Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
CONTINENTAL CROATIA
(Mirja Jarak)
nonethelessbe claimed with certaintyfor this later period that the communitiesnoted in the
sourcesas bishoprics containedall necessaryofficials for the successfulactivity of these
communities.
Just as parallelscould be drawn betweenthe generaldevelopmentof the hierarchical
structureof the early Christian communitiesand their developmentin the region of presentday Croatia,similaiparallels shall be pointed out in the following sectionconcemedwith
the congregationsthat createdthe nucleusof the late Roman Christiancommunities.
Generailyipeaking, little is known about ordinary membersof the Church, and this is also
the casein terms oT.thecommunitiesthat existedin the region of northem Croatia. Certain
sectionsfrom the texts about martyrs show the characterof knowledge of the Ptebefp
substratumthat is containedin literary sources.Entire communitieswere occasionally
mentionedin passingin legendsof the Christian martyrs when the sizeof individual
communitiesneededto belndicated. Thus in the very earlyPassio of St Cyprian, which has
greatvalue as a historical source,a large number of believerswas cited: " Post hanc vero
iententiam turbafratrum dicebat: Et nos cum ipso decollemur'" (= After this sentence[was
ll
putr-61, a multitude of brothersspoke:Let us 6e decapitatedwith them.). In the-Passiaof
'St
lustinus the Philosopher,an undeterminednumbeiof Christianswho bury the bodies of
martyrsis mentioned:7'Posthaec quidamfidelesclam illorum corpora sustulerunt,& in
ico'idoneo illa condid.erunt.-"(-'Afterwards certainbelieversstole their bodies and buried
In the Passioof St Florian,which canbe includedamong
themin a suitableplace...).12
approximatenumber of 40 "holy" peopleis mentioned:."E/
an
iourc"s,
Roman
authentic
conprehensisunt sanctoru* nim"ro quadraginta,qui diutissimeconcertanteset multis
tuppltrtit cruciati missisunt in carceiem." (; 4nd holy people were_captured,forty of
thbm. who resistingmany temptationsand sufferingmuch tormentfor a long time, were
in another
thrown into prisonl).l3 Theseholy peoplewere designatedas confessores
sectionof the same'text.14It may be hypothesizedtliat these40 Christiansrepresentedthe
nucleusof the community in Lauriacum.This numericaldatafrom the Passioof St Florian
is particularly valuableas its accuracyand reliabilitytra-sbeenproven entirely
iniependentiy. It has been shown thit the number of 40 saintsexpressesa historical reality.
nuring excavationof the church of St Lawrencein Enns-Lorch, a rgfigyary.w.asdiscovered
r)
with b-onesbelongingto approximatelythe samenumber of people. The find of the
legend.It
alleged
the
of
the
authenticity
reliquary of the L-orJhmartyrs has confirmed
usually are not
in
legends
appearing
figures
rounded
that
such
noted
snoutanonethelessbe
reliableand most frequently have a symbolic significance.The mention of merely a large
number of believersis much more common'
The above cited characteristicsof the sourcesabout martyrs can also be found in the
legendsof our Pannonianmartyrs. Theselegendsalso contain generalmention of Christian
colmmunitiesthat can be comparedto the placesmentionedin certainvery famous
passiones.Data from the passionesof the Pannonianmartyrs mainly allow us merely to
tonclude that Christian communitiesexistedat the transitionfrom the 3rd to the 4th
century.The extent to which the common substratumcan be hypothesizedon the basisof
literary sourcesreferring to the period of developedChristian communitiesremainsan open
question.
'
Three territorial-administrativeunits extendedacrosscontinentalCroatiain the late
Roman period, from the period of Diocletian onwards:PannoniaSavia,PannoniaSecunda
and Dalmatia.The tram"r are listed in this manner inthe Notitia Dignitatum.Ttre I.aterculus
lo
Veronensiscalls the two PannonianprovincesSavensisand Inferior. Theseare in any
caseunimportantterminological differencesotherwisecharacteristicfor sourcesabout the
administrativedivision of the Empire.
Dalmatia encompassedonly a small sectionof the continentalregion, the transitional
areabetweenPannoniaand the Adriatic Sea.This region is not consideredin this work, as
literary sourcesoffer no data about the existenceof early Christian communities.In
contrait, extensivereferencematerial existsfor the two Pannonianprovinc-es,which has
l/
beencoveredin detail in religious, historical and archaeologicalliterature. It is interesting
and
affairs,
secular
data
about
valuable
offers
that this sourcematerial occasionally
not
is
characteristic
This
unib.18
territorial-administrative
the
above
about
specifically
merely of iiterary sourcesfor the religious history of the Pannonianprovinces,but.is also a
generil trait of ciassicalreligious souices,particularly the recordsof councils which
156
t57
martyrsfrom this region, are the Martyrologium Hieronymianum and the Passionesof
individual martyrs. The main sourcesfor later religious history are the actsof the church
councils.
In terms of the existenceof various terms usedfor sourcesdedicatedto martyrs wJn,passiones,legendes,vitae - it is perhapsmost suitableto call the sourcesreferring to
this region passionariesor legends.Acta, or acts,are in fact claimed to have the greatestage
and authenticity,and in a certainmannerare thus given the greatestweight. Passionesor
passionariesare texts with somewhatlessdefined contents;the authenticityof someis very
great,similar to acts,while othersinclude later additions,modifications and supplementsto
the contents.Acta andpassiones,and eventhe later mediaevalvitae or "lives" can
nonethelessall be called legends.This term - legend - is very frequently utilized by the
prominenthagiographerH. Delehaye.The term "life" is most often associatedwith texts
composedlater and having lesshistorical value.
Two main periods in the history of the early Christian communitiescan be
distinguishedon the basisof the main sources:L The beginningsand the period of
persecution,and IL The period of developedearly Christian communities.
158
N CONTINENTAL
Cnoarte
THE HrsroRy oF EARLYCHRrsrrANCOMMUNITIES
attemptedto build a churchwere killed. The populationof this region had beenRomanized
at an early date and cannotbe consideredb'arbarianor uneducated.According to the
archaeologicalmaterial,this region had very developedpaganreligions. At the end of the
4th century, the areawas partially converted, however, the pagan beliefs were evidently still
strongenoughto resist a completeChristianization.Christianity still had not conqueredthe
previousreligion, and the open negationof this religion with the constructionof a church
led to the executionofthe radicalpriests.ru
The above eventis the only exampleof such a radical rejection of Christianity in
northernItaly at the end of the 4th century.No similar casehas been noted for the
Pannonianregion, but elementsthat would have resistedChristianizationto someextent
certainlymust have existedin this area.
In contrastto such considerationsofthe paganrejection ofChristianity, literatureabout
the late Roman periodjustifiably emphasizesthat the appearanceof various orientalcults,
particularly the spreadof Mithraism, 3l in itself establisheda basisin the paganreligions for
the later acceptanceof Christianity. It is known that such cults were extremely widespread
in Pannonia,as is shown by extensivearclrieological finds.32The presenceof Jewish
communities,provenin the samemanner,JJ indicatesthe existenceof further
predispositionsfor the acceptanceof Christianity.
The closenessof the late Roman cults to Christianity leadsus to interpret the well known
passagefrom the Passto of the Four Crowned fSancti Quatnor Coronatifas a seeming
inconsistency.Stonemasonsof Christian belief had no objectionsto carving a statueof the
god Sol, but they refusedto make a statuteof Aesculapius.raObviouslythe worshipof So1,
as a very widespreadlate Roman cult, was not completely alien to the Christianbeliefs of
the craftsmen.
From the abovelines that have touchedon the problems of the beginningsof
Christianity in Pannoniafrom severalviewpoints, the lack of generalinformation on this
topic is cle-arlyevident. As the Slovenianhistorian R. BratoZ slatesin one of his books,35
the origins of Christianity in Sirmium are wrappedin darkness.The first dependabledata
about Pannoniancommunitiesis availableonly from the period of persecution.On the one
hand, it is possibleto composea generallist of the namesof well-known martyrs, and on
the other, it is possibleon the basisof analysesof more extensivesourcesabout the
sufferersto infer certainconclusionsabout the characterof the early Christian
congregationsin Pannonia.Although the number of known martyrs from communitiesthat
existedin the Croatianpart of Pannoniais incomparablylessthan the number of martyrs
from the largestcommunity of Sirmium, an analysisof the sourcesdedicatedto the
congregationsof Sisciaand Cibalaewill show the great importancethat thesesourceshave
within the corpusof preservedtexts, thanks to their data.
In terms of the lists of "authentic"martyrs that have appearedin more recentliterature,it
is necessaryto begin with the main Roman "catalogue",the Martyrologium
Hieronymianum.The infqrmation from this work, with consultationof the commentaryof
Delehaye(where certainobscuresectionsare emended),can be consideredreliable.
The Martyrologium Hieronymianum (further MH in this translation)is especially
valued becauseof its age.It is consideredto have been createdin the mid 5th centuryin the
Aquileian region, whilE the earliestpreservedmanuscriptis from the 7th century.36This
martyrology containsonly the most basic data about Christian martyrs, in contrastto the
legendsof the martyrs. Although it is considereda reliable source,it should be noted that
the Martyrologium Hieronymianum doesnot always offer precisedata. This calendaris
characterizedby certaininadequaciesrelatedto the mannerin which it was written. It has a
markedly compilatory natureas it was uncritically assembledfrom various earliersources.
Thus one of its drawbacksis the frequentrepetition of the namesof the samemartyrs. The
samemartyrs appearseveraltimes, with different dates,and the causesof suchrepetition
are never noted. One exampleis the repeatedmention of the Sirmium martyr Anastasia,
cited severaltimes in the MH (25 December,6 January,8 January).
A secondgreat drawback of the MH deived from its compilation. The origin of
individual martyrs is often incorrectly cited. The true toponyms are often replacedby
distortedor entirely different forms (the namesof distant geographicalregions,for
159
instance).Further, martyrs whose historical identitieshave not been proven are often cited
accordingto unverified legendaryreports.Thus, a seriesof namesof only legendary
significancearerelatedto Sirmium.
Personalnamesalso as a rule appearin distortedforms, just like the above
toponyms.As the MHhas been preservedin various manuscripts,the distortednames
exhibit further variation of the original forms. In the following list of Pannonianmartyrs,
only thosewho are generallyconsideredto be authenticPannonianmartyrs are listed.
Similarly, only thosedatesassessedas being accurateafter critical evaluationof the sources
are noted.
The earliestmartyr from Sirmium was Synerotas.The date of his martyrdom is the
23rd ofFebruary. (It should be understoodthat this is a relative chronologicalorder, as the
text citesmerely the day and month, but not the year. The actualchronologicalorder will be
determinedsubsequentlywith the aid of datafrom other sources.)St Synerotasis
mentionedbriefly in all three main manuscipts (Cod. Bernensis,Cod.Epternacensisand
Sirmium and Pannoniaare mentioned as the sites of his
Cod. Wissenbursensis\.
"
martvrdom.3T
"'^""ffi;ext
daterelatedto the Sirmian martyrs is the 26th of March. This was the date
of the executionof Montanus and his wife Maxima. It is interestingthat one of the longest
eulogiespreservedinthe MH is about the martyr Montanus.There are only ten or so such
extensiveeulogiesin the entire work, and otherwisedata are entirely scarce.This eulogy
about St Montanushas been preservedin only one manuscript(Cod. Bern.). The remaining
two manuscriptsoffer the usual short citations.The eulogy containsa descriptionof the
area,the vocationof the martyr, and information abouthis flight, captureand execution,as
well as the location of his posthumousremains.All three main manuscriptscite Sirmium as
the -placeof his martyrdom.rd
The 6th of April is the date of the martyrdom of St lrenaeus.This martyr appearsin
all three manuscriptswith distortedforms of his name (Bereneus,Hereneus).Two ofthe
manuscriptsalso cite distortedforms of the name of the city - Firmi in placeof Sirmium
- but it is accuratelyrecordedin the third.39 An entire seriesof Pannonianmartyrs are.
listed for the 9th of April. More recentliteraturementionsonly someof them as authentic:
Fortunatus,Donatus,bemetrius and anonymousfemale saints.Their historical actuality is
confirmedby additional facts. For St Donatus,there is a convincinginterpretationby R.
tn iddition to the citation inthe MH, an originalpcssio createdin the Roman
Egger.4O
pJriod
the martyr Donatushas been preserved.This pcsslo comesfrom the local
about
^Gospel
of the Italian town of Cividale (Forum lulii). T\e martyrdom of Donatus,Romulus,
Silvinus; Venustusand Hermogenesis describedin it. The date of executionis different
from that inthe MH. Egger preferredthe datefrom the MH, as he consideredthe different
datingin thepassio to Uettre expressionof a local cult that developedin northernItaly. He
held ihat this other date merely indicateda local churchholiday. In any case,despitethe
incorrectdate,the Passioof St Donatusand othersconfirms the historical reality of the
martyr Donatusfrom the MH . The historical identity of Fortunatus,who also appears.in
rheluIH for the 9th of April, is confirmed by his ties to the martyr Hermogenes,cited_inthe
mentioned Passioof Donatus. Fortunatusand Hermogenesappeartogetherin the MFl for
the23rd of August. This is the sameHermogenescited in the Passioof St Donatus.The
only differencei are againthe dates.If Egger'sdating of the martyrdom of St Donatusand
the other martyrsfrom the Passiois accepted,then the date of Hermogenes'deathwould be
the 9th of April, which was also the day listed for Fortunatus.They are also both
mentionedin relation to the cult of relics. The relics of the Pannonianmartyrs Hermogenes
and Fortunatuswere preservedin a common reliquary in the cathedralat Grado.al Such
closelinkage, preservedlong after the Roman period (the report about the cult of relics
comesfrom the end of the 10th century),indicatesthe common fate of thesemartyrs, who
probably died at the sametime. Hence,the martyr Fortunatus,not mentionedin the Passirt
bf St Donatus,would nonethelessbelong to Donatus'group of martyrs, and certainly
representeda historical individual. Agreementin principle existsin the more recent
lileraturein terms of the origin of the third martyr, St Demetrius.In the commentaryto
MH,42 it is concludedthat Demetriussufferedmartyrdom in Sirmium and that his cult was
later transferredto Thessalonica,the relics being placedin the largestbasilica: "Nostra
160
rNCoNIINBNTAL CnoarI,t
coniecturaestDemetriumSirmii martyriumfecisse,undeeiuscultusThessalonicam
delatus
sit,et reliquiaein basilicamaximarepositae.". Therearetwo differentreferencesto Sirmian
femalesaints,but usuallyonly oneis cited(7 femalemaftyrsor virgins), andthis as
re^presenting.a
singlegroupof femalemartyrs.All threemanuscripts
in fact citetwo groups
of femalesaints:this is mostoften explainedasthe carelessrepetiiionof a singleelerient,
whichis a commonoccunencein theMH. In this sense,R. Elger hasnotedtlat the
numberof anonymous
femalemartyrsis inconstantin the variousmanuscripts
of the
work.ar The remainingmartyrsmentionedfor the 9th of April'l+ havebeenbmittedfrom
recentliteratureon this theme.
For t[e end.ofApril (the28th),all threemainmanuscripts
mentionthe Pannonian
martyrsEusebiusandPollio, andeachalsomentionsthe city of Cibalaein distortedform.
This toponymwasexplicatedin earlierliteratureasthe naml of an individual,andanother
Pannonianmartyr wasaddedto the list - Tiballius. Suchan interpretationcanbe foundin
oneof theearliervolumesof themonumental
worksof the Bollandists.45
In oneof thelast
volumesof thesameseries,in commentaries
to theMH,46the erroneous
form thatmislead
thefirst researchers
is corrected.TheMH mentionsonly two saintsfor the 28thof April EusebiusandPollio.An exactcitationfollows:
Cod.Bern.
IIII KL. MAIAS
IN PANNONIA.
Eusebiepi Pollionis
Tuballi.
Cod.Eptern.
IIII k m pannoniaeusebiepi pollionistiballi
Cod. Wissenb.
IIII KL. MAI. IIn -pannoniaeusebiepi
tiballi pollionis47
. The saint'sdayof Quirinusis the4th of June.He is mentionedin all threemanuscripts,
wherehe is connected
to Savariaandnot Siscia.His identityasthebishopof Sisciais found
in olher,fairly numeroussources.The MH notesseveralothernamesandthe city of Rome
underthesamedateandafterthementionof QuirinusandSavaria.It wouldbe morelogical
in termsof the text to relatethe citationof Rometo this groupof martyrs,ratherthantJ
Quirinus.The confusion,however,hasled to a haditionof theremovalof theremainsof
Quirinusto Rome.As the interpretationof the sourcesaboutQuirinuswill be treatedlater
in this-work,_tleproblemshallbe left unresolvedfor the moment.The following quotation
from the MH thusincludesmerelythe first and certainsectionof the text:
Cod.Bern.
PRID.NO.IUN.
IN. SABARIA
ciuitate.pannonig
Quirini.
Cod.Eptern.
Pridienoniun in sabacivi pannonquirini
Cod. Wissenb.
II NON. IUN.
In sabariacivit quiriniaB
The dateof themartyrdgryo{St Sabbatia
is the4th of July.No additionaldata(e.g.
abouther status,mannerof death,etc.)arepreserved.
Severaiothermartyrsfrom Sirilium
arementionedin the samepassage
of theMH. They wereacceptedasauihenticin earlier
literature,whiletheyhavebeenomittedin laterstudies.49
Similarlythedateof .15Julyis citedin all threemainmanuscripts
for severalmartyn
accepted
by earlierstudies,while only two namesarenotedin morerecentworks:
Agrippin-us
andSecundus.
No otherinformationis otherwiseavailablefor thesetwo
martvrs.su
Tire dateof the deathof the Pannonianmartyr Ursicinushasbeenacceptedasthe 15thof
August.This dateis citedin oneGreekpassioind is notedin the calendarof the
161
ByzantineChurch.51No such name is listed for that date inthe MH. At various other
dates,however, as many as four martyrs named Ursicinus are noted. The Pannonianmartyr
is in fact listed as the Ravennanmartyr Ursicinus, with a date of the 13th of December.
This is confirmed by observationsin the commentary,52where the supposedRavennan
martyr is said to have been a soldier and martyr from Illyricum who was transformedinto a
Ligurian, a doctor and a martyr from Ravenna: "...mileset martyr lllyricus factus est homo
Ligur, arte medicus,martyrio $avennas.". Hence at leastone entry inthe MH refers to the
Pannonianmartyr Ursicinus.)r
Ttre 29th of August is cited in all three.manuscriptsas the date of the martyrdom of
Basilia,about whosefife nothing is known.54
The so-called FruSkaGora stonemasons[SancfiQuattuor Coronatifare mentionedin
the MH for the Sth of November, and the samedate appearsin the preservedpassio. One
of thesePannonianmartyrs is omitted in the manuscriptsof the MH - Simplicius. It is
interestingthat Simplicius was originally also omitted from the passiodedicatedto the
Pannonianstonemasons,and was recordedin the passio subsequently,at a somewhatlater
date.It is possibleto determinethe approximatedate of this interpolationthrough
comparisonwith the citations inthe MH. As the passio itself is datedvery early, probably
as early as the 4th century, and as it has been determined that the MH oiginated in the mid
5th century,the aboveinterpolation can be assignedto the period after the compilation of
the MH.It must thus be hypothesizedthat the compiler of the martyology, utilizing various
earlier sources,cameinto contactwith the martyrs' actsof the Pannonianstonernasons,in
which the fifth martyr was not yet mentioned.Thus the entry inthe MH was formed
accordingto the original text of the passio.))
The last listed in the calendarof saintsis the Sirmian saint Anastasia.Her
commemorativeday is the 25th of December.In contrastto later legends,which omit her
true provenience,in the manuscriptsof the MH Anastasiais designateda saint martyred in
Sirmium.)o
This concludesthe survey of the MH . The citationshave all been strictly according
to the edition of De Rossi, ignoring all the inegularities that are abundantin the
martyrology. The difficulties faced by the first researchershave thus been outlined; led
astrayby the imperfectionsof the manuscriptsthey occasionallydrew incorrect conclusions
(asin the caseof Tiballi).
For somePannonianmartyrs no additional data exists,while extensivepassionesare
preservedabout others. Those without actsof martyrs are Eusebius,the sevenSirmian
female saints,Fortunatus(omitted from the Passio of Donatus, although he belongsto
Donatus'groupof martyrs),Montanus,Maxima, Sabbatia,Agrippinus,Secundusand
martyrologies)about these
Basilia. Informative articles(mainly commentaryon vari_ous
poorly known martyrs were written by the Bollandists.5i More extensiveliteratureabout
them did not develop due to the lack of sources.In contrast,martyrs with preserved
legendsbecamethe subjectof lively discussion,and greatnumbersof scientific works have
beendevotedto them. The Bollandists also wrote about these,publishing legendsand
critical commentaryto the original tex$.58 Despite certaindeficienciesin the earlier works,
the publicationsof the Bollandistsremain an anthologicalundertakingin a certainmanner.
The analysisof citationsfrom the MH has shown a fairly large number of martyrs
from the region of the Pannonianprovinces.This amount seemspa_rticularlylarge in
comparisonto the numbers of Norican or even Dalmatian martyrs.)e The number of
Pannonianmartyrs would be even greaterif various other lessreliable data, mostly of
legendarycharacter,were accepted.Perhapssomeof this information is in fact dependable,
and the calendarof Pannonianmartyrs could thus be more extensive,as is shown by the
list of S. Ritig.60It must also be suggestedthat victims existedfor whom no written
recordsare preserved,and the list of Pannonianmartyrs should not be considered
absolutelyfinal, although it is acceptableto a great extentbecauseof the argumentationon
which it is based.The namescontainedin this list attestto the stratified ethnic composition
of the PannonianChristian communities.Other than Greek names(such as Synerotas,
Demetrius,Anastasia),there are quite a few Latin names(such as Montanus, Fortunatus,
Donatus,Quirinus).
r62
Connectionswith Judaismare shown by the cognomenSabbatia,which is of Jewish origin.6l The image that can be createdabout the earlier Pannoniancommunitieson the basis
of the preservednamesthus indicatesan early spreadof Christianity among the Latin
population.
The reports in the MH contain only the dies natalis in terms of the datesof martyrdom.
There is no data whatsoeverabout the emperorsor the persecutionsthat they set in action.
In order to achievea more precisedating of the martyrdoms, it is thus necessaryto consult
more extensivelate Roman sources,primarily the legendsabout the Pannonianmartyrs.
The legendsof martyrs, in contrastto data from martyrologies,representa broader
record about the martyrs themselvesand the period in which the martyrdom occurred.The
limitations of theselegendsconsistof their exclusively religious aim, to which the textual
context is subordinated.Legendsthus have limited value as historical sourcesand even
from the point of view of literature. As a rule, the texts of the legendsare extremely
standardized,formed accordingto appropriatedpatternsthat were modified to fit the life
storiesof various martyrs. Thus, in legendsone comes acrossso-called common sections
- contentspresentin almost all passionesthat often correspondevenin terms of the
manner of expression(thus we speakof establishedmannersof expressionof individual
elementsthat createa specialphraseologyin the actsof martyrs). Generalsectionscan be
consideredto include:bzthe dating of the martyrdom, characteristicsof the extentand force
of the persecutions,the reactionof Christiansto the approachingdanger,the descriptionof
the region in which the persecutionoccurred,information about the local persecutors,the
mention of the official paganreligion, emphasisgiven to the opinions of the martyr about
the pagangods, notation of the social statusand occupationof the martyr, data about other
Christiansin the areawhere the main eventsoccurred,a descriptionof torture inflicted,
information about the constancyof the martyr to his faith, admiration of Christian
staunchness,a descriptionof the mannerof execution,a descriptionof the place and
mannerof burial of the remains,the mention of miracles - particularly varioushealings
(somemiraclesare mentionedat the very end of a passio, such as healing relatedto
consecratedgraves,but otherscan also be found in other sectionsofthe texts, such as
miraclesperformed by the future martyr either prior to or during the legal process).63
The legendsabout the Pannonianmartyrs with their stereotypedcontentsexhibit the
above characteristicsof hagiographicliterature.Naturally, there are certaindeviationsin
individual legends,i.e. not all "common" sectionsare always present,and someatypical
datamay appear,which hencehave particularvalue. As an examplewe cite the so-called
common sectionsin the Passionesof St Pollio and St Quirinus:
L o c i c o m m u n e s o f t h eP a s s l o o f S t P o l l i o :
The martyrdom is datedto the reign of the emperorsDiocletian and Maximian:
"...in civitate Cibalitana die quinto Kalendarum Majarum, jubentibus Diocletiano &
'Maximiano Imperatoribas... (...in
"
the city of Cibalae,5 days before the calendsof
May, by order of the emperorsDiocletian and Maximian...) - PassioS. Pollionis,
Itr.
163
Information about the local prosecutorsis contained in the above cited report about the
extent of the persecution.
fire official pagan religion is cited in general terms:
"...ut non cessetdeos & Principes blasphemare." (...they do not refrain from
oiticizing the gods and rulers.) - PassioS. Pollionis,l.
The martyr considersthe pagangods to be empty idols:
"...deumex ligno & Iapide..."(...godsof wood and stone...)- PassioS. Pollionis,
tr.
&)
h\
t/
L o c i c o m m u n e s o f t h eP a s s i o o f S t Q u i r i n u s :
The martyrdom of Quirinus is dated to the reign of Dibcletian and Maximian:
"Per lllyricurn vero Diocletianus sacrilegispraeceptis in Christi populum hostiliter
saeviebat,addito tyrannidi suae Maximinno in regnoparticipe, qui & suam rabiem, &
Diocletiani per omnemlllyricum ostenderet."(Throughoutlllyricum, Diocletian
savagelyattackedthe Christian population with sacrilegiouscommands,adding his
tyranny as a co-ruler with Maximian,.who had exhibited his and Diocletian'swrath
throughout all of Illyricum .). - PassioS. Quirini,I.
1&
The martyr's dies natalis was cited at the end of the passio:
"Passltsest beatus Quirinus episcopusSiscianus,martyr Christi, sub die pridie
Nonarum Juniarurn,." (The blessedQuirinus, bishop of Sisciaand martyr of Christ,
was martyred the day before the nonesof June...) - Passio S. Quirini,Y.
The intensity of the persecution was particularly emphasized, as can be seen from the
above.
Quirinus attempted to escapefrom the approaching threat:
"..egressusest a civitate,&fugiens comprehensus
est..." (...heleft the city and was
capturedin his flight...). - PassioS. Quirini,il.
The description of the area in this text is very interesting. Two Pannonian provinces and
their capitalsare mentioned,as well as cities along the Danube, as in the following:
"...ad ripam Danubii ad singulascivitates(ducebanr)... " (...along the banks of the
Danubefrom city to city...) - PassioS. Quirini,[tr.
Information about local persecutionscan be found throughout the entire text, specifically
referring to two provincial officials, Maximus and Amantius. A common citation of them
follows:
"...Maximus Quirinum episcopurnjussit ad Amantium praesidem, ad primam
Pannoniam deduci..."(...Maximus orderedthat bishop Quirinus be taken to the
praesesAmantiusin PannoniaPrima...): PassioS. Quirini,fr.
The official paganreligion is mentionedseveraltimes. One example:
" Q.{ote
"Respice& agnoscepotentesessedeos, quibus Romanorurn servit irnperhzrn.
and acknowledgethe powerful gods worshipped by the Roman Empire.) - Passio
S. Quirini,ll.
The opinions of the martyr regarding pagan deities are perhaps best expressedby the
following text:
"...contraDei praeceptajubet servosChristi diis vestris immolare, quibusegonan
servio, quia nihil sltnt." (... againstthe commandmentsof God they ask that the
servantsof Christ make sacrificeto your gods, which I do not serveas they represent
nothing.) - PassioS. Quirini,ll.
The function of Quirinus is clearly noted:
"...beatusQuirinusepiscopusSiscianus..."(..blessedQuirinus,bishopof Siscia...)PassioS. Quirini,ll.
Quirinus indicatesthat there are other Christians in his community during discussionswith
Maximus, and in another section of the text Christian women from Pannonia Prima are
cited:
"...Christianaemulieres,cibum,potumqueobtulerunt ei." (...Christian women
broughthim food and drink.) - PassioS. Quirini,lY.
No detaileddescriptionof the torturesexists,merely a brief mention of a beating:
"Tunc Maximus praesesjussit eumfustibus caedi." (The praesesMaximus then
orderedhim flogged.) - Passio S. Quirini,tr.
The constancyof the martyr is emphasizedthroughout the entire text, and one citationis
offered:
"...veremodo sacerdoseffectussum, si me ipsum vero Deo sacrificium obtulero."
(...I truly have becomea priest, if I sacrificemyself to the true God.) - PassioS.
Quirini,ll.
Admiration is expressedthrough gatheringat the grave of the martyr:
"...ubi major estpro meritis ejusfrequentia procedendi." (...becauseof his merit, there
were more frequentvisits.) - PassioS. Quirini,Y.
The manner of martyrdom is emphasized in the orders and only the execution itself is
described:
"..jussit sanctoDei Sacerdotivelfamulo molam ad collum ligari & influvii Sibaris
undas demergi." (...he orderedthat the holy priest or servantof God have a millstone
placedaround his neck and be thrown into the waves of the river Sibaris.)- Passio
S. Quirini,Y.
165
r66
nonethelessUeperceivedin the namesof the martyrs, the datesof their executionand the
eventualexistenceof a cult site.
The contentsof the actsof the Pannonianmartyrs primarily determinestheir
classificationinto Delehaye'sgroups 3 and4.
The legend of St Pollio reports on the persecutionof Diocletian. After legal processes
againstthe Christiansof Sirmium, the praesesProbusturned to the neighboring
communitiesand in Cibalaecondemnedthe first lector of the community there, Pollio. Most
of the passio consistsof a dialoguebetweenthe praesesand the condemned- the dialogue
is actually a freely organizedrecord of the interrogation.The Passio of St Pollio containsno
interesti4gadditions such as descriptionsof amazing conversions.It is limited to a
recapitulationof the legal process,offered in a very extensiveform. This strict limitation of
the contentsindicatesthe authenticityof the source,although this passio is consideredless
reliable in the modern literature(particularly in comparisonwith the Passio of St Irenaeus,
evaluatedas the most dependablePannonianlegend).65The recapitulationof the legal
processshows that the compilers of this text had knowledge of the original court records,
hencethe legendjustifiably belongsin Delehaye'sgroup 3. The martyrPollio was executed
by burning in the vicinity of his city.
The Siscianbishop Quirinus was executedin PannoniaPrima, in Savaria,accordingto
the legend. The legend was recordedon the basis of recordsreporting a double
interrogationand trial - the first in Sisciaand the secondin Savaria.After the secondlegal
process,the martyr Quirinus was thrown into the river with a millstone around his neck.
The Passio of St Irenaeusis distinguishedfrom other legendsabout the Pannonian
martyrs by its very pure form, while the Passio of St Donatus offers a stereotypicalreport
about the legal process.The legendsabout the martyrs Synerotas,Ursicinus and the
Pannonianstonemasonshave more unrestrictedcontents.The Passio of St Irenaeusreports
on the bishop of Sirmium who was executedduring the persecutionof Diocletian. A great
part of the text is occupiedby the dialoguebetweenthe praesesProbusand the accused
Irenaeus.This text is evocativeof an official legal process,which was probably noted in
original documents.Irenaeusis representedas a very young man, but also as aardent and
steadfastChristian. When he refusedto sacrificeto the pagangods, the praesesProbus
orderedhim executedby sword and thrown into the river Sava.The legend of St Donatus
and four other Pannonianmartyrs recapitulatesthe legal caseagainstthem. As a
disproportionately large part of the text is devoted to the trial of the Pannonian martyr
Hermogenes,thepassio should in fact be termed the Acts of St Hermogenesand others.All
the martyrs from this legend were members of the Pannonian clergy. The events are dated
to the period of Diocletian. The legend of St Synerotasspeaksof Sirmium. Most of the text
is characterizedby a particular narrative vitality and an unusual story. The stereotypical
legal dialogueoccupiesa lessersectionof the text. The legend speaksof the humble
gardenerSynerotas,who was brought before the pagancourt becauseofthe revengeofan
offended woman whose immoral lifestyle he had condemned.He was executedby sword.
The legend of St Ursicinus containsa more extensivedescriptionof the legal caseagainst
the Pannonianmilitary tribune, the Christian Ursicinus. His place of binh was noted in the
legend as the town of-Sibentumin Upper Illyricum. On the basis of the descriptionof the
court case,it canbe concludedthat it took placein Sirmium. Ursicinus was executedwith a
sword. The dating is not entirely secure.The legendsof the Pannonianstonemasonsrefer
to Diocletian'spresencein Pannoniaand his encounterwith the skilled stonemasons
Symphorianus,Claudius, Castorius,Nicostratusand Simplicius. They met the emperor's
wishes, carvedvarious sculpturesand decorativeornamentsfor him, and confirmed their
inspired skill. As Christians,they refusedto carve a statueof the god Aesculapius,and
were condemnedand executed.They were closedalive in lead casesand thrown into the
river. As can be seenfrom the presenceof Diocletian, the event is dated to his period. The
legend of the Pannonianstonemasonsis very extensiveand freely formed. The official
report, which was probably a part of its basis,has been modified until it is unrecognizable.
It is nonethelessconsideredthat the legend speaksof actual events,and that other ihan the
lames of the martyrs certainother data (about the geographicregion, Pannonianquarries,
the craft of stonemasonry)atteststo its correctattribution to Delehaye'sgroup 3.
Two legends(about St Anastasiaand the martyr Demetrius) have characteristicsof
historical romances,and are included in group 4. The actual occurrenceswere entirely
t67
ignored and minimized in them. The events were placed elsewherethan in Pannonia, and
figures appearthat have absolutely no relation with these martyrs.
After consideration of the historical value of the acts of the martyrs, the period of
their origin must be addressed.The early Christian legendswere preservedin mediaeval
manuscripts.One example would be the numerousmanuscriptsin which the legendsof the
Pannonianstonemasonsare preserved.The earliestof thesemanuscriptg-isfrom the 8th
century (ParisCodex no. 10861).The othersare dated somewhatlatei.6 The legendsof
other Pannonianmartyrs are similarly locatedin various mediaevalmanuscripts.An aspect
that must be investigated concernsthe thesis of the classical origin of the legends of the
martyrs. Is it possible to speak with certainty about the creation of the legends as early as
the late Roman period? Did they then exist merely as ideas or did they already have a
literary form? Hagiographicliterature provides a positive answerto thesequestions.All
passionesof Delehaye'sgroup 3 were undoubtedly createdin the classicalperiod, as they
are in fact more unrestrained alterations of documentscreatedin the period of the
persecution.They thus must have been composedwhen the original sourceswere still well
preservedand generallyknown.
The legendsabout the martyrs Irenaeus,Pollio, Quirinus, Synerotasand the
Pannonianstonemasonscan be dated to the 4th century. The earliest of them is perhaps the
legendof St lrenaeus,which transmitsthe court proceedingsin a very pure form. The date
of Irenaeus'death in the legend correspondsto that in the MH. The phrase Ecclesi.atua
catlnlica6T indicates the first half of the 4th century, when Orthodox oriented bishops were
in chargeof the Sirmian community. When the Arian bishop Germinius was placedas the
head of the Sirmian community in the mid 4th century, it becamea markedly Arian
community. The adjectiveCatholic was alreadywell known in the 4th century.ouIt rarely
appearsin the pre-Constantine period in the preservedliterature, although the term was
known then and usedby certainreligious writers. Its appearancein the 4th century could be
entirely expecled and would not contradict the suggesteddating of the passio.
T\e Passio of St Pollio is dated to the secondhalf of the 4th century,in the period of
the emperor Valentinian I, who is mentioned in it. It may have acquired its literary form
prior to this, in the first half of the 4th century. The preserved version was probably written
although certainmodifications and supplementscould have
in the period of V_alentinian,
beenaddedlater.6eThe mention of Valentinian as the most Christian ruler would make
senseonly if thepassio had been written in his period. If, for instance,the text had been
written a century later, Valentinian certainly would not be emphasizedin this manner, as the
chronological distance would enable an more exact perception of his character and
behaviour. In terms of his character,Valentinian I certainly does not deservethe title of
most Christianruler, and the sameis true of his behavior, particularly if one considershis
religious toleranceor lack thereof. However, the composerof the passio who wrote in the
period of Valentinian'sreign ignored the negativeaspectsof the emperor,and in the text
devotedto the Christian community of Cibalaeshowedhim in the best possiblelight,
certainly becausethe emperor had been bom in Cibalae.
The compilatory character of the acts about Quirinus is indicated by the report about
a double trial. Evidently the compiler utilized various primary sourceswhich were then still
preservedand accessible.The terminusante quernfor the origin of the passio is certainly
the transportof the relics of Quirinus to Rome, which occurredat the beginning of the 5th
century. The text mentions the grave of Quirinus at Savaria, and there is no information
abouthis remainsbeing moved. Only a later addition to the Passio of St Quirinus mentions
the translationto Rome. Hence,the original text of the legend can be datedto the second
half of the 4th century.
Other than the martyr himself, only tfe emperor Maximian is named in the Passio of
St Synerotas.The administratorof the province remainedanonymous,other than his rank
of praeses.The dating of this text to the 4th century is supportedby the introductory note
'
that Synerotaswas a Greek citizen who had settledin Sirmium. The fairly expressive
contentsof the legend allow a hypothesisthat the data about the immigration of Syneroks
had not been taken from some official record, but that it had been preservedorally. Such
settlementfrom easternareaswas a common phenomenonin the 4th century. Later, in the
5th and 6th centuries,the influx of easternpopulationsceased.Thus it seemslikely that the
168
author of the legend emphasizedthe foreign origin of Synerotasin a period when such
settlementin Sirmium was normal. He could then comparethe tradition with the actual
situation,concludingfrom their congruenceabout the accuracyof the story.
The legendsabout the Pannonianstonemasonsoriginatefrom the earlier phaseof the late
Roman period. The main argumentfor dating this text as'earlyas the 4th centuryis the
Latin in which it is written, partibularlythe utilization of technicalterms and citationsfrom
the Gospel of St Matthew from a tranilation prior to the MH.
The dating offered by F,ggerfor the legend of St Donatus [et al] can be accepted.As was
the casewith the actsof St.Quirinus,the origin of the Passio of St Donatuscan be
consideredin terms of the translationof the relics of the martvr- While the transferalof the
relics of St Quirinus representeda terminusante quemfor the origin of his passio, for St
Donatus and the group of martyrs it was a terminuspost quem. The'relics of the Pannonian
cleric Donatus,and those of Romulus, Silvanus,Venustui and Hermogenes,arrived in
northernltaly at the beginningof the 5th century.Soon aftbr the depositionof the relics, the
legend about the Pannonianmartyrs was written on Italian soil. Both R. Egger and S. Ritig
considerthattheactsofStDonatuswerewrittenunder'influenceof
the PassioofSt
Pollio.7oTheir opinionsdifferedin that Ritig consideredthe Passioof Donatus
contemporaryto that of Pollio, while Egger datedit later.
tt is difncirtt to datethe lesend aboullhe martvr Ursicinus with certaiiltv. A somewiiat
later origin of the legend coul-dbe indicatedby the distortion of the nam'efbr the iown
where the martyr was born - Sibentum.Similarly, the dating accordingta indictionesthat
appearat the end of the passioindicatea later origin.
Two Fannonianlegendsthat belong to Delehaye'sgroup 4 (St Demetririsand St __
Anastasia)also originatedsomewhatlater, but certaifistill in the late Rom?u1'period.7l
Data about the period of the executionof individual saintsare ambng the most important
information that can be derived from the legendsof the martyrs. They do not cite the.yearof
martyrdom, but rathermerely the day and month. The year of martyrdom had no liturgical _.
importance,so it could be ignored. However, Christian communitiespreserved
remembranceof the imperial persecutorsand their namesare also cited in the legends.
The majority of Pannonianmartyrs died in the period of Diodetian. The persecutionof .
Diocletianis mentionedin the legendsof Irenaeus,Pollio, Quirinus,Donatus[et a1],the'
Pannonianstonemasons,Anastasiaand Demetrius (the emperorsDiocletian and Maxiri'riari
are mentionedindividually or together).The year 304 has been aqceptedin the literatureas
the date of the executionof Irenaeus,Pollio, Donatus(and the oth^ermartyrs from this acta),
Anastasiaand Demetrius.The beginning of the Passioof Pollio, /z where previous
martyrdomsin Sirmium are mentioned,is art important sourcefor deducingthe
chronologicalsequenceof the executionsof the Pannonianmartyrs. As this section'
includesfhe phraie a clericissumsitexordium,l3 it follows that ihis persecutioirwas'also
directedagainlay membersof the community, i.e. that this was the 4th persecutionof'
Diocletian in the spring of 304.74The sequencein which the martyrs are listed in the Passlo
of St Pollio correspondsto that in the MH . The priest Montanus was the first to die, on the
26th of March,304, followed by the bishopIrenaeus(6 April) and Pollio (28 April). As
can clearly be seenfrom the MH,\aymen as well as clergy died in this persecution,which
indicatesthe 4th edict. The wife of the priest Montanus, Maxima, was the first recorded
non-clergy to die. Along with the clericsDonatus (and his accompanyinggroup of martyrs
cited in his acts)and Demetrius,the anonymousSirmian female saintsare cited in the MH.
The death of Anastasia,and thoseof martyrs about whose lives there are no data (Sabbatia,
A^glpp.inus,Secundus,Basilia) should also be placedin the year'304, when all the citizens
of the Empire were exposedto persecution.
The other martyrs that are known from citationsin the MH andthe preservedlegends
were executedin variouspersecutions.
- It is entirely certainthat the first among the PannonianChristiansto die was the bishop
of Cibalae,Eusebius.He is mentionedin the MH andin the Pcssjo of St Pollio, but no legerd is preservedabout him. From the citation inthe MH it would be possibleto conclude
that Eusebiushad died in the sameyear 4qPollio, as the martyrs are listed togetherunder
the samedate.In the Passioof St P;11io,75however, it is cleaily statedthat E:usebiushad
been martyred in a previouspersecution,but which one is uncertain.The placementof his
deathin the 2nd century certainlyis unacceptablebecauseof the late Christianizationof
r69
6rfiaiy"-t*t"r
- mgstprobably
of Diocletian
iittaceain thepifrodof thePersecution
f#;;;i'd;itfi;;ffi;h,
the
Galerius.Jfrn
duringtliereign-of
b"i pt"reritrr martirdom
/'St
relatedQuirinusto Sisciaanddid not mentionSavariaat all.
firsfverses,Prudentius
bisho.p,
the
of
qgirinus'
death
the
martyrdom,anddes-cribed
iiio1nJ.iria theyear308for
in termsof thedate,the4th
acceptable
This yearis more_
asAiOFruOentiusls0
;fjil;jil
oi iuiy,' .it.a in the MH. Laterthat yeai, on the 1l th of November,the P.annonillt:qi9i
till then,hence$9 dlting
cameundertherule of Licinius.Galeriushadruledin Pannonia
thelast
i*. ttt MH ugr"etwiththeotherdataabolt Quirinus,whois thusconsidered
(the
century)
period
6th
later
a
somewhat
writer
from
marjyr.Anotherclassical
Fannonian
the
concerning
information
no_new
Tours,
offered
of
Gregory
who mentionsSi Quirinus,
of Toursdescribedin
Life AItnb othercitedwriters,Qregor.y
rfit;Ail"iQuiinus.
of the
Iltuii miiJty tni Aeatbloydrowning,but importantdataaboutthe circumstances
E
l
executionareomitted,
maltyrs:
chronologyof thePannonian
Thetablebelowshowsthe suggested
Dateof martvrdoml
Martvrs:
2EApril259?
Eusebius
26March304
Maxima
Montanus,
6 April304
henaeus
Romulus,
Donatus,
Fortunatus,
Hermogenes, 9 April 304
Venustus,
Silvanus,
Sirmian
anonymous
Demetrius,
Virgins")
tbmalesaints("Seven
28April 304
Pollio
4 July304
Sabbatia
15July304
Secundus
Agrippinus,
29August304
Basilia
304
25December
Anastasia
170
Cnonne
Tse Hn'ronvor ElRlv CHntsrnuCouuuNlnesw CoNTINEMAL
Ursicinus
14August(year?)
Pannonianstonemasons
8 November306 ?
synerotas
Ouirinus
307?
23February
4 JunLSQE-
"ot
sT
toQuirinus.
rir.Jit*iiv ietatea
r7l
FnorarHe INVTNcTBLE
SuNro rHs SUNor Jusrtcp
t73
174
t75
known that Hungarianearly Christian, and in generallate Roman finds are very numerous
and rich, while they are scarcein Croatia,then the extensivefinds from Hetdnypusztado
not representan argumentfor the location of a bishopric in this town. other croatian sites,
suchas Sisak, Osijek and Vinkovci, also have very scarceearly Christian finds (in the
senseof a lack of early Christian architecture),but nonethelessno one considersthat Siscia,
Mursa and Cibalaeshould be relocatedelsewherebecauseof this. Naturally, the problem of
the location of Iovia is particularly prominent becauseof the existenceof several
settlementsof the samenamein a relatively small area.Despitethis, the scarcityof early
Christianfinds (a generalcharacteristicfor northem Croatia) cannotbe a proof againstthe
existenceof the bishopric of Iovia in Ludbreg. This should not be taken to meanthat there
were no bishopricsin Hungary, indeed, there were many of them. The abundantfinds,
particularly ofearly Christian architecture,confirm the existenceofbishoprics on
Hungariantenitory. They have unfortunatelyremainedwithout confirmation in the literary
sources,as mention of them has not been preservedin the existing acts,and as the corpus
of late Roman sourcesis both limited and well researched,there is faint or no chanceof
confirming certainHungarianlate Roman bishopricsthrough the literary records.134
It appearsthat both the historical circumstancesand the period in which Amantius of
Iovia was mentionedwould support Egger'sargument.This bishop was only one of the
mediatorsand transmittersof northern Italian influencesinto the Pannonianregion in the
period of St Ambrosius of Milan. Data about the date of burial from the lost sarcophagus
bf Amantius indicatethat the bishop was activein Pannoniain the last decadesof the 4th
century,exactly in the period of Anemius, the prot6g6of Ambrosius in Sirmium. As is
known, St Ambrosius of Milan took radical actionsas an opponentof Arianism, and
through his personalintervention,the Catholic orientedAnemius was placed as the.leader
of the Sirmian metropolitan.This act of interferencein_thereligious politics of Illyricum is
reportedby the biographerof Ambrosius, Paulinus.135Paulinusexplicitly writes.aboul the
arrival of Ambrosius in Sirmium to consecrateAnemius as bishop. He also mentionsthe
hostile attitude of the Arians (under the protectionof the empressJustina),who did not
agreewith the selectionof Catholic Anemius. Paulinus'story at this point reachesanecdotal
pioportions - all attentionis given to the unusualeventof an Arian girl attacking^
Ambrosius.The information that Paulinusdoesnot transmit but which is evident from his
text is the significanceof Ambrosius' actsin the context of religious relationsbetween
Milan and Sirmium. Ambrosius' actionswere outsidethe bounds of the existing church
practiceand cannons,as the church in Sirmium (then raisedto the level of a metropolitan)
ivas autonomousfrom northern Italy in the religious-legal senseand in particularhad the
right to independentorganizationof its own hierarchy. This activity of Ambrosius outside
of his own diocesehas been greatly emphasizedand discussedin the modem literature, as
I'Milan was at this period the administrativecapital of the
in this quotationfrom Jones:
pre-eminence
was due lessto this fact than to the dominating,
West, but its ecclesiastical
not to say domineering,personalityof its bishop, Ambrosius. His most extraordinary
assertionof his authority was to consecratea bishop of Sirmium in 376. No canonor
ancientcustomjustified this interferenceof the bishop of Milan in the affairs of a church
which lay not only in anotherprovince but anotherdibcese."136git actionsin Sirmium can
only be explainedas resulting from the force of his personalityand his great authority, but
do not denotethe subjectionof the Sirmium region to the jurisdiction of Milan. This was
merely a matter of temporary influence on church politics in a region otherwise
autonomousin mattersof religion andjurisdiction.
The Catholic bishop of Siscia,Constantius,is also mentionedin the sameperiod
along with Anemius of Sirmium and Amantius of Iovia. As was the casewith the previous
two Pannonianbishops, Constantiusof Sisciaappearedat the Council of Aquileia in 381,
where he actively participatedin discussionsabout Arianism and joined the other Catholics
in denouncingfaniaius.l37 As far as is known, Arian bishops w-erenot active in Siscia,in
contrastto Mursa and Sirmium, and Constantius'orientationmay be consideredas the
continuationof already confirmed church politics. Nonetheless,as hasbeen illustrated at
length with citationsof the hypothesesof SzalSgyi,Siscianbishops supportingArianism
can perhapsbe recognizedin certainbishopsaccompanyingValens, Ursaciusand
Germinius.In this case,the situationin Sisciawould be similar to that in Sirmium, where
after a period of Arian domination, there was a Catholic reactionand the installationof a
176
177
FnorrarHs INVTNcTBLE
S uN ro rHE SUNoR Jusrrce
178
Cnoe.rrR
179