Electrical Power Systems

Electrical Power Systems

P.S.R. Murty

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

Preface

Acknowledgments

Chapter 1. Introduction

Abstract

1.1 Structure of a Power System

1.2 Effects of System Voltage on Efficiency

Chapter 2. The Line Parameters

Abstract

2.1 The Line Resistance

2.2 The Line Inductance

2.3 Transposition of Transmission Lines

2.4 Inductance of a Transposed Three-Phase Line

2.5 Bundle Conductors

2.6 Inductance of a Three-Phase, Double-Circuit Line With Unsymmetrical Spacing and Transposition

2.7 Capacitance of Transmission Lines

2.8 Capacitance of a Three-Phase, Double-Circuit Line With Symmetrical Spacing

2.9 Effect of Earth on the Capacitance of Transmission Lines

2.10 Effect of Earth Capacitance of a Single-Phase Line

2.11 Capacitance of Three-Phase Line Including Effect of Earth

2.12 Skin Effect and Proximity Effect

Worked Examples

Problems

Questions

Chapter 3. Mechanical Design

Abstract

3.1 Sag and Tension Calculations

3.2 Approximate Relations for Sag and Tension

3.3 Conductors Supported at Different Levels

3.4 Effect of Wind on Sag

3.5 Effect of Ice Coating on Sag

3.6 Conductor Materials

3.7 Vibrations of Conductors

3.8 Stringing Chart

3.9 Sag Template

Worked Examples

Problems

Questions

Chapter 4. Insulators

Abstract

4.1 Types of Insulators

4.2 Pin Type Insulators

4.3 Suspension Type or Disc Insulators

4.4 Strain Insulators

4.5 Voltage Distribution in String Insulators

4.6 String Efficiency

4.7 Methods for Improving String Efficiency

4.8 Testing of Insulators

Worked Examples

Problems

Questions

Chapter 5. Corona and Interference

Abstract

5.1 Disruptive Critical Voltage

5.2 Visual Critical Voltage (Vv)

5.3 Potential Gradient

5.4 Power Loss Due to Corona

5.5 Factors Influencing Corona Loss

5.6 Interference

Worked Examples

Problems

Questions

Chapter 6. Performance of Transmission Lines

Abstract

6.1 Classification of Lines

6.2 The Short Transmission Line

6.3 Mixed Conditions

6.4 Maximum Power Transfer

6.5 Medium Transmission Lines

6.6 The Long Transmission Line

6.7 Generalized Circuit Constants

6.8 Equivalent T- and π-Circuits

6.9 Evaluation of A B C D Parameters

6.10 Surge Impedance Loading

6.11 Ferranti Effect

6.12 Power Relations in Transmission Lines

6.13 Power Circle Diagrams

Worked Examples

Problems

Questions

Chapter 7. Cables

Abstract

7.1 Types of Cables

7.2 Cable Insulation

7.3 Electrostatic Stress in Single-Core Cable

7.4 Grading of Cables

7.5 Capacitance of the Cable

7.6 Capacitance of Three-Core Cables

7.7 Insulation Resistance of Cables

7.8 Breakdown of Cables

7.9 Thermal Phenomenon in Cables

7.10 Sheath Loss

7.11 Thermal Resistance

7.12 Current Rating of the Cable

Worked Examples

Problems

Questions

Chapter 8. High-Voltage Direct Current Transmission

Abstract

8.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of High-Voltage Direct Current Transmission

8.2 High-Voltage Direct Current Transmission System

Questions

Chapter 9. Substations and Neutral Grounding

Abstract

9.1 Service Requirements–Based Classification

9.2 Construction Feature-Wise Classification

9.3 Substation Equipment

9.4 Factors Governing Layout of Substations

9.5 Station Transformer

9.6 Batteries

9.7 Earthing in Substations

9.8 Elements to be Earthed in a Substation

9.9 Power System Earthing

9.10 Earthing Transformers

9.11 Bus Bar Arrangements

9.12 Neutral Grounding

9.13 Ungrounded System

9.14 Solid Grounding

9.15 Resistance Grounding

9.16 Reactance Grounding

9.17 Effective Grounding

9.18 Gas-Insulated Substations

Worked Examples

Problems

Questions

Chapter 10. Distribution System

Abstract

10.1 Effects of Voltage on the Conductor Volume

10.2 Direct Current Distribution System

10.3 Distributor Fed From One End

10.4 Distributor Fed From Both Ends at the Same Voltage

10.5 Distributor Fed From Both Ends at Different Voltages

10.6 Uniformly Loaded Distributor Fed From One End

10.7 Copper Efficiencies

10.8 Alternating Current Distribution

10.9 Design of Feeder—Kelvin’s Law

Worked Examples

Problems

Questions

Chapter 11. Overvoltages

Abstract

11.1 External Causes

11.2 Lightning Phenomenon

11.3 Internal Causes

11.4 Attenuation of Traveling Waves

11.5 Surge Impedance and Velocity of Propagation

11.6 Reflection and Refraction Coefficients

11.7 Line Terminated Through Resistance

11.8 Line Terminated by Inductance

11.9 Line Terminated by Capacitance

11.10 Effect of Shunt Capacitance on Traveling Waves

11.11 Short-Circuited Line

11.12 Line Open Circuited at the Other End

11.13 Line Connected to a Cable

11.14 Line Terminated With Natural Impedance

11.15 Reflection and Refraction at a T-junction

11.16 Bewley Lattice Diagram

Worked Examples

Problems

Questions

Chapter 12. Protection Against Overvoltages

Abstract

12.1 Ground Wire

12.2 Surge Diverters

12.3 Horn Gap Arrester

12.4 Surge Absorber

12.5 Classification of Lightning Arresters

12.6 Rating of Lightning Arresters

12.7 Tow Footing Resistance

12.8 Insulation Coordination

Questions

Chapter 13. Graph Theory and Network Matrices

Abstract

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Definitions

13.3 Tree and Cotree

13.4 Basic Loops

13.5 Cut-Set

13.6 Basic Cut-Sets

13.7 Incidence Matrices

13.8 Element-Node Incidence Matrix

13.9 Bus Incidence Matrix

13.10 Network Performance Equations

13.11 Bus Admittance Matrix and Bus Impedance Matrix

13.12 Bus Admittance Matrix by Direct Inspection

Worked Examples

Questions

Chapter 14. Short-Circuit Analysis

Abstract

14.1 Per-Unit Quantities

14.2 Advantages of Per-Unit System

14.3 Three-Phase Short Circuits

14.4 Reactance Diagrams

14.5 Percentage Values

14.6 Short-Circuit kVA

14.7 Importance of Short-Circuit Currents

14.8 Analysis of R–L Circuit

14.9 Three-Phase Short Circuit on an Unloaded Synchronous Generator

14.10 Effect of Load Current or Prefault Current

14.11 Reactors

14.12 Construction of Reactors

14.13 Classification of Reactors

Worked Examples

Problems

Questions

Chapter 15. Unbalanced Fault Analysis

Abstract

15.1 The Operator "a"

15.2 Symmetrical Components of Unsymmetrical Phases

15.3 Power in Sequence Components

15.4 Unitary Transformation for Power Invariance

15.5 Sequence Impedances

15.6 Balanced Star-Connected Load

15.7 Transmission Lines

15.8 Sequence Impedances of Transformer

15.9 Sequence Reactances of Synchronous Machine

15.10 Sequence Networks of Synchronous Machines

15.11 Unsymmetrical Faults

15.12 Assumptions for System Representation

15.13 Unsymmetrical Faults on an Unloaded Generator

15.14 Line-to-Line Fault

15.15 Double Line-to-Ground Fault

15.16 Single-Line to Ground Fault With Fault Impedance

15.17 Line-to-Line Fault With Fault Impedence

15.18 Double Line-to-Ground Fault With Fault Impedence

Worked Examples

Problems

Questions

Chapter 16. Circuit Breakers

Abstract

16.1 Principle of Arc Extinction

16.2 Techniques for Arc Extinction

16.3 Formation and Maintenance of Arc

16.4 Arc Interruption by High Resistance

16.5 Transient Restriking and Recovery Voltages

16.6 Restriking Voltage

16.7 Classification of Circuit Breakers

16.8 The Plain-Break Oil Circuit Breaker

16.9 Self-Generated Oil Circuit Breaker

16.10 Plain Explosion Pot

16.11 Cross-Jet Explosion Pot

16.12 Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker

16.13 Advantages and Disadvantages of Oil Circuit Breakers

16.14 Air Break Circuit Breaker

16.15 Air Blast Circuit Breakers

16.16 Types of Air-Blast Circuit Breakers

16.17 Current Chopping

16.18 Resistance Switching

16.19 Interruption of Capacitive Currents

16.20 Vacuum Circuit Breakers

16.21 SF6 Circuit Breakers

16.22 High-Voltage Direct Current Interruption

16.23 Rating of Circuit Breakers

16.24 Testing of Circuit Breakers

Worked Examples

Problems

Questions

Chapter 17. Relaying and Protection

Abstract

17.1 Requirements of Relaying

17.2 Zones of Protection

17.3 Primary and Backup Protection

17.4 Important Definitions and Terminology

17.5 Classification of Relays

17.6 Basic Principle of Relay Mechanism

17.7 Electromagnetic Relays

17.8 Induction Relays

17.9 Overcurrent Relays

17.10 Nondirectional Overcurrent Relay

17.11 Directional Relay

17.12 Directional Overcurrent Relay

17.13 Feeder Protection

17.14 Earth Fault Protection Using Overcurrent Relays

17.15 Combined Earth Fault and Phase Fault Protection

17.16 Phase Fault Protection

17.17 Protection of Parallel Feeders

17.18 Protection of Ring Mains

17.19 Universal Torque Equation

17.20 Distance Protection

17.21 Three-Zone Protection With Impedance Relays

17.22 Impedance Time Relay

17.23 Reactance Relay

17.24 Three-Zone Protection With Reactance Relay

17.25 MHO Relay

17.26 Overreach and Underreach in Distance Relays

17.27 Effect of Arc Resistance on Distance Relay Performance

17.28 Static Relays

17.29 Static Overcurrent Relay

17.30 Definite-Time Overcurrent Relay

17.31 Static Directional Overcurrent Relay

17.32 Static Impedance Relay

17.33 Static Reactance Relay

17.34 Advantages of Static Relays Over Electromagnetic Relays

17.35 Disadvantages of Static Relays

17.36 Differential Protection

17.37 Voltage Differential Protection

17.38 Percentage Differential Protection

17.39 Pilot Wire Protection

17.40 Translay Scheme of Protection

17.41 Carrier Current Protection

17.42 Transformer Protection

17.43 Differential Protection

17.44 Percentage Differential Protection

17.45 Magnetizing Inrush Currents in Transformers and Harmonic Restraint

17.46 Buchholz Relay

17.47 Alternator Protection

17.48 Restricted Earth Fault Protection

17.49 Rotor Earth Fault Protection

17.50 Negative-Sequence Protection

Worked Examples

Problems

Chapter 18. Power System Stability

Abstract

18.1 Elementary Concepts

18.2 Illustration of Steady-State Stability Concept

18.3 Methods for Improcessing Steady-State Stability Limit

18.4 Synchronizing Power Coefficient

18.5 Transient Stability

18.6 Stability of a Single Machine Connected to an Infinite Bus

18.7 The Swing Equation

18.8 Equal Area Criterion and Swing Equation

18.9 Transient Stability Limit

18.10 Frequency of Oscillations

18.11 Critical Clearing Time and Critical Clearing Angle

18.12 Fault on a Double-Circuit Line

18.13 Transient Stability When Power Is

18.14 Fault Clearance and Reclosure in Double-Circuit System

18.15 Solution to Swing Equation Step-by-Step Method

18.16 Factors Affecting Transient Stability

18.17 Dynamic Stability

18.18 Node Elimination Methods

18.19 Voltage Stability

18.20 Methods for Prevention of Voltage Collapse

Worked Examples

Problems

Questions

Chapter 19. Load Flow Analysis

Abstract

19.1 Bus Classification

19.2 Modeling for Load Flow Studies

19.3 Gauss–Seidel Iterative Method

19.4 Newton–Raphson Method

19.5 Sparsity of Network Admittance Matrices

19.6 Triangular Decomposition

19.7 Optimal Ordering

19.8 Decoupled Methods

19.9 Fast Decoupled Methods

19.10 Load Flow Solution Using Z Bus

19.11 Comparison of Various Methods for Power Flow Solution

Worked Examples

Problems

Questions

Chapter 20. Economic Operation of Power Systems

Abstract

20.1 Characteristics of Steam Plants

20.2 Input–Output Curves

20.3 The Incremental Heat Rate Characteristics

20.4 The Incremental Fuel Cost Characteristic

20.5 Heat Rate Characteristic

20.6 Incremental Production Cost Characteristics

20.7 Characteristics of Hydroplants

20.8 Incremental Water Rate Characteristics

20.9 Incremental Production Cost Characteristic

20.10 Generating Costs at Thermal Plants

20.11 Analytical Form for Input–Output Characteristics of Thermal Units

20.12 Constraints in Operation

20.13 Plant Scheduling Methods

20.14 Merit Order Method

20.15 Equal Incremental Cost Method: Transmission Losses Neglected

20.16 Transmission Loss Formula—B-Coefficients

20.17 Active Power Scheduling

20.18 Penalty Factor

20.19 Evaluation of λ for Computation

20.20 Hydroelectric Plant Models

20.21 Pumped Storage Plant

20.22 Hydrothermal Scheduling

20.23 Energy Scheduling Method

20.24 Short-Term Hydrothermal Scheduling

Worked Examples

Problems

Questions

Chapter 21. Load Frequency Control

Abstract

21.1 Speed Governing Mechanism

21.2 Speed Governor

21.3 Steady-State Speed Regulation

21.4 Adjustment of Governor Characteristics

21.5 Transfer Function of Speed Control Mechanism

21.6 Transfer Function of a Power System

21.7 Transfer Function of Speed Governor

21.8 Model for a Steam Vessel

21.9 Steam Turbine Model

21.10 Single Control Area

21.11 The Basics of Load Frequency Control

21.12 Flat Frequency Control

21.13 Real Power Balance for Load Changes

21.14 Transfer Function of a Single Area System

21.15 Analysis of Single Area System

21.16 Dynamic Response of Load Frequency Control Loop: Uncontrolled Case

21.17 Control Strategy

21.18 Proportional–Integral–Derivative Controllers

21.19 Interconnected Operation

21.20 Two-Area System—Tie-Line Power Model

21.21 Block Diagram for a Two-Area System

21.22 Analysis of Two-Area System

21.23 Dynamic Response

21.24 Tie-Line Bias Control—Implementation

21.25 The Effect of Bias Factor on System Regulation

21.26 Scope for Supplementary Control

Worked Examples

Problems

Questions

Chapter 22. Synchronous Machine

Abstract

22.1 The Two-Axis Model of Synchronous Machine

22.2 Derivation of Park’s Two-Axis Model

22.3 Synchronous Machine Analysis

22.4 The Transformations

22.5 Stator Voltage Equations

22.6 Steady-State Equation

22.7 Steady-State Vector Diagram

22.8 Reactances

22.9 Equivalent Circuits and Phasor Diagrams

22.10 Transient State Phasor Diagram

22.11 Power Relations

22.12 Synchronous Machine Connected Through an External Reactance

22.13 The Swing Equation

Worked Examples

Questions

Problems

Chapter 23. Voltage and Reactive Power Control

Abstract

23.1 Impedance and Reactive Power

23.2 System Voltage and Reactive Power

23.3 Reactive Power Generation by Synchronous Machines

23.4 Effect of Excitation Control

23.5 Voltage Regulation and Power Transfer

23.6 Exciter and Voltage Regulator

23.7 Block Schematic of Excitation Control

23.8 Static Excitation System

23.9 Brushless Excitation System

23.10 Automatic Voltage Regulators for Alternators

23.11 Analysis of Generator Voltage Control

23.12 Steady-State Performance Evaluation

23.13 Dynamic Response of Voltage Regulation Control

23.14 Stability Compensation for Voltage Control

23.15 Stabilizing Transformer

23.16 Voltage Regulators

23.17 IEEE Type 1 Excitation System

23.18 Power System Stabilizer

23.19 Reactive Power Generation by Turbo Generator

23.20 Synchronous Compensators

23.21 Reactors

23.22 Capacitors

23.23 Tap-Changing Transformers

23.24 Tap-Staggering Method

23.25 Voltage Regulation and Short-Circuit Capacity

23.26 Loading Capability of a Line

23.27 Compensation in Power Systems

23.28 Load Compensation

23.29 Static Compensators

23.30 Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System Controllers

23.31 Effect of Shunt Compensation

Worked Examples

Problems

Questions

Chapter 24. Renewable Energy Sources

Abstract

24.1 Solar Power

24.2 Wind Power

24.3 Geothermal Energy

24.4 Biomass

24.5 Tidal Power

24.6 Distributed Generation

24.7 Microgrid Management

24.8 Online Voltage Stability Monitoring and Control

24.9 Demand Response

24.10 Advantages of Renewable Energy Source Integration With grid

24.11 Grid Integration Considerations

24.12 Battery Storage System

Chapter 25. Restructuring of Electrical Power Systems

Abstract

25.1 Smart Grid

25.2 Smart Grid Components

25.3 Smart Grid Benefits

25.4 Smart Grid Technologies

25.5 Phasor Measurement Units

25.6 Open Smart Grid Protocol

Further Reading

Periodicals, Conference Proceedings, and Other References

Index

Copyright

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Dedication

Dedicated to my late Grand Mother

Marella Ranganayakamma garu

Preface

P.S.R. Murty

I had been in teaching for the last 50 years—teaching undergraduate and postgraduate students mainly in Electrical Power Engineering. At the end of the day, it was felt by me that my experience in teaching Power System subjects should be incorporated in a book form, so that it is shared by teachers and students of power engineering alike.

This book is intended to serve as a textbook for undergraduate students pursuing studies in Electrical and Electronics Engineering specialization at various universities and their affiliated institutions.

Chapters 2–4 deal with basics associated with transmission lines and their electrical parameters. Chapters 5 and 6, Corona and Interference, and Performance of Transmission Lines, explain the performance of transmission lines. Various aspects of underground cables are covered in Chapter 7, Cables. Substation layout and their components and functions along with earthing practices are included in Chapter 9, Substations and Neutral Grounding. Direct current and alternating current distribution engineering principles are explained in Chapter 10, Distribution System.

Overvoltage phenomenon and protection against overvoltages are elaborated in Chapters 11 and 12, Overvoltages and Protection Against Overvoltages. For systematic analysis of Power System under faulted conditions, graph theory and network matrix formation methodology is required, and this information in provided in Chapter 13, Graph Theory and Network Matrices.

Symmetrical and unsymmetrical fault analysis is explained with appropriate phasor diagrams in Chapters 15 and 16, Balanced Fault Analysis and Unbalanced Fault Ananlysis.

Protection of Power System under fault conditions and under certain contingencies using circuit breakers and relaying practices are explained in Chapter 17, Relaying and Protection.

Stability of Power System and various aspects of steady state, transient state, and dynamic condition are discussed to create clarity to the student in Chapter 18, Power System Stability.

Load flow analysis, economic scheduling without and with losses are covered in Chapters 19 and 20, Load Flow Analysis and Economic Operation of Power Systems.

Voltage and reactive power control are explained in Chapter 21, Load Frequency Control.

A large number of problems are solved for the benefit of the student.

More problems for practice to student are given at the end of each chapter. Questions on each topic are given.

Acknowledgments

P.S.R. Murty

My sincere thanks go to Mr. Nikhil Shah, Director of BSP Books Pvt. Ltd., for his constant and encouragement to me to write and complete this book on Electrical Power Systems.

I acknowledge gratefully the support given by the Management and Director of Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technology without which this book could not have been written. I sincerely thank the services rendered by Mr. M.V.L. Narasimha Rao and Mrs. M. Prasanna Subha Lakshmi, office assistant in the department.

Chapter 1

Introduction

Abstract

The basic structure of a power system is explained. The generation subsystem, the transmission subsystem, and the distribution subsystem are briefly discussed with a small sample model. The effect of system transmission voltage on the efficiency of transmission is highlighted. The relationship between the amount of conductor material needed and the transmission voltage and the power factor at which power is transmitted is established. Basic voltage and current relations are reviewed.

Keywords

Power system; generation; transmission; distribution; transmission efficiency; system voltage

Electrical energy is the most popular form of energy, since, it can be transported easily at a very high efficiency and at reasonable cost. Thomas Edison established the first power station in 1882 at Pearl street in New York City, United States. The lower Manhattan area was supplied DC power from this station. Underground cables were used for distribution. At Appleton, Wisconsin, the first water wheel generator was installed. Under Edison’s patents several companies started functioning in the United States. However, these companies could supply energy to small distances due to I²R power loss being excessive at low-voltage distribution.

In 1885 William Stanley invented the transformer which revolutionized the AC transmission. The invention of induction motor in 1888 by Nikola Tesla caused dramatic change in power consumption through AC replacing many DC motor loads.

It is an acknowledged fact that high voltage (HV) and extra light voltage (EHV) transmission alone can reduce substantially the losses and bulk power transmission is feasible at these voltages. Nevertheless, it is also well established that light voltage direct current (HVDC) is convenient and more economical from operation and control point of view under certain circumstances such as at distances more than 500 km.

1.1 Structure of a Power System

The power system consists of three subsystems which have clearly demarcated functions. But, coordinated working of the three subsystems is absolutely essential as they are the parts of the same system. The subsystems are:

1. the generation subsystem

2. the transmission subsystem and

3. the distribution subsystem

The generation subsystem may be called GENCO, responsible for generating electric power as per the predicted load requirements.

The transmission subsystem may be called TRANSCO. Its essential duties are to provide facilities for transmission of the required power demand at various load centers. The grid that consists of various power transmission lines interconnected must be suitably rated and well protected with circuit breakers and relays.

The distribution subsystem may be called DISCOM which is the actual link between the system and the customers. Figure 1.1 shows a single line representation of the total system.

Figure 1.1 Structure of a power system.

Planning, design, operation, control, and protection of power system requires continuous and comprehensive analysis to evaluate the current states and remedial control, if any needed. Manual computation of power flow is extremely time consuming even for very simple networks. In 1929 AC network analyzer; an analog computer was devised. Most of the early system studies were performed on network analyzers.

Electrical power networks consist of a number of transmission lines interconnected in a fashion that is dictated by the development of load centers. This interconnected network expands continuously. A systematic procedure is needed to build a model that can be constantly updated with increasing interconnections. Network solutions can be carried out using Ohm’s law and Kirchiff’s laws.

Either

or

model can be used for steady state network solution. Accordingly either Z-bus or Y-bus models are required to be developed. To understand this process, graph theory is useful.

Power system stability is a word used in connection with alternating current power system denoting a condition, where in, the various alternators in the system remain in synchronism with each other. Owing to a variety of reasons, like sudden load changes, faults, short circuits, sudden circuit opening, etc., may create black-outs. Knowledge of behaviour of a single synchronous machine connected to infinite bus. This knowledge under the afore said condition enables to device methods to overcome the undesirable effects are to be studied by electrical engineering students.

1.2 Effects of System Voltage on Efficiency

Consider an alternating current transmission system. The power transmitted per phase, with usual notation.

(1.1)

where V is the phase voltage, I is the line current, and ϕ is the phase angle between V and I.

Power loss per phase

(1.2)

where R is the resistance of the phase conductor. The system is balanced so that there is no loss in neutral conductor.

Substituting the value of current from Eq. (1.1) into Eq. (1.2).

where ρ is the specific resistivity, l the length of the conductor, and A the area of section, the loss can be expressed as

(1.3)

Volume of the conductor material=Al

Therefore from Eq. (1.3)

(1.4)

For transferring a given power P over a given distance l with specified power loss for a given materials, the volume of conductor material is inversely proportional to square of voltage and power factor of the load.

As power factor cannot be improved beyond unity, to minimize the volume of the conductor material, high voltage is necessary for transmission and distribution of electrical power. However, the choice of voltage is limited by the cost of insulation, transformers, switchgear, and other terminal equipments.

For a 400 kV line the average height of conductors is 15 m and phase spacing is 12 m. For 750 kV the values are 18 and 15 m, respectively. For 1200 kV we need at least 21 m height and 21 m phase-to-phase spacing. These lines are required to transmit power of 2500–12,000 MW over distances ranging from 250 to 1200 km.

Chapter 2

The Line Parameters

Abstract

The existence of electric and magnetic fields in the vicinity of current-carrying conductors is discussed. The electrical parameters of overhead and underground power transmitting conductors are dealt with. Expressions for line inductance considering the electric flux linkages linking the conductor internally and externally are developed, and single-phase line inductance is calculated from there. A group of current-carrying conductors and their flux linkages expressions for inductance of three-phase line conductors that are derived are considered. Symmetrical and unsymmetrical lines are both considered. Transposition of line conductors at regular intervals is explained and its effect is stated. Bundle conductors are considered. The concepts of geometric mean radius and geometric mean distance are developed. Likewise, considering the potential difference between two points in an electric field, expression for the capacitance of a line conductor per unit length is derived. Expressions for the capacitance of conductor systems (three phase or multiphase) are discussed and derived. The effect of the proximity of earth or ground on the value of capacitance is brought out. Skin effect and proximity effect are explained.

Keywords

Inductance; capacitance; flux linkages; potential difference; transposition; bundle conductors; geometric mean radius; geometric mean distance; skin effect; proximity effect

An electrical transmission line has four parameters that influence its operation. They are the series resistance, series inductance, shunt-connected capacitance, and shunt-connected conductance. Line conductors possess resistance, and this resistance for a specified conductor material, size, and shape that is in practice is supplied in standard tables and hand books as ohms per unit length.

The magnetic field around a conductor-carrying current is in the form of closed loops linking the conductor. The electric lines of flux originate on positive charges and are radial. They terminate on negative charges. The electric and magnetic field distributions for a single-conductor and two-conductor system are shown in Fig. 2.1.

Figure 2.1 Electric and magnetic fields. (A) Single-conductor system and (B) two-conductor system.

In case of alternating currents the changing current produces change in flux linking the conductor or circuit. This induces a voltage in the conductor or circuit and is proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages. The flux linkages per ampere of changing current is called inductance of the line.

The capacitance of the line is the charge per unit potential difference between conductors or conductor and earth. Through these line charging capacitors, small leakage currents will flow to ground. To consider the effect of this leakage current in high and extra high voltage lines, the parameter conductance (G) is used.

2.1 The Line Resistance

The effective resistance of a conductor

(2.1)

The DC resistance

(2.2)

where ρ is the resistivity of conductor; l is the length of conductor; and A is the cross-sectional area of the conductor.

Due to nonuniform distribution of current density on account of skin effect, the resistance to alternating currents is slightly higher than that due to direct currents.

Furthermore the variation of resistivity of conductor material with temperature is also important. For accurate calculations these effects are to be included. In general the ac resistance

(2.3)

2.2 The Line Inductance

The inductance of a transmission line conductor is composed of two parts, one due to the flux internal to the conductor and the other due to the flux external to the conductor.

2.2.1 Inductance Due to Internal Flux

Consider the conductor flux system shown in Fig. 2.2.

Figure 2.2 Conductor and internal flux.

Let H be the magnetic field intensity in AT/m.

I is the total current enclosed by the conductor.

Hx is the field intensity at a radial distance x from the center of the conductor O. we have, the relation for magneto motive force

(2.4)

Then,

(2.5)

where Ix is the current enclosed up to radial distance x by the conductor.

Assuming uniform current density

(2.6)

Substituting Eq. (2.6) into Eq. (2.5)

Therefore,

(2.7)

The flux density at a radial distance x

(2.8)

In the tubular element of width dx the flux enclosed

The flux linkages dψ per meter length due to dϕ

The total internal flux linkages

(2.9)

If permeability of air is taken as 4π×10−7 h/m

(2.10)

Inductance due to internal flux linkages

(2.11)

which is constant.

2.2.2 Inductance Due to External Flux Linkages

Consider two points P1 and P2 external to a conductor-carrying current I. It distant S1 and S2 from the center of the conductor as shown is Fig. 2.3.

Figure 2.3 Flux linkages due to external flux.

Consider the flux enclosed between the two concentric cylindrical surfaces with radii S1 and S2. At a radial distance x, so that S1<x<S2, the tubular element of width dx will have a field intensity Hx given by

(2.12)

The flux density correspondingly is

(2.13)

The differential flux dϕ in the tubular element per meter length

(2.14)

The differential flux dϕ in the tubular element per meter length of the conductor

(2.15)

The total flux linkages between P1 and P2 linking the conductor

(2.16)

Since μ=1 and μr=4π×10−7 for free space

The inductance due to flux between P1 and P2

(2.17)

2.2.3 Inductance of a Single-Phase Line

Consider a two-conductor system shown in Fig. 2.4.

Figure 2.4 Two-conductor system.

Using Eqs. (2.11) and (2.17) the total inductance of conductor 1

(2.18)

. Using this relation

(2.19)

Then

(2.20)

Given

(2.21)

The total inductance

(2.22)

In general for practical systems r1=r2=r1

Hence the inductance per loop per meter length of single-phase system (two-conductor system)

(2.23)

2.2.4 Flux Linkages in a Group of Conductors

Consider a group of n-conductors 1, 2, 3, …, n as shown in Fig. 2.5 carrying currents I1, I2, I3,…, In, respectively. Consider a point P external to the group. The distances of the point P from the group of n conductors are given, respectively, by D1p, D2p, D3p, …, Dnp.

Figure 2.5 Conductor group near point P.

The flux linkages of conductor 1 due to I1 from Eq. (2.18) excluding all flux beyond point P.

(2.24)

where r1 is the radius of conductor 1. In a similar way the flux-linking conductor 1 due to current I2 in conductor 2 between point P and conductor 1

(2.25)

Extending the argument, the total flux linkages ψ1p with conductor 1 due to currents in all the n-conductors in the group, up to point P

(2.26)

Rearranging the terms

(2.27)

Hence

(2.28)

Substituting Eq. (2.28) in (2.27)

(2.29)

(2.30)

If the point P is now moved to infinity, so that conductor 1 links with all the flux generated by the n-conductors, then the ratios

tend to unity and the contribution of second term in Eq. (2.30) becomes negligible. Therefore

(2.31)

2.2.5 Inductance Between Conductor Groups: Self and Mutual Geometric Mean Distance

Consider a single-phase line consisting of two groups of conductors. Group A has n-conductors and group B has mand each conductor in group B, the return conductor, carries a current of (–I/m) (Fig. 2.6).

Figure 2.6 Two groups of conductor systems.

The distances are marked D11, D12, …, D1n .

Conductor 1 of group A has flux linkages

(2.32)

Simplifying

(2.33)

The inductance of conductor 1 due to these flux linkages

(2.34)

Similarly the inductance L2 of conductor 2 in group A.

(2.35)

The average inductance of all the conductors in group A

(2.36)

All the n conductors in group A are connected in parallel and carry equal currents (I/n).

The inductance of the group or line A

(2.37)

The inductance of line A containing n-conductors in parallel

(2.38)

are replaced by D11, D22, …, Dnn, respectively.

The numerator of Eq. (2.38) contains the product of m×n distances and its mn-th root. This mn-th root of m×n distances is called mutual geometric mean distance (GMD) between the groups A mean B, containing n and m conductors each in their group. It is denoted by Dm.

The denominator of Eq. (2.38) contains the product of n×n distances and its n²-th, root. The n²-th, root of n² distances is called self-GMD or self-geometric mean radius (GMR) and is denoted by DS.

Hence,

(2.39)

Similarly, the inductance of the group B or line B

(2.40)

The loop inductance

(2.41)

2.2.6 Inductance of Three-Phase Lines Symmetrical Spacing

Consider that the three-phase conductors a, b, and c are at the corners of an equilateral triangle of side Dm. Let the conductor radius be r (m) for each phase (Fig. 2.7).

Figure 2.7 Three-phase line—symmetrical spacing.

At any instance Ia+Ib+Ic=0. The flux linkages of conductor a due to current Ia, Ib, and Ic are given from Eq. (2.32) by

Since Ib+Ic=−Ia

(2.42)

Inductance of conductor a

(2.43)

Due to symmetry

(2.44)

2.2.7 Three-Phase Line With Unsymmetrical Spacing

Let the three-phase conductors a, b, and c be placed at the corners of an unsymmetrical triangle of sides Dab, Dbc, and Dca, respectively, as shown in Fig. 2.8.

Figure 2.8 Three-phase line—unsymmetrical spacing.

The flux linkages ψa of conductor a are obtained from

Inductance of phase a

Let Ia be chosen as reference phasor.

Hence,

(2.45)

In a similar way,

(2.46)

and

(2.47)

The individual phase inductances of an unsymmetrical line are complex is nature. The complex nature indicates exchange of energy between phases.

2.3 Transposition of Transmission Lines

Unequal flux linkages due to asymmetrical spacing causes energy exchange between phases. To eliminate this effect, in practice, transmission lines are transposed at regular intervals as shown in Fig. 2.9.

Figure 2.9 Transposition of three-phase conductors.

Transposition means that each phase conductor is made to occupy the original position of every other conductor over an equal distance. This is explained in Fig. 2.9. This process is repeated for the entire length of the line. This exchanging the positions of the conductors at regular intervals balances the flux linkages of each phase conductors. However, the error in inductance due to asymmetry is negligible. The average distance between conductors can be taken as

(2.48)

and inductance may be calculated as in the symmetric case taking Dequivalent in place of D.

2.4 Inductance of a Transposed Three-Phase Line

Let the phase conductor a occupy in one cycle of transposition all the three positions 1, 2, and 3. The flux linkages are then with conductor a in position 1.

Similarly when conductor a occupies position 2

Likewise,

The average flux linkages are

Therefore,

(2.49)

The average inductance per phase a

(2.50)

where r¹ is the self-GMD or self-GMR of each phase conductor.

2.5 Bundle Conductors

In transmission lines operating at voltages greater than 220 KV, corona power loss and interference with communication lines will be excessive, if only one conductor is used per phase. The potential gradient at the conductor surface can be reduced considerably if the self-GMD or self-GMR of the conductor can be increased. This is done by using two or more conductors in close proximity per phase compared to the spacing between phases and connected in parallel. The spacing between these same phase conductors is much smaller than the spacing between inter phases. Such a line is called bundled conductor line. Two or three conductor bundles are common. The current in each conductor of the bundle will be the same, if the conductors within the bundle are also transposed. However, it is not generally required. Increase of GMR reduces reactance of the line also (Fig. 2.10).

Figure 2.10 Different types of bundle conductors.

Let r be the radius of each conductor of the bundle and d be the spacing between conductors in the bundle.

The GMR of a two-conductor bundle is

(2.51)

For a three-conductor bundle it is

(2.52)

For a four-conductor bundle the GMR is

(2.53)

2.6 Inductance of a Three-Phase, Double-Circuit Line With Unsymmetrical Spacing and Transposition

Consider a double-circuit line with conductors arranged in a vertical line for both the circuits. Let a, b, c be the conductors is one circuit and a¹, b¹ and c¹ be the conductors in another circuit. If the conductors are transposed regularly, then for one cycle of transposition the conductor positions are shown in Fig. 2.11. The distance between conductors are marked in Fig. 2.11. With reference to Fig. 2.11 the flux linkages of phase a in position 1, 2, 3 are written down.

Figure 2.11 Double-circuit unsymmetrical transposed three-phase line.

The flux linkages of phase a in position 1

Similarly in position 2 ψa2 is obtained as

and ψa3 is position 3 is obtained as

The total average flux linkages for phase a

Since

Substituting the above

The inductance of phase a,

(2.54)

If D>>h tends to unity. In this case

(2.55)

Since there are two conductors per phase inductance per conductor is La/2, i.e.,

(2.56)

(2.57)

2.7 Capacitance of Transmission Lines

. Calculation of capacitances between line conductors and between conductor to neutral or earth is based on determining:

1. electric field strength E using Gauss’s law

2. utilizing the known potential difference between conductors, and

3. by dividing the total charge with the potential difference

2.7.1 Potential Difference Between Two Points Due to an Electric Charge

The electric flux density (D) at a point distance x (m) from a current-carrying conductor having a charge of q (c/m) is given by (Fig. 2.12)

(2.58)

Figure 2.12 Electric flux lines and equipotential lines.

The electric field intensity

(2.59)

where ε is the permittivity of the medium. The potential difference between any two points P1 and P2 at distance D1 and D2 from the center of the conductor (Fig. 2.13).

(2.60)

Figure 2.13 Potential difference.

2.7.2 Capacitance of a Two-Conductor Line

Capacitance between the two conductors of a transmission line is defined as the charge on the conductors per unit potential difference between them. Thus the capacitance per unit length of the line is (Fig. 2.14)

(2.61)

Figure 2.14 Capacitance of single-phase line.

The potential difference between the two conductors due to charges q1 and q2 on conductors 1 and 2 is the sum of the values due to charges q1 and q2.

(2.62)

where

and

and

However, since q1=−q2

(2.63)

The capacitance between the two conductors

(2.64)

In general for a two-conductor system

So that,

(2.65)

Capacitance to neutral or ground of each phase conductor is double this value, since the potential to neutral is half the potential difference between the two conductors.

(2.66)

2.7.3 Capacitance of a Three-Phase Line With Symmetric Spacing

Consider the three-phase system shown in Fig. 2.15. The three-phase conductors are placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle of side D (m). The radius of each conductor is r (m). The potential difference between conductors a and b due to charges qa, qb, and qc is obtained as

Figure 2.15 Symmetrically spaced three-phase line.

Similarly the potential difference between a and c is given by

Then,

(2.67)

Assuming that there are only qa, qb, and qc and no other charges are present in the vicinity.

Substituting this result is Eq. (2.67)

Further, in a balanced system Vab+Vac=3Van

Hence,

(2.68)

Capacitance to neutral or ground of each phase conductor

(2.69)

It is to be noted that the radius of the conductor is not affected in capacitance calculations, while for inductance calculations the effective radius is 0.7788×r (GMR) The capacitive reactance per meter length

(2.70)

The line charging current

(2.71)