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DESIGNER'S IDENTITY: PERSONAL ATTRIBUTES

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INTERNATIONAL DESIGN CONFERENCE - DESIGN 2016

Dubrovnik - Croatia, May 16 - 19, 2016.

DESIGNER'S IDENTITY: PERSONAL ATTRIBUTES

AND DESIGN SKILLS
K. Kunrath, P. Cash and J. Li-Ying
Keywords: designer, identity, personality, skills, competencies

1. Introduction
A designers identity combines the fundamental characteristics that comprise their personal and
professional attributes. Holistically understanding a designers personality traits, skills and
competencies enables the development of more effective design process, as well as supporting the
development of an individuals self-perception as a designer. This paper brings together the previously
disparate literature on personal attributes and developed competencies in order to describe a holistic
professional identity framework for designers.
The term design describes a range of different professionals and activities, with a mix of knowledge
areas, including engineering, architecture, and industrial or graphic design. However, these professions
all share elements of problem solving required for design activity, and the multidisciplinary aspect of
design synthesis. Therefore, important questions are Who are these professionals called designers?,
How do they develop their professional identity? and What is expected of them?
Designers identity is built during their development through both formal academic learning and
professional experience, empowering their personality traits and the native skills of planning and
creation [Dong 2010]. In the wider context, this professional identity, together with an individuals
personality and experience, drives their response to external stimuli and hence their behavior in a given
situation. Further, the interaction between these elements over time drive the evolution of both the
professional and personal identity constructs. Thus, understanding how a designers professional
identity forms and subsequently evolves are key to understanding and managing design behavior.
Professional and personal identity are not static [Baumeister and Muraven 1996], [Ahlgren and Tett
2010], which results in three major challenges in relation to the design literature. First, there is a need
to bring together the multidisciplinary aspects of design [Menon 2015] with the different specific focus
areas encountered during design work in order to describe the personality attributes associated with
design competencies. Second, the design identity has been discussed through a number of disparate
works on competencies/skills improvement directed towards work needs (e.g. [Crain and Davis 1995],
[Yang et al. 2005]), and not holistically as designer self-development. Thus, there is a need to bring
these aspects together into a single cohesive framework. Third, as learning is a holistic process of
adaptation to the world and not just the result of cognition [Dermikan and Osman Demirba 2008], there
is a need to develop an integrated understanding of the way the total person thinks, feels, perceive, and
behave [Kolb 2005], [Adams et al. 2011]. As such, there is a need to develop a holistic framework
integrating both the personality and skills perspectives on designers identity in order to answer the RQs:
What is described in the current Design Literature as fundamental Personal Attributes (PA) and Design
Skills (DS)? and How are these elements related to the Designer's Professional Identity (DPI)?
This paper proposes a conceptual framework that brings together a holistic description of designers
identity, in order to set the stage for exploration of its development over time. This is based on a
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systematic literature review of key design journals over the last twenty years, which provides through
different discussions the main elements widely understood as necessary for design. A subsequent
narrative review was then used to add literature from the wider Design, Management, and Psychology
fields. This is used to develop the understanding of the relations between the identified designer identity
aspects and the identity building process: PA and context; specific knowledge and skills development;
and the influence of Design Thinking and social issues.

2. Methodology
In order to create a holistic framework describing designers identity, we examined the attributes
described as essential for an individual be consider a designer, as found in the design literature. A
systematic literature review was developed in order to map these skills and personality traits. The initial
review described in this paper considered articles published in Design Studies during the period 1996 2015. Design Studies was selected for this research as it is one of the main design journals dealing with
multidisciplinary studies of designers. Based on a prior narrative literature review, 12 terms (words and
expressions) were selected as representative of professional characteristics and required skills within the
design field. Table 1 shows the terms used to search in title, keywords or abstract of papers available
through ScienceDirect.
Table 1. Searched terms (title, keywords or abstracts)
"Identity" / "Identity Formation"

"Competenc*"

"Personality"

"Self"

"Self-Construal"

"Self-Development"

"Design Profession"

"Learning Process"

"Skills"

"Expertise"

"Expertise in Design"

"Expertise Development"

The review resulted in a total of 81 articles retrieved from Design Studies. The pertinent studies were
selected, resulting in 21 papers included in the final review. Data was categorized as either related to
PA or developed skills. Each category was sub-categorized, and the number of publications refers to
different papers citing the same attribute. The number of papers that cite an attribute is considered to
measure the amount of discussion dedicated to a specific characteristic of the design profession, and so
the attention given to this topic in the design research field. However, this score is not a measure of the
importance of certain characteristic with respect to identity formation. For that, further empirical study
is needed once the major attributes are identified. Some papers cite more than one attribute, therefore
the number of references in Tables 2 and 3 differ from the total number of selected papers. Furthermore,
a secondary narrative review was developed through citations and references related to the selected
papers. This additional review was used to identify studies from the Psychology and Management fields
and different journals and sources were incorporated as knowledge to the discussions sector on this
work.

3. Designers identity
The designer's identity can be understood as a social- and self-perception, built on the synthesis of
individual and professional aspects, which enable someone to design. An individuals identity is an
adaptation to a sociocultural context. History, culture, and the proximate structure of social relations
create a context in which the individual identity must exist [Baumeister and Muraven 1996].
Professional identity (as one context-related part of the whole individual identity) has been
conceptualized as a dynamic understanding of the professional responsibilities, actions, beliefs and
values through the synthesis of knowledge. It requires not only the acquisition of expertise and skills
but also professional ways of being [DallAlba 2009] that are directly related to professional
development and experience, and recognized through rewards and acknowledgment. In the professional
context, this relationship is particularly strong since the career is a record of promotions, honors, and
marks of distinction. Thus, work is usually done for the sake of identity-building, such as gaining

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HUMAN BEHAVIOUR AND DESIGN

advancement and recognition that validate the self [Baumeister and Muraven 1996] and embody our
individual characteristics on the act of being a professional [Luehmann 2007], [DallAlba 2009].
The definition of identity discussed by Baumeister and Muraven [1996], and the understanding on
construction of belongingness [Baumeister and Leary 1995] through learning and skills development,
connect these elements of professional identity development to the link between PA and developed skills
as described in Sections 3.1 and 3.2. Thus the designer's characteristics must be considered as the union
of PA and skills. This holistic view of professional identity is affected by context [Adams and Marshall
1996], thence driving behavior and important design processes such as problem solving [Thomas and
Carroll 1979], [Bosma 2001].
3.1 Personal attributes (PA)
PA influence and promote the growth of competencies and, at the same time, the development of a
personal self-understanding as a professional a designers identity comprehension. The elements from
the systematic review that constitute the designers PA are presented in Table 2. These have been linked
to fundamental personality traits. The HEXACO and the BIG FIVE (B5) models of personality are well
established in the psychology field [Kichuk and Wiesner 1997], [Brocklebank et al. 2015]. Together
these models allow for a cohesive framework in which to bring together the disparate design literature.
These were used as a starting point for compiling designers PA, as there is no extant framework in the
design field.
Table 2. Table of personal attributes of designers allocated on the personality traits models
PSYCHOLOGY FIELD
(HEXACO model and B5 personality traits)

DESIGN FIELD
(Elements from the Design Studies Review)
Categories

No. Pub.

HonestyHumility (H)

Ethics and ethical virtues

Emotionality (E)

Emotion

Extraversion (X)

Social abilities

Agreeableness (A)

Leadership

Responsibility

Motivation

Openness (be open-minded)

Self-confidence

Confident attitudes

Conscientiousness (C)
Openness to experience (O)
Neuroticism (N)

In the psychology literature, a number of authors (e.g. [McCrae 1992], [Ashton et al. 2004], [Barford et
al. 2015]) describe each personality trait and the multiple facets that compound it. The designers PA
that emerged from the review could thus be fitted to the traits. Based on the review it is expected that
designers exhibit all the listed abilities to various degrees. However, aspects such as emotion and selfconfidence, which are consider as key elements of identity and career development in the psychology
literature [Bobes et al. 2008], [Larsson et al. 2009], [Lively 2015], are poorly discussed in the design
field. These are only mentioned in one paper each (Table 2): Pahl et al. [1999] and Robinson et al.
[2005], respectively. Further, the conscientiousness was also found to be poorly represented in the
design literature. However, the attributes that emerged in this category, Responsibility and Motivation,
are widely discussed as competencies in Management [Manzoor 2011], [Jordan and Audia 2012],

HUMAN BEHAVIOUR AND DESIGN

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Psychology [Fisher 1978], [Breines and Chen 2012], and studies related to work environment and
efficacy [Barrick et al. 2013], [Pe-Than et al. 2014].
The HEXACO Honesty-Humility factor evokes a sense of morality, sincerity, and integrity [Ashton et
al. 2004] that links to the Ethics and ethical virtues attributes found in the design literature. LoufraniFedida and Missonier [2015] identify Ethics and ethical virtues as one component of a set of softer
project management competencies, which become essential in dealing with project complexity.
However, only two works were identified as related to this aspect of designers identity.
Social abilities, Leadership, Openness, and Confident attitudes appear to be the focus of designers PA
and competency development discussion in literature. Social abilities are interpreted as good
interpersonal skills [Robinson et al. 2005], team spirit [Yang et al. 2005] and participation [Dong et al.
2013]; and fit the Personality factor Extraversion, which is usually described by the duality:
outgoing/energetic vs. solitary/reserved; and brings together traits such as sociability, assertiveness,
talkativeness, and activeness [Digman 1990], [Barrick and Mount 1991], [Kichuk and Wiesner 1997].
Leadership emerged as the designer characteristic for Agreeableness, since it deals with the duality:
friendly/compassionate vs. analytical/detached. This attribute is often cited as important to managers
[Suikki et al. 2006], [Stevenson and Starkweather 2010], [Loufrani-Fedida and Missonier 2015], but in
design its also described by dealing with questions of authority [Dong et al. 2013] and empathy [Cross
1982], [Willem 1990]. Openness to experiences refers to aspects that fit the relation inventive
/curious vs. consistent/cautious such as creativity, imagination [Yang et al. 2005], and the ability of
dealing with ambiguity and change [Robinson et al. 2005]. The confident attitudes attribute is allocated
to the Neuroticism factor, since it deals with the sensitive/nervous vs. secure/confident duality.
From this review it is possible to initially conclude that all the identified attributes are relevant although
not all have been widely studied in design, and there are no current frameworks where they have been
holistically linked in the design literature. In addition no extant framework brings together both
personality and skills perspectives.
3.2 Design skills (DS)
DS usually indicate the set of competencies needed to achieve the goals of a design project. These been
described using different terminologies [Crain and Davis 1995]. Most categorizations include e.g.
structuring open problems, information gathering, and divergent and convergent thinking.
According to Horvth [2006], functional competencies can be split in two points of view: reductionist
and holistic. In the reductionist view, design competence is considered to only be a set of low level
competencies e.g. drawing skills or spatial vision, which have typically been studied individually. In the
holistic view, design competence is a synergetic construct of generic elements i.e. a combination of
aspects that together support the capacity to design.
In this paper we used the holistic view to describe an overview of the designers skills, linking both
physical and mental domains, providing a holistic view of the elements that comprise the design
competence. Table 3 shows the four main skills categories in which the identified design facet were
allocated: Cognitive Skills, Communication Skills, Technical Skills and Management Skills.
Table 3. Table of design skills
DESIGN FIELD (Elements from the Design Studies Review)

Categories

Subcategories based on terms found in the review

No. Pub.

Understanding
Cognitive Skills

Thinking
Abilities

14
Evaluating
Abstracting

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HUMAN BEHAVIOUR AND DESIGN

Learning
Problem framing
Strategies

Problem solution developing

Problem solving
Communicates clearly
Communicates directly
Personal

3
Attends to details
Empathize with audience

Communication Skills

Interpersonal

Rapport establishment

Collaboration
Communicates properly
Presentation

Present properly
Language

Negotiation
Educational-based

Operational

Specific
Technical Skills

Imagination / representation
Practice-based

IT ability

Ability to apply knowledge

Manager

Generic

Job-related
Management Skills

Planning
Project Management

Development

Effectiveness

At its core design builds on a number of cognitive skills that are heavily researched in the design
literature [Thomas and Carroll 1979]. These include five main capabilities and three strategies (Table
3).
The five cognitive abilities found in the literature are: understanding, thinking, evaluating, abstracting,
and learning, associated with 14 papers. In particular research has focused on cognitive skills such as
evaluating and abstracting. Here, evaluation links to importance judgment, task analyses, project factors
identification, effective decision making, and process-related choices [Robinson et al. 2005], [Ozkan
and Dogan 2013]. Abstracting is based on the capacity to generate and handle abstract concepts [Cross
2004], [Ozkan and Dogan 2013]. The three strategies discussed by the literature all concern the process:
problem framing, problem solution development, and problem solving. Here higher levels of

HUMAN BEHAVIOUR AND DESIGN

1733

competence across these strategies imply more specific problem solving capability and knowledge
[Horvth 2006]. Within each of these skills a wide range of research foci have been identified.
Communication skills are grouped in three levels: personal, interpersonal and presentation. All levels
shows similar number of publications but only one paper discussed more than two of these topics
simultaneously. Collaboration was the most discussed skill at the Communication category.
Technical skills are represented by two main areas: Educational-based and Practice-based. The main
focus of the reviewed literature is on the practice-based area where skills are developed through
experience. In contrast educational-based skills development is only discussed in one paper.
Finally, management skills are described on two levels: the manager level and the project management
level. These have been discussed in a variety of contexts by authors such as Robinson et al. [2005].
Through the literature review was observed that most of the identified publications in the design field
discuss DS, especially cognitive. However, as with the other categories in the wider field of DS it
becomes necessary to link these to the other skills categories, as well to the personality traits described
in Section 3.1. Thus, as with the PA it is possible to conclude that each individual aspect is relevant, to
varying degrees, to designers identity but that there is a need to link these in a cohesive framework.

4. Designers identity and its development

Designers professional identity (DPI) can be understood as the union of all the components identified
in Section 3, together with the wider personal construct, all in a sociocultural context. Thus, we assumed
that the described PA and DS when brought together with context creates a framework where designers
identity can develop over time, as illustrated in Figure 1. Through this conceptual framework, built from
the review results, it can be perceived that the designer as a professional cannot be measured only by
one of these sets, rather they must be considered holistically and with respect to the different aspects of
their required job, and the wider context.

Figure 1. Designers professional identity formation framework

The methods used to study PA often reveals a tacit assumption of immutability, even though the
attributes are a function of the social context and some studies appoint it as susceptible to change by
behavioral/concepts internalization [Baumeister and Twenge 2001]. Research suggests that personality
changes gradually over years (rather than moment to moment) and in response to changes in contextual
elements important to the individual [Roberts et al. 2008], [Brooks et al. 2010]. As such, this aspect can
be understood as relatively slowly updating. This is in contrast to DS that evolve substantially over time
as consequence of learning activities and through interaction with the environment. These skills refer to
the practical knowledge, tools, and abilities that allow a designer to complete the tasks assigned to them;
and can be considered as a more dynamic level. Here, the accumulation of knowledge through
experience in the skills sphere leads to expertise development over time, then it is no longer specific
information but knowledge of "stored experience of the actual outcomes of tens of thousands of
situations" [Dreyfus and Dreyfus 2005, p.788]. This leads to a complex non-linear development of
expertise, since each aspect of expertise may evolve with some skills more developed than others

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HUMAN BEHAVIOUR AND DESIGN

[Lawson and Dorst 2009, p.94]. Expertise co-evolves with identity, dealing with context and behavior
adaptation, as with PA such self-confidence [Larsson et al. 2009].
4.1 Bringing together personal attributes and context
As outlined in Figure 1 PA are directly related to context in a symbiotic relationship. Context is modified
by the behaviors and interactions, since it changes the environment feeding back this circular bond.
Figure 2 brings together the diverse PA found in the review together with the wider context. Individual
letters are used to represent each attribute and its subcategories, derived from Table 2. The letters encode
the PA related to design referring the psychology traits of HEXACO/B5, categories that features two
aspects were named individually e.g. Cr (Conscientiousness responsibility) and Cm
(Conscientiousness motivation). Figure 2 also shows the context levels that impact behavior and the
developed of the PA over time.

Figure 2. DPI framework: Elements of personal attributes

Three different levels of context were identified as influential with respect to PA: Deep context i.e.
individuals background and biological based traits; Professional context, i.e. in a certain period of time
within the historical and socio-political situations of the profession; and Immediate context, i.e. the
current work situation and environment. These levels also evolve over time and are part of the identity
construction process.
At the deep context level reside innate characteristics, genetically derived, and reflectig developed
aspects from childhood and adolescence [Adams and Marshall 1996]. In a professional context,
questions related to the professional class identification, especially for designers, generate problems of
self-understanding as professionals; since they affect the personality development with respect to the
personality traits and the behaviors they promote [Baumeister and Muraven 1996], [Downing 2003]. At
the immediate context level work environment, stress situation, and self-confidence are some of the
aspects related to identity formation; and the combination of built personality, expertise and project
pressure situations shape the behavior in each situation [Barrick and Mount 1991].
Levels of context and their impact on personality and identity are well discussed in the psychology
literature. However, further development of this discussion in design is out of the scope of this paper
and can be better explored in future work.

HUMAN BEHAVIOUR AND DESIGN

1735

4.2 Bringing together skills and context

Designer skills (cognition, communication, technical, and management) bring together the four
categories discussed disparately throughout the literature as fundamental to designer activity. These
categories are mainly developed during education. Figure 3 syntheses the design skill into one
framework, linked to context based on Table 3, and also shows the context levels that impact the
performance and the acquisition/development of these skills over time.

Figure 3. DPI framework: Categories of design skills

The three different levels of context that can influence skills were identified as: Deep context, that
represent the past scholar context and developed knowledge, and the innate capacities/talents identified
from childhood and adolescence [Downing 2003], [Dong 2010]; Educational context, that brings up the
knowledge absorbed and trained during graduation and professional experiences [Cross 1982], [Etela
2000]; and Immediate context, that relates the expertise level, work resources, and actual project
requirements [Cross 2004], [Christensen 2006].
In this sense, we assume that varying from each individual some of the competencies discussed on Table
3 may be developed since the early years in a deep context. It evolves and grows through training,
through association with new knowledge, and through new skills development during educational years
and professional activity. The set of competencies must be balanced within the four skills category in
order to achieve a good designer profile. In a certain way, PA are also developed during schooling period
and learning process. Since this individual becomes mature and confident, it present impact in all
described personality traits and end-up as the described PA showed on the literature as important to
designers. Also, the specific knowledge gain and the process of identity formation as a professional
dont finish with the studies period. Learning process is lifelong and evolves through professional life
during experiences, and self-perception evolution.
For the designers identity development two ways of specific knowledge of communication are
important: technical language skills as visual representation, and specific hall of technical words and
terminologies. Differences in context material and conceptual also influence the communication
[Bucciarelli 2002] and learning process; and together with methods and instruments, codes and rules,
and webs of practice, impact on identity.

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5. Limitations
The initial review may not have captured every work published in this area, it is believed to be
sufficiently comprehensive to provide a strong overview of this subject in design field. Although Some
works that have not used the selected keywords but investigate a similar or related subject might be
missed.Terms such as "Responsibilities" and "Tasks" were purposely left out of the keyword search
since they were understood by the authors as job and context related rather than related to the inner
personal level that was the focus of this paper. Finally, additional journals were added to the systematic
review in order to extend the scope of the work and improve the framework proposed here.
The presented conceptual framework is based on a literature-review and was developed as the basis for
future studies following the classical research process described by Blessing and Chakrabarti [2009].
Due to the fragmented literature, this is a necessary first step before empirical work is possible.
Limitations on the discussion about the impact of different levels of context and its structure were also
faced. This paper presents only a brief discussion and, due to the complexity of the topic, suggests for
future research the development of focused studies. Deepest exploration on this topic is necessary to
provide knowledge for discussing the impact of context on designers' identity formation.

6. Conclusions and implications for further research

A systematic review was used to identify the PA and DS associated with designers identity. The review
was then used as basis for proposing a holistic framework integrating these elements with respect to
context and time. Thus, the framework forms the foundation for further exploration that could describe
the process of professional identity construction and its relationships.
The intimate relation between the PA and Skills cannot be apart, neither dissociate from the context. All
these competencies are also developed over time during professional experiences, and contribute to
expertise and specific professional language formation. Expertise is usually treat as a sequence, but "In
reality each designer will develop their own unique manner based on their own background, personality,
motivation, and opportunity. Each designer will put together their own way of designing" [Lawson and
Dorst 2009, p.98].
In the proposed framework, the designer identity construction process occurs integrates PA and DS, and
is related to different layers of context, which evolve over time. PA bring together the designers
psychological characteristics linked to established personality traits models. DS are the set of
competencies fundamental to design activity accomplishment. In both elements, a wide range of sub
categories and research areas were identified. However, no prior works were identified by the authors
during the literature review process as bringing all elements together in a single framework. Further,
prior studies have tended to focus on individual personality traits such as creativity and specific projectrelated skills. As such, the proposed holistic framework forms the foundation for bringing together
research on DS, personality, and expertise, in order to better understand designer behavior, development,
and education.
The proposed framework highlights the intricate nature of designers identity, offering insights into the
importance of identity development and construction not only for the design field but for management,
human resources, and education as well. Moreover, this work aims to provide one of the first steps
towards a holistic understanding of a designers personality traits, skills, and competencies in a cohesive
framework; that enables their individual self-perception as a designer and leads the understanding and
managing of design behavior. The illustrative understanding of designers professional identity
formation also contributes to a full understanding of professional development. This study contributes
to developing the link between technical and human aspects of designers identity formation, and can
stimulate developments in: Professional aspects through the understanding of designers characteristics;
Cohesion and structure of the profession itself; Job market for designers through the balance of profile
characteristics and expectations; and in Educational aspects through better adapting curriculum and
methods for teaching and learning.
Future research can use this framework to explore the relationship between the Designer and, for
example, the various levels of context briefly discussed on sections 4.1 and 4.2. The impact of context
on designers' identity formation is a complex topic for research and cannot be further discussed without
focused study. The process of identity formation over time and its evolution, the relationship between
HUMAN BEHAVIOUR AND DESIGN

1737

identity and behavior, and the impact of identity on socialisation/interaction and group dynamics are
also interesting topics that can be studied in future work. The complexity related to these relations does
not allow discussions of all elements at the same time without prior focused studies in each area.
Therefore, studies related with designers identity broaden the design field and provide opportunities for
a number of integrative follow up studies. For example, focused studies could link the elements and
address its relations.
Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq)/Brazil that
has sponsored the first author via Ph.D. scholarship (201719/2014-2).

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Kamila Kunrath, PhD Student
DTU - Technical University of Denmark, Department of Management Engineering
Diplomvej, 372 - Room 231, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
Email: kaku@dtu.dk

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