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Physics Project Report : Investigatory

Project title : Photoelectric Effect

Project Report on Photoelectric Effect

Introduction to the Project Report :

Comparing the mass of the electron with the mass of
ionised hydrogen atom (proton) we see that it is lighter by
a factor of 1836. This indicates that electrons are easier to
accelarate than ions.
Availability of loosely bound electrons (are actually
unbound) in atoms of metals is responsible for their high

electrical conductivity. Within a solid piece of substance

like lithium, atoms are closely packed and, therefore, the
loosely bound electrons of each atom are easily moved
from the influence of their nucleus to that of their
neighbour. Such loosely bound electrons are called free
electrons. Free electrons are held inside the metals by
attractive forces at their surface and require a minimum
amount of energy, called the work function of the metal, for
their escape. This minimum energy can be supplied to the
free electrons in the metal for their release from the metal
surface by anyone of the following physical processes :
(a) Thermo ionic emission : by heating the metal
sufficient thermal energy can be given to free electrons to
overcome the attractive pull of the metal surface.
(b) Field emission : electrons can be extracted from
metals by applying an electric field.
(c) Photoelectric emission : by shining light of high
frequency (ultraviolet) on clean metal surfaces electrons
from inside the metal can be released.
We shall next study the photoelectric effect. Einstein
explained it on the basis of Max Plancks Quantam idea.
This laid the foundation of the Quantam theory. Therefore,
the photoelectric effect is of special interest.
Photoelectric Effect

Hallwach discovered that an insulated zinc plate

connected to a gold leaf electroscope and charged
negatively losts its charge, when a beam of ultraviolet light
was directed on the plate. Hallwach suggested that the
metal surface loses negative charge due to ejection of
electrons from its surface by the ultraviolet light. The effect
was termed as Photoelectric effect. The electrons so
emitted were called Photoelectrons. J.J.Thomson showed
that the Photoelectrons were not different from the
ordinary electrons.
Thus, the phenomenon of ejection of electrons from a
metal surface, when light of sufficiently high frequency falls
upon it is known as the photoelectric effect.

Experimental Study
The phenomenon of photoelectric effect is studied by
using an experimental arrangement shown in figure 1.
Monochromatic light of known frequency is focussed on
the anode of an evacuated quartz tube. The anode is
made out of the metal whose behaviour under exposure to
light is being investigated. Flow of current in the external
circuit indicates the flow of electrons emitted from the
anode surface inside the tube. This is possible if the
electrons are emitted with energy large enough to
overcome the retarding potential between the anode and
the cathode.
Explanation 1 : Free electrons in the metallic anode can
absorb energy from the electromagnetic waves impinging
on them. After sufficient energy has been absorbed free
electrons inside the metal should be able to overcome the
combined potential barrier offered by the metal surface
and the retarding potential across the phototube.
Now, when the photocurrent is measured by varying (a)
the intensity of light, (b) its frequency and (c) the retarding
potential between the anode and the cathode, effects are
observed which cannot be reconciled with the classical
wave properties of light and its absorption by electrons.
Hence explanation 1 is not accepted.
The maximum kinetic energy with which the electrons
leave the anode can be measured by adjusting the
retarding potential till the photocurrent in the external

circuit is reduced to zero. Then electrons are not able to

reach the anode. If V is the cut-off voltage, the maximum
kinetic energy of electrons in the phototube is eV.
When a careful study is made of photoemission by varying
the above mentioned parameters in the experiment, the
following important conclusions are reached :
(i) The energy distribution of the emitted electrons is
independent of the intensity of the light. That is, more
photoelectrons are emitted if the intensity of the light is
increased but the maximum kinetic energy with which the
electrons leave the metal remains unchanged. Infact, even
with light of very low intensity some electrons with the
same kinetic energy are emitted.
(ii) With in the limit of experimental accuracy it is observed
that there is no time lag between the arrival of light at the
metal and the emission of photoelectrons. The delay has
been experimentally measured. The delay time has been
found less than 10-9s.
(iii) For a given metal, photoelectrons are not emitted if the
incident light is of frequency less than a critical value,
called the threshold frequency, no matter how high its
intensity.
(iv) The maximum kinetic energy with which
photoelectrons are emitted from a particular metal and the
frequency of the incident light are related linearly. The
relation can be expressed as :
KEmax = h (-o) ---------- (1)

As the kinetic energy of electrons cannot be negative,

photoemission does not takes place when the frequency
of the incident light is less than o. Although the threshold
frequency o changes from metal to metal, the slope of the
straight line.
eV = h (-o), ------------ (2)
Where is the magnitude of the cut-off voltage, is the
same.
Millikan also has the credit of making the first accurate
measurement of cut-off voltages for sodium metal by using
monochromatic light of known frequencies. He published
the graph of photocurrent versus voltage and the graph of
cut-off voltage versus frequency of light. We can estimate
the slope of the straight line. It is
By multiplying it with the charge of an electron, which is
the fundamental charge (of an electron), e=1.602 x 10-19 C;
We get,
h = 4.124 x 1.602 x 10-15 x 10-19
= 6.6 x 10-34 Js.
The Photon :
Einstein took Plancks idea of the quantam of energy
seriously and proposed that a monochromatic
electromagnetic wave of frequency consists of discrete
quanta each having energy

E = h ---- (3)
Where h is the Planck constant. The quanta of light were
appropriately called photons. Each photon travels with the
velocity of light. According to Einsteins special theory of
relativity energy, E and momentum, p of particles moving
with the speed of light are related
E = pc ---- (4).
Where c is the speed of light.
Comparing eqs (3) and (4), the momentum of the photon
is seen to be related to the wavelength of light as
----- (5)
Where is the wavelength of the light.
Quantum Interpretation :
Explanation 2 : Einstein suggested that absorption of
energy from a photon by a free electron inside the metal is
a single event and involves transfer of energy in one lump
instead of continuous absorption of energy as in the wave
model of light. Energy is conserved in the process. It can
be expressed by the relation.
Energy of the incident photon = maximum.
Kinetic energy of the electron + work
Function of the metal. ------ (6).

The kinetic energy of the emitted electron will be

maximum if the free electron, which is released from the
atom belongs to the group which has the maximum energy
inside the metal. By using the Einstein relation for the
energy of photons of frequency , we can write the
photoelectric emission equation, eq (6) as
-------- (7)
Let the work function be expressed in units of frequency
such that
Work function = o -------- (8)
Then the Einstein photoelectric equation, eq (7), can be
re-expressed as
KEmax = h (-o) -------- (9)
This equation is identical to the experimentally observed
relationship given by eq. (1).
Hence, explanation 2 is accepted and Einstein received
the Nobel Prize in physics in the year 1921 for the
quantam theory of the photoelectric effect. This lead to the
particle behaviour of light.
Particle Nature of Light :
Arthur Holly Compton investigated the scattering of
monochromatic X-rays from electrons. He observed that
the scattered X-rays had longer wavelength. The change
in wavelength was found to be independent of the matter

used for scattering but varies with the angle between the
incident and the scattered rays. Compton could explained
the effect observed by him by assigning momentum of
magnitude h/c to photons of energy h. The elastic
scattering of a photon from an electron at rest can be
worked out by involving the principles of conservation of
energy and conservation of momentum. The formula
giving the change of wavelength of the X-ray photon is

Where is the angle of scattering of the X-rays photon and

m is the mass of electron.
The elastic process is shown diagrammatically. The recoil
electrons were observed in Wilsons cloud chamber.
Wilson shared the 1927 Nobel prize in physics with
Compton.
Photocell - A Technological Application :
The design of a photocell makes use of photo-emission
from a metal surface for measuring the intensity of light.
The photoelectrons emitted from the cathode of the
photocell are drawn to the collector by an electric field.
The resultant electric current is measured by a sensitive
meter in the external circuit. The current obtainable from a
typical photocell is of the order of a microampere.
The fundamental use of a photocell is to convert a change
in the intensity of illumination into a change in electric
current. This change in electric current may be used to

operate controls and in light measuring devices. For

example, a person approaching a door way may interrupt
a light beam which is incident upon a photo cell. The
abrupt change in photocurrent may be used to start a
motor which opens the door or rings an alarm. Light
meters in cameras work on this principle.
Conclusion
As we appreciated the simplicity and elegance of
Einsteins explanation of photoelectric effect we came to
know about the particle behaviour of light. He introduced
revolutionary ideas which were contrary to the scientific
opinion of the time. The photon hypothesis disturbed the
scientific community much more than the seventeenth
century Newton - Huygens heated debate on the
corpuscular and the wave nature of light. But the new
theory gave a better description of the physical nature
than the comfortable old classical ideas.
Hence, the world came to know about the dual nature of
light. That is, a monochromatic beam of light of frequency ,
hence possessing wave attributes, manifests in some
experiments as though it is a stream of quanta called
photons.