and Why

Fatigue and Fracture
( Basic Course )
Fatigue, How and Why
Physics of Fatigue
Professor Darrell F. Socie

Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Physics of Fatigue
Material Properties
Similitude
Fatigue Calculator
1 of 120
Size Scale for Studying Fatigue

Atoms
10-10
Dislocations
10-8
10-6
Crystals
10-4
Specimens
10-2
100
Structures
102
Understand the physics on this scale

Model the physics on this scale
Use the models on this scale
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The Fatigue Process

Crack nucleation
Small crack growth in an elastic-plastic
stress field
Macroscopic crack growth in a nominally
elastic stress field
Final fracture
3 of 120
Mechanisms Crack Nucleation

Nucleation in Slip Bands inside Grain
Nucleation at Grain Boundaries
Nucleation at Inclusions
4 of 120
1903 - Ewing and Humfrey

Cyclic deformation leads
to the development of slip
bands and fatigue cracks
N = 1,000
N = 2,000
N = 10,000
N = 40,000
Nf = 170,000
Ewing, J.A. and Humfrey, J.C. The fracture of metals under repeated alterations of stress,
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Vol. A200, 1903, 241-250
5 of 120
Crack Nucleation
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Slip Band in Copper
Polak, J. Cyclic Plasticity and Low Cycle Fatigue Life of Metals, Elsevier, 1991
7 of 120
Slip Band Formation
Extrusion
Undeformed
material
Intrusion
Loading
Unloading
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Slip Bands
Ma, B-T and Laird C. Overview of fatigue behavior in copper sinle crystals II Population, size, distribution and growth
Kinetics of stage I cracks for tests at constant strain amplitude, Acta Metallurgica, Vol 37, 1989, 337-348
9 of 120
2124-T4 Cracking in Slip Bands
N = 60
N = 240
N = 1200
N = 300
N = 2000
10 of 120
Crack at Particle
Material: BS L65 Aluminum
Loading: 63 ksi, R=0 for
500,000+ cycles, followed by 68
ksi, R=0 to failure. Cracks found
during 68 ksi loading.
S. Pearson, Initiation of Fatigue Cracks in Commercial Aluminum Alloys and the Subsequent Propagation
of Very Short Cracks, RAE TR 72236, Dec 1972.
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2219-T851 Cracked Particle
10
m
James & Morris, ASTM STP 811 Fatigue Mechanisms: Advances in Quantitative Measurement of Physical
Damage, pp. 46-70, 1983.
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Crack at Bonded Particle

Material: BS L65 Aluminum
Loading: 63 ksi, R=0 for
500,000+ cycles, followed by 68
ksi, R=0 to failure. Cracks found
during 68 ksi loading.
S. Pearson, Initiation of Fatigue Cracks in Commercial Aluminum Alloys and the Subsequent Propagation
of Very Short Cracks, RAE TR 72236, Dec 1972.
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7075-T6 Cracking at Inclusion
14 of 120
Crack Initiation at Inclusions
Langford and Kusenberger, Initiation of Fatigue Cracks in 4340 Steel, Metallurgical Transactions, Vol 4, 1977, 553-559
15 of 120
Subsurface Crack Initiation
Y. Murakami, Metal Fatigue: Effects of Small Defects and Nonmetallic Inclusions, 2002
16 of 120
Fatigue Limit and Strength Correlation

Fatigue Strength, MPa
1250
0.6
0.5
1000
750
0.35
500
250
500
1000
1500
2000
Tensile Strength, MPa

From Forrest, Fatigue of Metals, Pergamon Press, London, 1962
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Crack Nucleation Summary

Highly localized plastic deformation
Surface phenomena
Stochastic process
18 of 120
Surface Damage
surface
surface
10 m
bulk
100 m
20-25 austenitic steel in symmetrical push-pull fatigue

(20C, p/2= 0.4%) : short cracks on the surface and in the bulk
From Jacques Stolarz, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Mines
Presented at LCF 5 in Berlin, 2003
19 of 120
Stage I and Stage II

loading direction
free
surface
Stage I
Stage II
20 of 120
Stage I Crack Growth

S
Single primary slip system
S
individual grain
near - tip plastic zone
Stage I crack is strongly affected by slip

characteristics, microstructure
dimensions, stress level, extent of near
tip plasticity
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Small Cracks at Notches

notch plastic zone
notch stress field
crack tip plastic zone
Crack growth controlled by the notch plastic strains

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Small Crack Growth
Inconel 718
= 0.02
Nf = 936
1.0 mm
N = 900
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Crack Length Observations

2.5
Crack Length, mm
F-495
H-491
J-603
I-471
C-399
G-304
1.5
0.5
0
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
Cycles
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Crack - Microstructure Interactions
da/dN, mm/cycle
10-6
E
D
10-7
A
0.03 0.025 0.02 0.015 0.01 0.005 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
Crack Length, mm
Akiniwa, Y., Tanaka, K., and Matsui, E.,Statistical Characteristics of Propagation of Small Fatigue Cracks in Smooth
Specimens of Aluminum Alloy 2024-T3, Materials Science and Engineering, Vol. A104, 1988, 105-115
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Strain-Life Data
10m
Strain Amplitude
1mm
fracture
100 m
Crack size
0.1
0.01
10-3
10-4
10-5
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
Reversals, 2Nf
Most of the life is spent in microcrack growth in the
plastic strain dominated region
26 of 120
Stage II Crack Growth
Locally, the crack grows in shear

Macroscopically it grows in tension
27 of 120
Long Crack Growth
Plastic zone size is much larger than the material

microstructure so that the microstructure does not
play such an important role.
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Crack Growth Rates of Metals
Material strength does not play a major role in fatigue crack growth
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Stresses Around a Crack
Maximum Load
monotonic plastic zone
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Stresses Around a Crack (continued)
Minimum Load
cyclic plastic zone
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Crack Closure
a
S=0
S = 175
S = 250
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Crack Opening Load

Damaging portion of loading history
Opening load
Nondamaging portion of loading history
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Mode I, Mode II, and Mode III

Mode I
opening
Mode II
in-plane shear
Mode III
out-of-plane shear
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crack growth direction
Mode I Growth
5 m
35 of 120
Mode II Growth
shear stress
slip bands
10 m
crack growth direction
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1045 Steel - Tension

Damage Fraction N/Nf
1.0
0.8
Tension
0.6
0.4
Shear
0.2
Nucleation
100 m crack
0
1
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Fatigue Life, 2Nf
37 of 120
1045 Steel - Torsion

1.0
0.8
f
Damage Fraction N/Nf
Tension
0.6
0.4
0.2
Shear
Nucleation
0
1
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Fatigue Life, 2Nf
38 of 120
Things Worth Remembering

Fatigue is a localized process involving the
nucleation and growth of cracks to failure.
Fatigue is caused by localized plastic
deformation.
Most of the fatigue life is consumed growing
microcracks in the finite life region
Crack nucleation is dominate at long lives.
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Physics of Fatigue
Material Properties
Similitude
Fatigue Calculator
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Characterization
Stress Life Curve
Fatigue Limit
Strain Life Curve

Cyclic Stress Strain Curve
Crack Growth Curve

Threshold Stress Intensity
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Bending Fatigue
stress
stress amplitude
F
Bending stress:
time
stress range
Mc
=
I
42 of 120
SN Curve
Stress Amplitude, MPa
500
Monel Alloy
400
300
200
1x108
2x108 3x108 4x108
5x108
Cycles to Failure
500
400
300
200
105
106
107
108
109
Cycles to Failure
Testing time
@ 30 Hz
1 hour
1 day
1 month
1 year
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Fatigue Strength
Fatigue Life
Alloy
2014-T4
2024-T4
6061-T6
7075-T6
105
290
297
186
276
106
235
214
152
200
107
186
166
117
166
108
152
145
104
152
109
138
138
90
145
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6061-T6 Aluminum Test Data
Sharpe et. al. Fatigue Design of Aluminum Components and Structures , 1996
45 of 120
SN Curve for Steel

104
S
b
= S'f (Nf )
2
1000
fatigue limit
100
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
Cycles
The fatigue limit is usually only found in steel laboratory specimens
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Very High Cycle Fatigue of Steel

104
surface failures
large inclusions
conventional
fatigue limit
internal
inclusions
1000
100
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
1010
Cycles
47 of 120
Fatigue Damage
10000
S
b
= S'f (Nf )
2
1
1000
10
100
100
101
102
103
104
Cycles
S
Nf = '
2 Sf
105
106
107
1
b
Damage S10
48 of 120
Fatigue Limit Strength Correlation

Fatigue Strength, MPa
1250
0.6
0.5
1000
750
0.35
500
250
500
1000
1500
2000
Tensile Strength, MPa

From Forrest, Fatigue of Metals, Pergamon Press, London, 1962
49 of 120
Fatigue Limit Strength Correlation
50 of 120
SN Materials Data
10000
93 steels
17 aluminums
1000
100
10
1
10
102
103
104
105
Fatigue Life, Reversals
106
107
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Strain Controlled Testing
52 of 120
Cyclic Hardening / Softening
53 of 120
Stable Hysteresis Loop

Hysteresis loop
54 of 120
Strain-Life Data
Stress Amplitude
2
600
500
400

=
+
2
2E
2 K'
300
200
1/ n'
100
0
0
0.004
0.008
0.012
2
During cyclic deformation, the material deforms on a path
described by the cyclic stress strain curve
Strain Amplitude
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Cyclic Stress Strain Curve
56 of 120
Strain-Life Data
1
Strain Amplitude
- 2Nf
0.1
0.01
0.001
10-4
10-5
100
101
102
2 Reversals, 2Nf = 1 Cycle, Nf

103
104
105
106
107
Reversals, 2Nf
57 of 120
Elastic and Plastic Strain-Life Data
Strain Amplitude
Plastic
0.1
0.01
0.001
Elastic
10-4
10-5
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
Reversals, 2Nf
58 of 120
Strain-Life Curve
Strain Amplitude
1
0.1
'f
'f
= (2Nf )b + 'f (2Nf )c
2 E
0.01
0.001
10-4
'f
E
2Nt
10-5
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
Reversals, 2Nf
59 of 120
Transition Fatigue Life
From Dowling, Mechanical Behavior of Materials, 1999

60 of 120
N Materials Data
10
Strain Amplitude
93 steels
17 aluminums
0.1
10-2
10-3
10-4
1
10
102
103
104
105
106
107
Fatigue Life, Reversals

61 of 120
Crack Growth Testing
62 of 120
Stress Concentration of a Crack
K T = 1+ 2
2a
for a crack
a ~ 10-3
KT ~ 2000
local = 2000 applied
~ 10-9
Traditional material properties like tensile strength
are not very useful for cracked structures
63 of 120
Stress Intensity Factor
K = a
K characterizes the magnitude of the

stresses, strains, and displacements in the
neighborhood of a crack tip
2a
Two cracks with the same K will have

the same behavior
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Crack Growth Measurements
Crack size
2a
da
dN
a2
a1
Cycles
65 of 120
Crack Growth Data

Crack Growth Rate, m/cycle
10-6
10-7
Kc
10-8
da
= C K m
dN
10-9
m~3
10-10
10-11
10-12
10
KTH
100
K,MPa m
66 of 120
Threshold Region
a
K TH > a f
w
threshold stress intensity

flaw shape
flaw size
operating stresses
67 of 120
Threshold Stress Intensity
From Dowling, Mechanical Behavior of Materials, 1999

68 of 120
Non-propagating Crack Sizes

Small cracks are frequently semielliptical surface cracks
2
K TH > 1.12
a
K TH
ac = 0.63
u
Smooth specimen fatigue limit
2
K TH
ac = 2.52
u
69 of 120
Non-propagating Crack Sizes

Crack Size, mm
K TH = 5 MPa m
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Ultimate Strength, MPa
70 of 120
Stable Crack Growth

10-6
10-7
Kc
10-8
da
= C K m
dN
10-9
10-10
Stable growth region
10-11
10-12
10
KTH
100
K,MPa m
71 of 120
Crack Growth Data

yield
10-6
Ferritic-Pearlitic Steel:
252
273
392
415
da
= 6.9 10 12 K MPa m
dN
3.0
Martensitic Steel:
da
= 1.4 10 10 K MPa m
dN
10-7
2.25
Austenitic Stainless Steel:
10-8
5
10
K, MPam
100
da
= 5.6 10 12 K MPa m
dN
3.25
Barsom, Fatigue Crack Propagation in Steels of Various Yield Strengths

Journal of Engineering for Industry, Trans. ASME, Series B, Vol. 93, No. 4, 1971, 1190-1196
72 of 120
Aluminum Crack Growth Rate Data
Sharp, Nordmark and Menzemer, Fatigue Design of Aluminum Components and Structures, 1996
73 of 120
Crack Growth Data
Crack Length, mm
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
50
100
150
200
Cycles x103
250
300
350
Virkler, Hillberry and Goel, The Statistical Nature of Fatigue Crack Propagation, Journal of Engineering Materials
and Technology, Vol. 101, 1979, 148-153
74 of 120
Method
Stress-Life
Strain-Life
Crack Growth
Physics
Crack Nucleation
Microcrack Growth
Macrocrack Growth
Size
0.01 mm
0.1 - 1 mm
> 1mm
75 of 120

Physics of Fatigue
Material Properties
Similitude
Fatigue Calculator
76 of 120
Fatigue Analysis
Material
Data
Component
Geometry
Analysis
Fatigue
Life Estimate
?
Service
Loading
77 of 120
The Similitude Concept
Why Fatigue Modeling Works !
78 of 120
What is the Similitude Concept

The Similitude Concept allows engineers to
relate the behavior of small-scale cyclic
material test specimens, defined under
carefully controlled conditions, to the likely
performance of real structures subjected to
variable amplitude fatigue loads under either
simulated or actual service conditions.
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Fatigue Analysis Techniques

Stress - Life
BS 7608, Eurocode 3
Strain - Life
Crack Growth
80 of 120
Life Estimation
Method
Stress-Life
BS 7608
Strain-Life
Crack Growth
Physics
Crack Nucleation
Crack Growth
Microcrack Growth
Macrocrack Growth
Size
0.01 mm
1 - 10 mm
0.1 - 1 mm
> 1mm
81 of 120
Stress-Life Fatigue Modeling

Fixed
End
P
10000
1000
100
100
101
102
103
104
Cycles
105
106
107
The Similitude Concept states that if the

instantaneous loads applied to the test
structure (wing spar, say) and the test
specimen are the same, then the response
in each case will also be the same and can
be described by the materials S-N curve.
82 of 120
Fatigue Analysis: Stress-Life
Material
Data
SN curve
Ka, Ks,
Component
Geometry
Kf
Service
Loading
S , Sm
Analysis
Fatigue
Life Estimate
83 of 120
Stress-Life
Major Assumptions:
Most of the life is consumed nucleating cracks
Elastic deformation
Nominal stresses and material strength control
fatigue life
Accurate determination of Kf for each geometry
and material
84 of 120
Stress-Life
Advantages:
Changes in material and geometry can easily be
evaluated
Large empirical database for steel with standard
notch shapes
85 of 120
Stress-Life
Limitations:
Does not account for notch root plasticity
Mean stress effects are often in error
Requires empirical Kf for good results
86 of 120
BS 7608 Fatigue Modeling
Stress Range, MPa
1000
100
10
105
106
107
Cycles
108

instantaneous loads applied to the test
structure (welded beam on a bulldozer, say)
and the test specimen (standard fillet weld)
are the same, then the response in each
case will also be the same and can be
described by one of the standard BS 7608
Weld Classification S-N curves.
87 of 120
Weld Classifications
D
F2
88 of 120
Fatigue Analysis: BS 7608
Material
Data
Component
Geometry
Service
Loading
Weld SN curve
Class
Analysis
Fatigue
Life Estimate
89 of 120
BS 7608
Major Assumptions:
Crack growth dominates fatigue life
Complex weld geometries can be described by a
standard classification
Results independent of material and mean stress
for structural steels
90 of 120
BS 7608
Advantages:
Manufacturing effects are directly included
Large empirical database exists
91 of 120
BS 7608
Limitations:
Difficult to determine weld class for complex
shapes
No benefit for improving manufacturing process
92 of 120
Strain-Life Fatigue Modeling
Strain Amplitude
0.1
0.01
0.001
10-4
10-5
100
101
102
103
104
Reversals, 2Nf
105
106
107

instantaneous strains applied to the test
structure (vehicle suspension, say) and the
test specimen are the same, then the
response in each case will also be the same
and can be described by the materials e-N
curve. Due account can also be made for
stress concentrations, variable amplitude
loading etc.
93 of 120
Fatigue Analysis: Strain-Life
Material
Data
N curve
curve
Component
Geometry
Kf
Service
Loading
S , Sm
Analysis
Fatigue
Life Estimate
94 of 120
Strain-Life
Major Assumptions:
Local stresses and strains control fatigue
behavior
Plasticity around stress concentrations
Accurate determination of Kf
95 of 120
Strain-Life
Advantages:
Plasticity effects
Mean stress effects
96 of 120
Strain-Life
Limitations:
Requires empirical Kf
Long life situations where surface finish and
processing variables are important
97 of 120
Crack Growth Fatigue Modeling

The
Similitude
Concept
states that if the stress
intensity (K) at the tip of a
crack in the test structure
(welded connection on an oil
platform leg, say) and the
test specimen are the same,
then the crack growth
response in each case will
also be the same and can be
described by the Paris
relationship. Account can
also be made for local
chemical environment, if
necessary.
10-6
10-7
10-8
10-9
10-10
10-11
10-12
1
10
K,MPa m
100
98 of 120
Fatigue Analysis: Crack Growth
Material
Data
Component
Geometry
Service
Loading
da/dN curve
Analysis
Fatigue
Life Estimate
S , Sm
99 of 120
Crack Growth
Major Assumptions:
Nominal stress and crack size control fatigue life
Accurate determination of initial crack size
100 of 120
Crack Growth
Advantage:
Only method to directly deal with cracks
101 of 120
Crack Growth
Limitations:
Complex sequence effects
Accurate determination of initial crack size
102 of 120
Choose the Right Model

Similitude
Failure mechanism
Size scale
103 of 120
Design Philosophy
Safe Life
Damage Tolerant
104 of 120
Safe Life
500
400
300
200
99 90
50
10
Percent Survival
100
0
104
105
106
107
108
109
Fatigue Life
Choose an appropriate risk and replace critical parts

after some specified interval
105 of 120
Damage Tolerant
Crack size
Inspection
a2
a1
Safe Operating Life

Cycles
Inspect for cracks larger than a1 and repair

106 of 120
Inspection
A Boeing 777 costs $250,000,000
A new car costs $25,000
For every $1 spent inspecting and maintaining a
B 777 you can spend only 0.01 on a car
107 of 120

Questions to ask
Will a crack nucleate ?
Will a crack grow ?
How fast will it grow ?
Similitude
Failure mechanism
Size Scale
108 of 120

Physics of Fatigue
Material Properties
Similitude
Fatigue Calculator
109 of 120
www.FatigueCalculator.com
110 of 120
Constant Amplitude Calculators
111 of 120
Finders
112 of 120
Deterministic Analysis
113 of 120
Deterministic Analysis (continued)
114 of 120
Deterministic Analysis (continued)
115 of 120
Deterministic Analysis Results
116 of 120
Probabilistic Analysis
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Probabilistic Analysis (continued)
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Probabilistic Analysis (continued)
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Probabilistic Analysis Results
120 of 120
Fatigue and Fracture

( Basic Course )

03 Fatigue How and Why

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Fatigue and Fracture

Professor Darrell F. Socie

Fatigue, How and Why

Fatigue, How and Why

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Size Scale for Studying Fatigue

Understand the physics on this scale

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

The Fatigue Process

Fatigue, How and Why

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Mechanisms Crack Nucleation

Fatigue, How and Why

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

1903 - Ewing and Humfrey

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Fatigue, How and Why

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Slip Band in Copper

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Slip Band Formation

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

2124-T4 Cracking in Slip Bands

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

2219-T851 Cracked Particle

Fatigue, How and Why

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Crack at Bonded Particle

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

7075-T6 Cracking at Inclusion

Fatigue, How and Why

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Crack Initiation at Inclusions

Fatigue, How and Why

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Subsurface Crack Initiation

Fatigue, How and Why

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Fatigue Limit and Strength Correlation

Tensile Strength, MPa

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Crack Nucleation Summary

Fatigue, How and Why

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

20-25 austenitic steel in symmetrical push-pull fatigue

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Stage I and Stage II

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Stage I Crack Growth

Single primary slip system

Fatigue, How and Why

Stage I crack is strongly affected by slip

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Small Cracks at Notches

crack tip plastic zone

Crack growth controlled by the notch plastic strains

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Small Crack Growth

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Crack Length Observations

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Crack - Microstructure Interactions

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved