Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Theory of Flight and Control

TOPIC 8
THEORY OF
FLIGHT

Prepared by Mohammad Anuar Yusof

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Theory of Flight and Control
8.
8.1

Theory of Flight
Introduction
The flight of an aircraft consists of various stages. The first phase is the takeoff, during which the
aircraft accelerate on a runaway to produce a lift off. Then the climb during which the pilot gains
the altitude at which the level part of the flight will be made. Then a period of this steady flight at
a constant altitude, interrupted in certain cases by periods of maneuvers. Later the aircraft is to
descend back towards the earth, and finally the landing.
On long--distance flights the main portion may consist of a long, steady climb, which is more
economical than maintaining the same height because as fuel is consumed the weight of the
aircraft is reduced. Therefore it is often only a small portion of each flight during which the
aircraft may be considered as travelling in a straight and level flight at uniform velocity. This is an
important phase of flight since it is considered as the standard condition when designing the
aircraft.

8.2

Forces Acting in Flight

How well a pilot performs in flight depends upon the ability to plan and coordinate the use of the
power and flight controls for changing the forces that act on the aircraft in flight. It is the balance
between these forces that the pilot must always control. The better the understanding of the
forces and means of controlling them, the greater will be the pilots skill at doing so.
The aircraft can be said to be under the influence of 4 main forces. These forces are the lift (L),
Weight (W), thrust (T) and drag (D). (Refer figure 1)

Figure 1: Four forces of flight

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Theory of Flight and Control
8.2.1 Lift
Lift is the total upward force produced by the
aerodynamic reaction of the air flowing over
the airfoil surfaces, such as the wings and
horizontal tail planes. The lift force is mainly
provided by the wings with some by the tail
plane and fuselage. It acts perpendicular to
the relative wind or free-stream flow
through the center of pressure. (Refer
figure 2)
Figure 2: Lift force
8.2.2 Drag
An aircrafts drag is the sum of the forces that
oppose the aircrafts forward force of thrust.
It acts rearward parallel to the relative wind
through the centre of drag and perpendicular
to the lift. The total drag is the sum of the
induced and parasite drags. (Refer figure 3)

Figure 3: Drag force

8.2.3 Thrust
Thrust is the forward force provided by the
powerplant/propeller. It opposes or
overcomes the force of drag by accelerating a
mass of air backwards which in accordance
with Newtons 2nd and 3rd Laws of Motion, will
propel the aircraft forward.. Thrust acts
through the centre line of the jet engine or
propeller spinner. If more than one engine is
fitted, the sum of all engine is calculated to
produce one thrust line acting through the
centre of thrust.(Refer figure 4)
Figure 4: Thrust force.

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Theory of Flight and Control
8.2.4 Weight
Weight is the combined load of the airplane
itself, the crew, the fuel, and the cargo or
baggage. Weight pulls the airplane
downward because of the force of gravity.
It opposes lift, and acts vertically downward
through the airplanes center of gravity
which unlike other forces acts relative to the
aircraft attitude. (Refer figure 5)

Figure 5: Weight or Force of gravity

8.3

Steady State Flight

In steady state of flight, the opposing forces
of thrust/drag are equal. The opposing
forces of lift/weight are also equal to each
other but not equal to the thrust/drag forces
because of their greater forces. (Refer figure
6)
In a straight, level and at constant speed, the
aircraft is said to be in the state of
equilibrium which means it is obeying
Newtons 1st law of motion. To maintain
such a state, the forces acting on the aircraft
must be balanced:
1. The lift must equal the weight
this condition will keep the aircraft at
constant height.
2. The thrust must equal the drag this
Condition will keep the aircraft moving at
the same speed.
3. The aircraft must be prevented from
rotating depend on the magnitude of the
four forces and the position at which they
act.
Figure 6: Relationship between Four Forces
Lift acts through the centre of pressure (CP) while weight acts through the centre of gravity (CG).
Thrust and drag act in opposite directions parallel to the direction of flight. Although all these
forces are opposite in direction they may not acting on the same plane. (Refer figure 7)

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Theory of Flight and Control

Figure 7: Four Forces acting at different plane

As shown in figure 7, the arrangement of the forces can produce the following moments:
1. The thrust acts below the center of gravity and produces a nose-up moment.
2. The drag acts above the center of gravity and produces a nose-up moment.
3. The lift acts behind the center of gravity and produces a nose-down moment.
4. The force on the tail plane acts behind the center of gravity with the task to produce and
maintain the equilibrium of the moments.
From the facts above it can be seen the center of gravity upon which the weight acts is forward of
center of pressure upon which the lift acts and produces a nose-down couple while the thrust
line is lower than the center of drag and produces a nose-up couple. Each couple opposed the
other and cancelling each other out.
This arrangement is said to be ideal for the following reasons:
1. If the engine power be reduced or engine failure occur, the aircraft will automatically take up
a natural nose-down gliding position.
2. The forward CG makes the aircraft more stable longitudinally.
8.4

Theory of Turn
A banking turn is a manoeuvre used to change the aircraft heading. The quality of the turn is a
blend of yaw, roll, pitch and power. The turn is initiated by using the ailerons to roll or bank the
aircraft to one side.
When an aircraft banks the lift force is placed at an angle when viewed from the front. The lifting
forces can be divided into two components: (Refer figure 8)
1. Vertical or lift component to be equal and opposite to weight.
2. Horizontal or centripetal component to be equal and opposite to the centrifugal force (the
force required to pull the aircraft around the corner)

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Theory of Flight and Control
The horizontal or centripetal component,
perpendicular to the flight path, will cause
the aircraft to rotate towards the centre of
turn. The lift or vertical component
opposed the weight which is directed
towards the centre of the earth.
For a coordinated turn or banking, the pilot
must apply rudder (to help the aircraft turn),
aileron (to move the lift vector to produce
horizontal/centripetal component), and
elevator (to increase the lift vector by
increasing the angle of attack), and apply more
throttle (to increase thrust for countering the
increase drag due to increase of lift cause by
increase in angle of attack).
Figure 8: Components of Lift when aircraft turn
When an aircraft turns or banks there are a few effects that need to be considered:
1. Adverse Yaw.
2. The lift to counteract the weight must be increase to prevent the aircraft from falling.
3. Load factor.
8.4.1

Adverse Yaw
The movement of the nose in the wrong
direction at the beginning of a turn is called
adverse yaw. It is a force caused by the
down-going aileron that produces more lift as
well as more drag than the up-going aileron.
This results in the aircraft yawing toward the
wing which had experienced an increase in lift
(and drag) which is also in the opposite
direction of the bank. (Refer figure 9)
Adverse yaw becomes more pronounced at
low airspeeds. At these slower airspeeds
aerodynamic pressure on control surfaces are
low and larger controls inputs are required to
effectively maneuver the airplane. As a result,
the increase in aileron deflection causes an
increase in adverse yaw. The yaw is especially
evident in aircraft with long wing spans
Figure 9: Adverse Yaw

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Theory of Flight and Control
Adverse yaw can be counteracted by the application of rudder in the opposite direction of the
adverse yaw movement. The amount of rudder control required is greatest at low airspeeds, high
angles of attack, and with large aileron deflections.
In an attempt to reduce the effects of adverse yaw, manufacturers have engineered four systems:
1. Differential ailerons.
2. Frise-type ailerons.
3. Coupled ailerons and rudder.
8.4.1.1 Differential Ailerons
With differential ailerons, the aileron moving
upwards travels a greater distance than the aileron
moving downward for a given movement of the
control wheel or control stick. This produces an
increase in drag on the descending wing. The extra
upward travel creates just enough parasite drag to
counteract the induced drag caused by the lowered
aileron. While adverse yaw is reduced, it is not
eliminated completely. (Refer figure 10)
Figure 10: Differential Aileron
8.4.1.2 Frise-Type Ailerons
With a frise-type aileron, when pressure is applied
to the control wheel or control stick, the aileron
that is being raised pivots on an offset hinge. This
projects the leading edge of the aileron into the
airflow and creates parasite drag. It helps equalize
the drag created by the lowered aileron on the
opposite wing and reduces adverse yaw.
(Refer figure 11)
The frise-type aileron also forms a slot so air flows
smoothly over the lowered aileron, making it
more effective at high angles of attack.
Frise-type ailerons may also be designed to
function differentially. Like the differential
aileron, the frise-type aileron does not
eliminate adverse yaw entirely. Coordinated
rudder application is still needed wherever
ailerons are applied.

Figure 11: Frise Aileron

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8.4.1.3 Coupled Ailerons and Rudder
Coupled ailerons and rudder are linked controls.
This is accomplished with rudder-aileron
interconnect springs, which help correct for aileron
drag by automatically deflecting the rudder at the
same time the ailerons are deflected. For example,
when the control wheel or control stick is moved to
produce a left roll, the interconnect cable and
spring pulls forward on the left rudder pedal just
enough to prevent the nose of the aircraft from
yawing to the right. The force applied to the rudder
by the springs can be overridden if it becomes
necessary to slip the aircraft. (Refer figure 12)

Figure 12: Coupled Aileron and Rudder

8.4.2 Load Factor
Load factor is the ratio of the total air load, i.e.
the load supported by the lift produced by the
aircrafts wing, to the gross weight of the
aircraft. The load factor is expressed in g units,
example, a load factor of 3 may be spoken of as
3 Gs, or a load factor of 4 as 4 Gs. In an
unaccelerated level flight the load on the wings
is equal to the lift and the total weight.
Consequently, the load factor in this situation is
1g. (Refer figure 13)
Figure 13: Load factor of
unaccelerated level flight
During normal flight, a load factor of 1g or greater
is called positive. Under certain conditions, an
abrupt deviation from the aircrafts equilibrium
can cause inertial acceleration that in turn will
cause the weight to become greater than the lift.
For example, a sudden and forceful elevator
control movement forward can cause the load
factor to move into a negative region . This will
cause a feeling of weightlessness. During a stall
the load factor may be reduced towards zero as
well. (Refer figure 14)
Figure 14: Load factor of different flight
conditions
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Load factors apply to all flight manoeuvres. In a

straight and level unaccelerated flight, there is
always a load factor of 1g. However, certain
manoeuvres are known to invoke relatively high
load factors. Increased load factors are a
characteristic of all banked turns, because the
centrifugal force adds to the weight of the
aircraft.
Load factors become significant both to flight
performance and to the load on wing and
structure as the bank increases beyond approx.
45. The load factor increases rapidly as the angle
of bank approaches 90. (Refer figure 15)
Figure 15: Increase of load factor with
bank angle
For reasons of safety, it is required that the aircraft be designed to withstand load factors without
any structural damage and it is expressed as the aircrafts limiting load factor. An individual
aircrafts limiting load factor is published in the aircraft flight manual or pilot operating handbook
in terms of positive or negative Gs.
Although the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) requires the aircraft structure be capable of
supporting one and one-half (1) times of these limit load factors without failure, it is accepted
that parts of the aircraft may bend or twist under these loads and that some structural damage
may occur. This 1.5 load limit factor is called the factor of safety.
8.4.3 Stall Speed
During inflight turning, the load on the aircraft
increases. This is caused by the centrifugal force
and the weight of the aircraft. To counteract the
increase in load, lift need to be increased by either
increase the AoA or aircraft speed. The minimum
speed needed to create enough lift to counteract
the aircraft load at maximum AoA is called stall
speed. An increased stall speed means that the
aircraft stalls earlier, i.e. at a higher speed.
(Refer figure 16)
In fact, the stall speed increases in proportion to
the square root of the load factor. Stalls that
occur with g--forces on an aircraft are called
accelerated stalls.
Figure 16: Stall speed vs Bank angle graph

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Example: Banking an aircraft greater than 72 in a steep turn produces a load factor of 3g (refer
figure 15), and the stalling speed is increased significantly. If this turn is made in an aircraft with
a normal unaccelerated stalling speed of 45 knots, the airspeed must be kept greater than 75
knots to prevent inducing a stall.
8.4.4 Flight Envelope or Vg (Velocity versus G-Load or Load Factor) Diagram
The term "flight envelope" is used to refer to the boundaries of aircraft loading and flight
conditions within which operation of the aircraft is satisfactory, and beyond which some aspect
becomes unacceptable. Each aircraft has its own flight envelope diagram which is valid at a certain
weight and altitude. It is normally found in the aircraft flight manual. (Refer figure 17)
Based on figure 17 diagram, the aircraft in flight is limited to a regime of airspeeds and Gs or load
factor which do not exceed the limit (or redline) speed (225 mph), do not exceed the limit load
factor (4.4 G), and cannot exceed the maximum lift capability. The aircraft must be operated
within this envelope to prevent structural damage and ensure the anticipated service lift of the
aircraft is obtained. The pilot must appreciate the diagram as describing the allowable
combination of airspeeds and load factors for safe operation. Any maneuver, gust, or gust plus
maneuver outside the structural envelope can cause structural damage and effectively shorten
the service life of the aircraft.

Figure 17: Example of Flight Envelope

8.5

Aircraft Climb
The wings lift in a steady state normal climb is the same as it is in a steady level flight at the same
speed. There is an initial momentary change during the transition from straight-and- level flight to
a climb, a change in lift occurs when back elevator pressure is first applied. Raising the aircrafts
nose increases the AoA and momentarily increases the lift. Lift at this moment is now greater than
weight and starts the aircraft climbing. After the flight path is stabilized on the upward incline, the
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AoA and lift again revert to about the level flight values. (Refer figure 18)
If the climb is entered with no change in power setting, the airspeed gradually diminishes because
the thrust required maintaining a given airspeed in level flight is insufficient to maintain the same
airspeed in a climb.

Figure 18: Stages of aeroplane climb.

When the flight path is inclined upward, a
component of the aircrafts weight acts in the
same direction as, and parallel to, the total drag
of the aircraft, thereby increasing the total
effective drag. Consequently, the total drag is
greater than the power, and the airspeed
decreases. The reduction in airspeed gradually
results in a corresponding decrease in drag until
the total drag (including the component of weight
acting in the same direction) equals the thrust.
Due to momentum, the change in airspeed is
gradual, varying considerably with differences in
aircraft size, weight, total drag, and other factors.
Consequently, the total drag is greater than the
thrust, and the airspeed decreases. To maintain
the same airspeed as in level flight, additional
power or thrust is required. (Refer figure 19)
Figure 19: Forces acting on aeroplane during climb

The thrust required for a stabilized climb equals drag plus a percentage of weight dependent on
the angle of climb. To climb straight up would require thrust to equal all of weight and drag.
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Therefore, the angle of climb for climb performance is dependent on the amount of excess power
available to overcome a portion of weight. Note that aircraft are able to sustain a climb due to
excess thrust. When the excess thrust is gone, the aircraft is no longer able to climb. At this point,
the aircraft has reached its absolute ceiling.
8.6

Aircraft Descend
When the control column is moved forward to initiate descend, the AoA is decreased
momentarily. Initially, the momentum of the aircraft causes the aircraft to briefly continue along
the same flight path. For this instant, the AoA decreases causing the total lift to decrease. With
weight now being greater than lift, the aircraft begins to descend. At the same time, the flight
path goes from level to a descending flight path.
To descend at the same airspeed as used in straight-and-level flight, the power must be reduced
as the descent is entered. The component of weight acting forward along the flight path increases
as the angle of rate of descent increases and, conversely, decreases as the angle of rate of descent
decreases.

8.7

Aircraft Glide
With the engines shut down (or failed) the aircraft will go into a glide tendency due to the position
of its CG which is forward of CP. Generally the object of a glide is to get as much distance as
possible.
When an aircraft is travelling in a steady glide it
must be kept in a state of equilibrium by the lift,
drag and weight only, because during gliding no
thrust is available. This means that the total
reaction, i.e. the resultant of the lift and drag,
must be exactly equal and opposite to the
weight. (Refer figure 20)
As in figure 20, the lift is now at right angles to
the path of the glide, while the drag acts directly
backwards, i.e. parallel to the gliding path. By a
process of simple geometry it can be seen that
the angle (), between the horizontal and the
glide path is the same as the angle between the
lift vector and the lift (L) and drag (D) resultant
vector. It is called the Glide Angle ().
Figure 20: Aircraft glide
The maximum gliding distance is governed by Lift/Drag ratio. If the Lift/Drag (L/D) ratio is higher
(lower drag or higher lift) then glide angle is smaller, the glide slope will be shallower and the
gliding distance longer. This means that the higher the ratio the longer the gliding distance.

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From the previous lesson, L/D ratio graph

represents the best angle of attack for the
aircraft to produce lift with the least total drag. To
some extent the L/D ratio can be considered as
a measure of the aerodynamic efficiency of the
aerofoil. The higher the L/D ratio the higher the
efficiency. If the AoA is varied either up or down
the L/D ratio gets worse.
This means that there is only one glide angle that
gives the best range, which is the AoA where L/D
ratio at its maximum.. A higher AoA will reduce L/D
ratio and reduce the range; a lower AoA will steepen
the descent. (Refer figure 21)
Figure 21: L/D ratio vs Angle of attack graph
8.7.1 Glide Ratio
The glide ratio of an aircraft indicates the amount of distance gained versus the loss of altitude. A
glide ratio of 10:1 means that the aircraft flies a distance of 10,000 feet while descending at 1,000
feet. Common glide ratios are 12:1 for a small single-engine trainer, 20:1 for an airliner and 50:1
for a glider.
A glider trades altitude for velocity. It converts potential energy that it has accumulated from high
altitude into kinetic energy as it glides downward, trading height for distance.
Lift
:1
Drag
ag with airspeed, the glide ratio must also vary with airspeed. As the airspeed
Because drag varies
Glide ratio =

increases, the glide ratio decreases due to increasing parasitic drag.

How far the glider can glide from a given altitude can be calculated if the glide ratio can be
determined. This can be done by simply multiply the altitude above the ground by the glide ratio.
For example: Consider a glider with a glide ratio of 23:1 flying at 2,000 feet above the ground. The
glider distance will be 2,000 feet multiply by 23 which is equal to 46,000 feet.

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8.7.2 Polar Curve Diagram (Refer figure 22)
A Polar curve diagram is a graph,
normally provided in a gliders flight
manual that details the gliders still air
sink rate at airspeeds within its flight
envelope. The glide ratio at a particular
airspeed can be estimated from the
glide polar using:
Glide ratio =

Airspeed
:1
Sink rate

Airspeed and sink rate must both be in

the same units. The minimum sink
speed is the airspeed at which the
glider loses altitude at the lowest rate.
It can be determined from the polar by
locating the point on the graph with the
lowest sink rate and reading off the
corresponding airspeed.
Figure 22: Polar Curve graph showing minimum sink
rate speed
The best glide speed is the airspeed at
which, in still air, the glider achieves its
best glide ratio. It is also known as the
best lift/drag (L/D) speed. This can be
determined from the polar by drawing
a line from the origin that is tangential
to the curve (e.g., just touching).
The point of contact is the best glide
speed; the glide ratio at this speed can
be calculated as previously described.
In still air, the glider should be flown at
this speed to get from A to B with
minimum height loss. (Refer figure 23)

Figure 23: Polar Curve graph showing best glide speed.

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