Pharmacognosy Lecture Note

Pharmacognosy Lecture Note, prepared by: Redwan Abdihakim Hussein
Bpharm, Bsc In Nutrion and food science
Pharmacognosy lecture Note

Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Introduction
Crude drugs
Drug constituents
Drug adulteration
Evaluation of drugs
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACOGNOSY
Definition
Pharmacognosy is concerned with the study of crude drugs of
vegetable and animal origins.

Pharmacognosy involved comprehensive study of individual drugs and
elucidation of general principles.

The word Pharmacognosy was used by C.A seydler in 1815.
Pharmacognosy derived a Greece word (pharmakon means drug, gnosy
means knowledge).

Pharmacognosy deals with biological, biochemical, therapeutic and
economic features of natural drugs and their chemical constant.

Today Pharmacognosy involves the study of crude drugs and their
natural derivatives.
Related terms
Ethnobotany: It is a broad term referring to the study of plants by

humans
Ethnomedicine: It refers to the use of plants by humans as medicine
Traditional medicine: It is the sum total of all non-mainstream medical

practices, usually excluding so called western medicine
Phytochemistry: It is (from the Greek words phyton = plant and

chemeia = chemistry) deals with the knowledge of natural products
from plant origin exhibiting bioactivity
Phytotherapy: It is the study of the use of extracts from natural origin

as medicines or health-promoting agents
Why do we study Pharmacognosy

1. They provide a number of extremely useful drugs that are difficult, if
not impossible, to produce commercially by synthetic means
~25% of drugs in use today are derived from natural products
61% of the 877 NCE introduced between 1981 and 2002 can be
traced to a natural product origin (J. Nat. Prod. (2003) 66:1022)

In certain therapeutic areas, the impact is even higher, e.g., anticancer (74%) and anti-bacterial (78%)
Examples
Digitalis purpurea (Foxglove) and Digitalis lanata long known for
their healthy heart effects, exert a positive inotropic effect on cardiac
muscles and treatment for heart failure
Quinidine bark of Cinchona tree anti-arrhythmic drug
Quinine no cardiac activity anti-infective malaria
2. Some natural products contain compounds that demonstrate little or no
activity themselves but which can be modified by chemical or biological
methods to produce potent drugs not easily obtained by other methods
Droscera yam: molecule -> steroids
Soya: saponins -> steroids
Baccatin III Taxol
3. Source of toxic molecules

To study the way the body responds to their pharmacological use
Investigating pharmacological mechanisms
picrotoxin nerve conduction
History of Pharmacognosy

archaeological studies at Shanidar (burial site of Neanderthal man) in

Iraq have found eight species of pollen grains (around 60,000 B.C)
seven of these were plants that are still commonly used as folk
medicine through the world
Yarrow (Achillea), Marshmallow (Althaea), groundsel (Senicio), Centaury
(Centaurea), ephedra and muscari
Yarrow
The herb is purported to be a astringent, tonic, stimulant and mild
aromatic. It contains salicylic acid, sterols, flavonoids, bitters, tannins,
and coumarins. The plant also has a long history as a powerful 'healing
herb' used topically for wounds, cuts and abrasions.
Marshamallow
It is claimed to increase the flow of breast milk and soothe the
bronchial tubes.
Marshmallow is traditionally used as a treatment for the irritation of
mucous membranes, including use as a gargle for mouth and throat
ulcers, and gastric ulcers.Flowers has potential benefits for
hyperlipidemia, gastric ulcers and platelet aggregation.The root has
been used since the Middle Ages in the treatment of sore throat
Groundsel
Common groundsel as a medicinal herb does not seem to be
recommended very often since 1931, when it was recommended as a
purgative, a diuretic and an anthelmintic

The second oldest surviving recorded information on medicinal plants

is that of the Sumerians (Law code of Hammurabi (1700 BC)
Egyptians (Ebers papyrus, 1550 BC)

Chinese Contribution
The Chinese has also contributed a lot to the development of
pharmacognosy
In 1578 AD, A book entitled Pen T'sao Kan Mu (Herbal with
commentary) was published
The book contained 1892 drugs

Authors of antiquity Hippocrates (460-377 BC) The Father of

Medicine

Dioscorides (40-80 AD) De Materia Medica (600 medicinal plants)
The Islamic era Ibn Altabari (770850)

Ibn Sina (980-1037)

Ibn Albitar (1148-1197)

The era of European exploration overseas (16th and 17th century)

The 18th century, Pharmacognosy

Johann Adam (1759-1809)
Linnaeus (naming and classifying plants)
At the end of the 18th century, crude drugs were still being used as
powders, simple extracts, or tinctures
The era of pure compounds (In 1803, a new era in the history of
medicine)
Isolation of morphine from opium
Strychnine (1817)
Quinine and caffeine (1820)
Nicotine (1828)

th
19
and 20
th
centurys contribution
In the 19th century, the chemical structures of many of the isolated

compounds were determined
In the 20th century, the discovery of important drugs from the animal
kingdom, particularly hormones and vitamins.
Microorganisms have become a very important source of drugs
Atropine (1833)
Cocaine (1855)
Studying for a drug
For a studying a drug, the following points must be considered:

1. Biological source e.g plant family: mentioned in latin language or
botanist responsible.
2. Habitat: principles areas of collection and routes of transport are
considered.
3. Plant habit: the general structure of the plant and their morphology.
4. Histology: microscopically characters such as cell structure and
arrangement.
5. Chemical constituents: pharmacological active constituents.
6. Evaluation of drugs: purity and quality of drugs.
7. Uses: various medicinal uses and their toxic effects.
Pharmacognosy and the modern medicine
Prime examples of drugs derived from plants are the following:

1. Papaver somniferum : Morphine, Codeine.
2. Cinchona species : Quinine, Quinidine.
3. Datura species : Hyoscyamine
4. Digitalis lanata & purpurae : digoxin, digitoxin.
5. Rauwolfia species : Reserpine
6. Pilocarpus jaborandi : pilocarpine
7. Ephedra species : ephedrine

CHAPTER TWO
CRUDE DRUGS
Classifications of crude drugs

The main sources of crude drugs are :

1. Higher plants
2. Microbes
3. Animals
Crude drugs are classified into:

Morphological classification
Helpful to identify and detect adulterations.
The drugs are arranged according to the part of the plant
used such as leaves, stems, roots, barks, flowers, and seeds.
Can be divided into two main groups:
1. Organized drug: drugs obtained from the direct parts of the
plants and contain cellular tissues are called organized
drug. E.g leaves & fruits.
2. Un-organized drug: drugs which are prepared from plants
by some intermediate physical processing such as incision,
drying, extraction.
Taxonomical classification
Based on the principles of natural relationships and
evolutionary development. E.g angiosperms-papaveraceae-
opium
Chemical classification
Biological activity of a drug is due to the presence of certain
chemical constituents in the drug.
Plants and animals synthesize chemical compounds such as
fats, carbohydrate and proteins.
For example carbohydrates are derived by gum & mucilages
and these are derived drugs like honey, starch & agar.
Pharmacological classification
Drugs are grouped according to their therapeutic uses.
Examples
Anticancer drugs: vinca, podophyllum, taxus.
Anti-inflammatory: colchicum corn and seed.
Antamoebic : ipecac root
Antiasmathic : ephedra, lobelia.
Cardiotonic: digitalis.

CHAPTER THREE
DRUG CONSTITUENTS
Drug constituents
Medicinal value of a crude drug depends on the presence of one or
more chemical constituents of physiological importance.

They may be glycosides, alkaloids, organized resins & enzymes.
Vegetable drugs are composed cells, fibres & vessels. The cell wall
contains cellulose, lignins & tannins.

The constituents of drugs of medicinal values generally belongs to
one of the following group:
Glycosides

Enzymes
Anthraquinone derivates
Alkaloids
Tannins
Proteins
Carbohydrates
Fats
Volatile oils
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are plant products which contain carbon, hydrogen &
oxygen.
The ratio of hydrogen and oxygen is the same as occurred in water. E.g
dextrose and sucrose.

Carbohydrates are widely distributed in plants providing storage and
transport of energy and are building blocks of cell wall.

They are classified into:
Mono and oligosaccharides (true sugars)
Polysaccharides (non-sugar)
Derived carbohydrates (gum, mucilage & pectin)
Polysaccharides
Consists of numerous units of monosaccharides.
They are not sweet in taste e.g starch, cellulose, dextrins are
polysaccharides.
Gum, mucilage and pectin are derived carbohydrates which are
composed of acid and ester.
Glycosides
Glycosides are compounds which upon hydrolysis give rise to one or
more sugars (Glycone) and a compound which is not a sugar (Aglycone
or genin).
The Aglycone is usually a compound containing one or more hydroxyl
groups.
The glycoside is formed by the elimination of a molecule of water
between the hydroxyl groups of Aglycone.

The Aglycone may be an alcohol, phenol, aldehyde, acid & ester.
Anthraquinone derivatives (C14H8O2)

The laxative action of certain drugs is attributed to derivatives of
anthraquinones.

Various derivatives are obtained by replacing the hydrogen atoms by

alkyl & hydroxyl.
Used by laxative, antimalarial, and anticancer drugs
Examples
1. Chrysophenol: a dihydroxyl methyl anthraquinone present rhubarb.
2. Emodin: a trihydroxy methyl derivative present in cascara and
rhubarb.
Lipid fixed oils, fats, and waxes
The term lipid is used for fixed oils, fats and waxes.
Fixed oils are liquid at normal temperatures while fats are solids or
semi-solids at this temper

ature.
Chemically they are esters of glycerol with long chain fatty acids.
These esters are termed glycerides.
Fixed oils and fats are:
Non-volatile
Insoluble in water
Soluble in organic solvents e.g petroleum ether, diethyl ether &
chloroform.
Waxes are esters of a higher alcohols e.g acetyl alcohol with higher
fatty acids. They are insoluble in water and soluble in many organic
substances.
Volatile oils
They are flavoring constituents which evaporate on exposure at
ordinary temperature.
They are present in a various plants like saffron (flower), fennel (fruits),
cinnamon (bark).
Volatile oils are:
Colorless liquids
Crystalline
Amorphous
Slightly soluble in water
Highly soluble in either and alcohol.
Chemically volatile oils are the mixture of:
Monoterpenes (C10H16): It has antibacterial activity
Sesquiterpenes: it has antimalarial activity

Phenolic volatile oils are present in drugs like thyme, clove, creosote
and pintar which are useful in the treatment of bacteria, fungus & as
antiseptic properties.
Resins, gum resins and oleo-resins
Resins are derived from natural sources and most of them are plant
products except shellac.

All resins are practically insoluble in water and soluble in organic
solvents.
Resins are mixtures of various substances of complex chemical
characters.
Resins are used for:
Purgative
Cathartic
Hydragogue
Sedative
Counter irritant
Antihelmintic
Expectorant
Laxative
Externally they are used as mild antiseptic in the form of :
Cerates
Ointments
Plasters
Alkaloids
Alkaloids are complex substances occurring in plants or animals are
basic or alkali like and possess physiological activity.

They are considered derivatives of pyridine, quinoline and contain
hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen & oxygen.

Most alkaloids are solid colorless crystalline products.
Other alkaloids are volatile colorless liquids and they are without
oxygen. E.g nicotine, coniine & spartein.

Alkaloids combine with acids to form salts.
In plants alkaloids are found in various parts as in:
Seeds (strychnine)
Fruits (piper)
Leaves (belladonna, datura)
Roots (Rauwolfia)
Barks (cinchona)
Micro-organisms

Are viruses, bacteria, and ricketssiae which are sources of many
biological substances of immunization importance.

These posses immunity against various infectious diseases.
Immunity is acquired by administration of vaccine and toxoid.
Vaccines
Vaccines are suspended micro-organisms which may be obtained from:
Viruses
Bacteria
Rickettsiae
Vaccine stimulates the production of antibodies against pathogenic
microbes. E.g viral vaccines are prophylactic agents used against polio,
small pox, rabies, influenza, and measles.

Bacterial vaccine includes:
Typhoid
Cholera
Plague
Pertusis
BCG (anti-TB vaccine)
Vitamins
Vitamins are organic compounds which are not synthesized within the
body.
They are essential in small amounts for the maintenance of normal
health.
The lack of specific vitamins causes diseases such as:
Beriberi
Rickets
Scurvy
Xerophthalmia
Vitamin B2 (niacin) and panthotenic acid act as coenzymes.
Vitamin B12 and folic acid take part in the biosynthetic transfer of one
carbon unit.
In the biosynthesis of hydroxyproline, vitamin C is required.
Vitamin B6 is involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates.
Vitamin A is obtained from animal products and it is involved:
Vision
Growth
Tissue differentiation

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) prevents scurvy and it is used as a

antioxidant.
Good dietary sources of vitamin C are
Citrus fruits
Tomatoes
Strawberries
Fresh fruits
Vitamin D is essential for the absorption and utilization of calcium.
Vitamin A is obtained from:
Fish
Liver oils
Milk
Cereals
Synthesized in the body in sunshine.
Vitamin E is a mixture of tocopherols and widely distributed in:
Plant oils
Vegetable
Grains
Deficiency of vitamin E causes:
Muscular dystrophy
Coronary disease
Sterility
Vitamin K is widely distributed in dairy products and many fruits and
vegetables. Vitamin K is necessary for normal clotting.
Antibiotics
Antibiotics are the chemical substances produced by micro-organisms.
Examples
penicillin G obtained from a strain of penicillin chrysogenum
used to treat syphilis.
Cloxacillin, methicillin is semi-synthetic penicillins which are
used for the treatment of staphylococcal infections.
Ampicillin has special clinical value for the treatment of
infectious caused by haemophilus influenza, salmonella and
shigella species.
Cephalosporins from cephalosporium acremonium.
Chloramphenicol from streptomyces venezuelae.
Polymyxin B from bacillus polymyxa.
Gentamicin from micromonospora purpurae.
Miscellaneous drugs

Ichthamol is a black tarry distillate obtained from bituminous schists

containing fossil fish and possesses anti-septic and stimulant
properties.
Liver and stomach of healthy animals are converted into suitable
preparations which are used as replacement therapy in pernicious
anemia.
Bile acids obtained ox bile is used in deficiency of biliary secretion and
parenterally in sodium salts to increase dieresis.
CHAPTER FOUR
DRUG ADULTERATIONS
Drug Adulteration
An adultered drug means one which doesnt confirm to the official
requirements.
Adulteration involves incorporation of impurities.
The spoiled or deteriorated drugs represent the greatest percentage of
drug adulteration.
In some cases the dealers substitute the drugs with cheep materials in
case of scarcity or when the price of the drug is high.

An adulteration may be due to:
Faulty collection
Imperfect preparation
Incorrect storage
1. Faulty collection
In some cases the proportion of medicinally active constituent reaches
maximum at:

Particular season
Season of development
Age
Particular of Season
1. Solanaceous leaves: flowering stage of the drug.
2. Colchicum corn: early summer
Season of development
1. Linseed: when fully ripe.
Age
1. Belladonna root: root of 3-4 years old.
Sometimes adulteration is done by collection of other less valuable
part of a genuine plant. E.g clove (drug) flower buds (official part)
flower stalks (less valuable part).
2. Imperfect preparation
Collection of other and less valuable parts of the genuine plant may
cause adulteration.
Examples
Ginger (drug) rhizome cork (official composition) cork
(undesirable part).
Ipecac drug roots & rhizomes (official composition) aerial
stem (undesirable part).

Neglect of proper conditions for drying leads adulteration
Examples
Colchicum corn: drying at a temperature above 65 centigrade
which accelerates the rate of hydrolysis of cholchicine.
Cod-liver oil: Excessive heats used in separating the oil from the
livers affect the proportion of vitamins.

3. Incorrect storage
Incorrect storage spoils many drugs.
The quality, value or usefulness of the drug has been impaired or
destroyed by the action of:

Moisture
Light
Temperature
Micro-organisms
All drugs which are unfit for human or animal consumption are legally
considered as adultered.
Examples

Cascara sagrada: to be collected at least one year before being

used.
Coffee: caffeine is lost by over-heating.
Digitalis: to be preserved in a dry place to prevent excess of
moisture.
Confusion of common vernacular nomenclature
In different regions the same plant is known by different names.
Sometimes different drugs are known the same.
CHAPTER FOUR
Evaluation of Crude Drugs
Evaluation of drugs deals with the correct identification of the plant
and determination of quality and purity of crude drugs.

Actual collection of the drug is done from the identified plant or animal.
The characters of an unknown sample are compared with the authentic
monographs written in pharmacopeias.

The high quality of the drug is maintained by:

Collection of the drug from the correct natural source at proper

time.
Preparation of samples of the collected drugs by proper cleaning
to free from dirt.
Drying and proper preservation.
Dried and pure drug.
The evaluation of a drug is done by studying its:
Organoleptic property
Microscopic property
Chemical property
Physical property
Biological property
Organoleptic Evaluations
Organoleptic evaluation means study of a drug with the help of organs
of sense which includes:
External morphology
Colour
Odor
Taste
Sound of its fracture
Morphological characters
To study morphology of a drug is to examine its:
Shape
Size
Colour
External markings
Fracture
Internal colour
Odor
Taste
Examples
1. Barks: are tissues in a woody stem. E.g cinnamon, cinchona &
quillaia.
2. Underground structures. E.g roots of podophyllum and Rauwolfia.
3. Leaves: these are photosynthetic organs arising from a node on a
stem. E.g Senna, Tulsi & digitalis.

4. Flowers: these are reproductive organs of a plant and possess

different shapes, size and colour. E.g saffron & banafsha.
5. Fruits: arise from the ovary and contain seeds. E.g cardamom,
almond & Amla.
6. Seeds: are developed from the ovules in carpels of the flowers. E.g
linseed, ispaghula & nux-vomica.
7. Herbs: the whole aerial part is sometimes used as a drug. E.g
Brahni, Chirata & Pudina.
External markings are mentioned as:
Furrows
Ridges
Wrinkles
Annulations
Fissures
Nodules
Projections
Scars of the leaf
Root
The fractures may be:
complete
incomplete
short
fibrous
splintery (breaking irregularly)
tough
Sensory characteristics
Colour, texture, odor, and taste are useful in the evaluation of drugs.
This method is specially applicable to drugs containing:
Containing volatile oils or pungents principles. E.g capsicum
Detection of effects of inadequate drying or damp storage.
External colour varies from white to yellowish grey, brown and
orange. E.g the colour of some drugs changes if they are dried in
sunlight in place of shade.
The odour of a drug may be: aromatic, balsamic and spicy. E.g
clove and exhausted clove are differentiated by odour.
The taste may be sour (acidic), salty (saline), sweet (saccharine)
and bitter (alkali).

The drugs like ginger and capsicum have pungent taste.
Gentian, chirate have bitter taste.
Glycyrrhiza and honey are sweet taste.

Linseed and isphagula are mucilaginous.

Ipecac syrup has nauseas taste.
Microscopic or Anatomical Evaluation

Schleiden 1847 used microscope for the examination of drugs.
It is useful in powdered drugs.
Microscopic is also used for the quantitative evaluation of drugs and
adultered powders.
Chemical Evaluation
Involves the determination of active constituents by a chemical
process.
Chemical tests are used to identify crude drugs to determine purity. E.g
chemical tests for Phenolic compounds, alkaloids, carbohydrates,
volatile oils and aminoacids.

Physical Evaluation
Physical constants such as elasticity in fibres, viscosity of drugs
containing gum and mucilage.

Melting and boiling points.
Water contents.
Solubility. E.g 1g of codeine sulphate is soluble in 30 ml of water and
1300 ml of alcohol.
Solubility terms and their meanings

Terms
Meaning
Very soluble
less
than 1-part
Freely soluble
1 10
parts
Soluble
10
30 parts
Sparingly soluble
30
100 parts
Slightly soluble
100
1000 parts

Very slightly soluble
1000
10000
Practically insoluble
more
than 10000 parts

Biological Evaluation
Tests are carried out on intact:
Animals
Animal preparations
Micro-organisms
Since living organisms are used, the assays are called Biological Assay.
Biological assay is generally less precise, more time consuming and
more expensive to conduct than the chemical assays. E.g insulin
(active principle), digitalis, separation of vitamin D and conditions of
rat (male rat is faster growth rate than the female).

Mice are used to test rabies vaccine.
The rat line test is utilized for the assay of vitamin D preparation.
Oxytocic activity of vasopressin injection is also tested on guinea pigs.
Cats are utilized in tests for drugs which depressor activity and
glucagon injection.
Mydriatic drugs such as atropine are evaluated in the cats eye.
Ophthalmic preparations are tested in rabbits.
Human beings are also used in clinical trial.
Tubocurarines are assayed in rabbits.
Dogs are test animals to determine the pressor activity in drugs.
CHAPTER FIVE

Herbal Cosmetics
Among the common ailments of all age groups, skin diseases are
the most frequent.

A variety of microorganisms, biological toxins, chemical agents
and physiological factors cause damage to the skin.

A health person desires to be looked smart, charmful, and
attractive by using several kinds of cosmetics.

Women pay special attention to their body parts.
Plants used traditionally in the care of skin
1. Acacia catechu
Used for itching scabies and leucoderma.
Method of use is concentrated aqueous extract of bark is
applied on the affected area, decoction of about 20 g bark is
taken thrice daily, about 10 g powdered bark is ingested along
with honey for several days.
2. Aegle marmelos
Used for constipation related to skin disorders.
Method of use is both ripe and unripe fruits are useful in
gastrointestinal disorders.
3. Albizia lebbeck (Siris)
Used for leprosy
Method of use is about 15 g of leaves are taken orally for 40
days along with 2 g of black peper, seed oil is applied to the
affected area.
4. Arctium lappa
Used for Eczema
Method of use is tea of dried powdered root is taken twice
daily; freshly macerated root mixed with oil is applied on the
affected area.
5. Bambusa arundinacea (thorny bamboo)
Used for inflammatory conditions and ring worms.
Method of use is 100 ml of decoction of leaves and bamboo
joints is taken.
6. Beriberis vulgaris (true barberry)
Used for indolent ulcers
Method of use is decoction of the root is applied locally.
7. Boerhavia diffusa (hog weed)
Used for oedematus lesions

Method of use is past of root is applied locally

8. Carica papaya (papaya)
Used for skin care
Method of use is milky juice of unripe fruit is a cosmetic to
remove blemishes of skin including freckles, fruit pulp is
applied
9. Cassia sophera (kasaunda)
Used for ringworm infection
Method of use is juice of leaves made into a paste with
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
sandalwood or mixed with lime juice and applied externally.

Cassia tora (prapunnada)
Used for leprosy, psoriasis, ring worm & skin infections.
Method of use is leaves and seeds are ground with sour
butter, Milk or lime juice and applied externally.
Centella asiatica (mandukaparni)
Used for syphilitic skin disease
Method of use is take 20 ml of leaf juice taken orally and some
of it is applied externally.
Citrus limon (lemon)
Used for in leprotic ulcer & acne.
Method of use is lemon oil is mixed with glycerin applied.
Cocculus hirsutus
Used for eczema, impetigo & prurigo.
Method of use is mucilaginous juice of leaves mixed with
water is applied externally.
Curcuma longa (haldi)
Used for various skin diseases
Method of use is powdered rhizome is mixed in oil and applied
to the affected area.
Euphorbia hirta (dudhi)
Used for removal of warts
Method of use is latex of the plant is applied locally.
Hibiscus cannabinus (jute)
Used for scabies
Method of use is paste of leaves is used externally.
Jasminium grandiflorum (chameli)
Used for skin diseases
Method of use is essential oil of flowers is applied to the skin
directly.
Jatropha curcas (jangli arandi)

19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
Used for pruritus, eczema & herpes.

Method of use is seed oil is applied externally.
Mimosa pudica (humble plant)
Used for stoppage of itching.
Method of use is extract of plant is applied directly to the
affected part.
Nigella sativa
Used for skin eruptions, eczema & pityriasis
Method of use is decoction of seed mixed with sesame oil is
applied.
Pistia stratiotes (water lettuce)
Used for chronic skin disorders
Method of use is the juice of leaves boiled in coconut nut oil is
applied.
Prunus amygdalus (badam)
Used for skin eruptions
Method of use is kernel oil is applied
Santalum album (sandal)
Used for antiseptic, germicide, fungicide, swelling & itching.
Method of use is sandal wood oil is applied externally.
Vetiver zizanioides (khas khas)
Used for drug eruption, urticaria, allergy, genital eruption & acne.
Method of use is decoction of 15 g roots is taken, paste of
powdered roots is applied.
Aloe vera
Used for protection against damage by X-rays
Method of use is extract is applied to the site
Azadirachta indica (neem)
Used for control of sepsis
Method of use is a paste made from leaves is applied as a
dressing
Ficus tsiela (jari)
Used for stopping uncontrolling bleeding.
Method of use is the latex is applied on the wound after
cleaning.
Cajanus cajan (arhar)
Used for healing fresh wounds
Method of use is paste of leaves is dressed on the wound.
Lawsonia inermis (henna)
Used for nail care.

Method of use is an aqueous paste is made from the leaves

and fruits to dye nails; red fine powder is made from dry
fruits, mixed with edible oil in 1:1 proportion and applied to
30.
nails.
Allium sativum (lahsan)
Used for microbial infections
Method of use is an aqueous extract is made from the cloves,
stored in dark bottle and applied to nails.
Anti-ageing herbal drugs

Age of a person is usually reflected in the skin. As the person ages, the
skin starts becoming wrinkled, loosened and lax and leathery in
appearance.
The nature of the ageing process mainly involves the accumulation of
specific damaging molecules. This damage is caused by free radicals
that are usually generated as byproducts of different biochemical
reactions in the cell.

Calorie restriction decreased production of free radicals in the cells and
decreased mitochondrial damage.

Mitochondria are the cells energy factories that use oxygen and
nutrients to synthesize ATP, the bodys energy fuel.

A simple eating plan to stay young is as follows:
Limit the fat and sugar.
Focus on normal processed fruits, vegetable, whole grains, legumes,
non-fat milk, and lean meat. E.g fish
Take moderate doses of multivitamin and mineral supplements.
Take extra antioxidants such AS 100 IU of vitamin E and upto 1000 mg
of vitamin C.
Rational fasting is useful to rejuvenate himself physically, mentally and
spirituality with a 24 hour complete water fast weekly, thus making 52
days a year of body purification and at least three 7-10 days yearly
fasts.
Plants used traditionally to delay the onset of various symptoms of
ageing
1. Allium sativum

Used for as a rejuvenator

Method of uses is upto 5 cloves are ingested per day.
2. Crocus sativus
Used for as a revitilizer
Method of use is about 0.5 g of crude saffron is ingested per
day or used as condiment.
3. Salvia officinalis
Used for stress reliever.
Method of use is tea made with dried leaf powder is
consumed.
4. Taraxacum officinale
Used for tonic
Method of use is tea of dried leaves, coffee and roasted
ground roots.
5. Withania somnifera
Used for revitilizer and adaptogenic
Method of use is about 2 g of dried root powder is ingested
per day.
6. Ocimum sanctum (holy basil)
Used for adaptogenic and stress reliever
Method of use is take 25 leaves or their powder then ingest
their dried form or boil as a tea.
7. Terminalia arjuna
Used for revitilizer
Method of use is take 2 g of powdered bark and then ingest
each day.
CHAPTER SIX
Antidiabetic plants

Diabetes mellitus was one of the major killers of mankind

before the discovery of a pancreatic extract insulin in 1921
and oral hypoglycemics.

It is one of the worlds greatest health problems with an
estimate of minimum 40 million people suffering from this
disorder.
The disease is associated with three times higher mortality
rate, three times higher frequency of heart disease and ten
times higher frequency of blindness and gangrene.

The endocrine hormone operates at various sites throughout
the body regulating carbohydrate, triglyceride and protein
metabolism and controlling entry of glucose into the blood.

Insufficient insulin results in hyperglycemia and the symptoms
of diabetes, including an excess of sugar in the blood and
urine, hunger, thirst, and gradual loss of weight.

The disease is estimated to affect 4-5% of the population and
the patients are generally classified as either insulin
dependent diabetics (type I) or insulin non-dependent
diabetics (type II).

The former group includes all diabetic children, the majority of
those under 40 years of age and a few over 40 years.

Type II diabetics, constituting some 75% of the diabetic
population, have functional pancreatic beta cells but there is
not a deficiency in insulin production, patients are those in
which the disease has usually manifested after the age of 40.
In many cases the type II condition can be controlled by a
suitable diet and exercise but if this is not successful
treatment with oral hypoglycemics in conjunction with a
suitable dietary regime may prove satisfactory.
These drugs act in a variety of ways: by stimulating the beta

cells to produce insulin, by decreasing gluconeogenesis and
increasing peripheral utilization of glucose , retardation of

carbohydrate absorption from the gut resulting in a reduction

of excessive glucose concentration.
Review of work done on Antidiabetic plants
S.N
Plant name
Part
Effects of blood sugar
used
Acacia
seeds
Seed diet lowers blood sugar levels in
Arabica
normal rats
Acanthopana Barks
Bark glycoside cause hypoglycemia
x
3
Aconitum
Root-
Methanol- water extract of roots and their
carmichaedi
Japan
glycans reduced blood sugar level in mica.
Aloe vera
Leaves
Amorphous semi-transparent solid from
tourn
fresh leaves reduced the blood sugar when

given intravenously to normal albino rabbits
Anemarrhen
Rhizom
An aqueous methanolic extract and glucans
exhibited marked hypoglycemic activity in
asphodeloid
mice.
es
6
Arctium
Extract
Sharp long lasting reduction of blood sugar
lappa
with increase in carbohydrate tolerance was

observed in rate.
Dolichos
Green
Lowered the fasting blood sugar and
lablab
pods
weakened the hyperglycemia following the

administration of dextrose and adrenaline in
experimental animals.
Enicostemm
Whole
Fresh juice of whole plant produced fall

a littorale
plant
blume
9
Eucalyptus
in fasting blood sugar in diabetic

patients.
Leaves
Oral administration of the extract of
citriodora
leaves produced a temporary
hook
hypoglycemia in normal and alloxan

diabetic rabbits. Administration of the
extract preceding a glucose tolerance
test produced a flat curve of blood
sugar.
Euphorbia
prostrate ait
Herb
Powdered herb and methanol extract

produced hypoglycemia affect in
rabbits.
Ficus
bengalensis
Bark
Bengalonoside isolated from the bark

showed hypoglycemia activity in normal
and moderately diabetic rabbits.
Galega
Leaves
The aqueous and alcoholic extract
officinalis
and
exhibited hypoglycemic effect on in
seeds
rabbits. Galegan is a hypoglycemic

agent.
Glycine max
seeds
Hypoglycemic activity in normal albino
merrill
Gonoderma
Fruits-
Aqueous extract decreased plasma
lucidum
japan
sugar level in mice.
rabbits.
karts
1
Grewia
Stem
Aqueous extract produced Antidiabetic
asiatica
bark
effect in cats and rabbits.

Hamiltonia
Roots
Alcoholic and ethyl acetate extracts
suaveolens
Hammada
Plant
Alcoholic extract produced a decrease
salicornica
Arab
of blood sugar level in mice.
Hordeum
rootlets
Water soluble residue from fermented
vulgare
caused reduction blood sugar in rats.
barley rootlets hypoglycemics action in

rabbits.
Humulus
Hop
Extract, humulone and lupulone
lupulus
plant
showed anti-diabetic activity.
Ipomoe nil
Extract
The blood sugar content of rats was
reduced briefly by extracts.

Oral administration lowers blood sugar
0
2
Lagerstroem
Leaves
ia speciosa
and
ripe
fruits
Launaea
Glycosi
A glycoside showed hypoglycemic
nudicaulis
de
effect in rabbits.
Lythrum
Stem
A ethereal extract showed
salicaria
and
hypoglycemic activity in rats and mice.
flowers
2
4
Morus alba
Leaves
Extract of leaves induced marked

hypoglycemia in normal as well as
hyperglycemic subjects

Olea
europaea
Oryza sativa
Leaves
Olive oil lowers the blood sugar levels

in normal human beings
Roots
Aqueous extract reduced blood sugar

level in mice
Panax
Ginsen
Aqueous extract showed hypoglycemic
ginseng
g root-
activity in mice
Korea
2
Tephrosia
purpurea
Trifolium
alexandrium
Plant
The extract lowered blood glucose

levels in rabbits
seeds
Powdered seeds produced

hypoglycemic effects in different types
of diabetic subjects comparable to
tolbutamide. Infusion produced
hypoglycemia in both normal and
alloxan diabetic rabbits.
Trigonella
foenum
Seeds
Extract of seeds showed hypoglycemic

activity in rabbits. Nicotinic acid and
nicotinamide exhibited a profound
hypoglycemic activity.
Zingiber
Rhizom
Freshly extracted juice from rhizomes
officinale
es
showed significant hypoglycemia

activity in diabetic rats and rabbits. A
fall in blood glucose level in normal
animals was observed.
CHAPTER SEVEN
Herbal Analgesic Drugs
Alleviation of pain has always remained a prime concern of medicine.
The contribution of herbal medicine in this field has been phenomenal.

Willow and poplar barks, that contain salicin, have long been used to
treat sepsis, pain, gout, and fever. Such usage led to the synthesis of
salicylic acid in 1860 and aspirin (acetyl salicylic acid) in 1899.

Opioids, the most potent pain killers known today, were also derived
from a plant source papaver somniferum. Both narcotic and non-
narcotic classes of analgesics had their origin in herbal medicine.

The mechanism and site of action of opioids is not known and this has
revealed the presence of several naturally occurring substances which
act on mu, kappa and delta receptors in the brain and the spinal cord.
S/N
Plant
Activity reported
Principle
Aconitum
Analgesic and local
Bulleyaconitine-A
bulleyanum
anaesthetic
Aconitum
Analgesic activity equivalent
Tribenzoyl
lysonese
to aminopyrene
pseudokobursine
Angelica
Analgesic and anti-
Orthol
pubescens
inflammatory
Calotropis
Analgesic, anti-inflammatory,
procera
and antipyretic with dose
o
1
Crude extract
dependant inhibitory effect on

the release of prostaglandin
5
Cordia
Anti-inflammatory on topical
Crude extract in
verbenaceae
use with no skin irritation
soft Vaseline
base
Epilobium
Anti-inflammatory with
angustifolium
inhibitory effect on the biosynthesis of PGE2, PGI2, &

PGD2
Eucommia
Crude extract

ulmoides
vasodilatory & fatigue
Glaucium
Analgesic
Crude extract
Harungana
Analgesic and anti-
Crude extract
madagascarens
inflammatory with inhibitory
is
effect on PG-synthetase
flavum
9
activity
10
11
Ligusticum
sinense
& anti-pyretic.
Magnolia
Analgesic
officinalis
12
Neutral oil
Crude extract
from bark
Morinda
Analgesic through opioid
citrifolia
mechanisms and
Aqueous extract
tranquilosedative
13
Orobanche
Analgesic
crenata
14
Payerung tang
Glycosidal
fraction
Analgesic and diuretic
Compound
herbal medicines
15
Piper species
Analgesic content of beta
Piperine
endorphin in rat midbrain and

opiate
16
17
Pyrola
Analgesic and anti-
Ursolic acid,
rotundifolia
inflammatory
chimaphilin
Salvia
Analgesic & wound healing
Crude extract
haematodes
18
Serjania ammuniis
Analgesic
Crude extract
19
Tribulus terrestris
Analgesic
Not mentioned

CHAPTER EIGHT
Anti-fertility Herbal Drugs
In recent years population control has assumed great significance in
many developing countries and attracted the attention of
governmental and other agencies.

A search for harmless, inexpensive, and effective oral agents for
fertility control in human beings has tremendous importance.

Plants are being carried out throughout the world for their anti-fertility
properties. Though a large number of plants are believed to possess
these properties, not all have been evaluated.

Plants exhibiting positive activity may produce this effect in different
ways in females, such as by preventing ovulation, fertilization and
implantation, destroying the zygote, or causing early abortion. In males
the plant may produce antifertility effect by acting as an anti-androgen

or affecting the gonadotropin of the organs. Spermicidal activity of the

plants has also been recorded.
S/N
Plant name
Part used
Antifertility activity
o
1
Abroma august Roots
Uterotonic activity rat uterus

isolated uterine strips of guinea pig,
rabbit and humans. Abortifacient
and anti-implantation activity in
mice. Estrogenic activity in female
albino rats.
Achyranthes
Stem bark
Abortifacient activity in mice
aspera linn
3
Albizzia lebbek
Seeds and roots
Spermicidal in human and rat semen
Allium sativum
Bulb
Estrogenic activity in female albino

rats
Anagallis
Whole plant
arvensis
6
Ananas
guinea pig uterus

Unripe fruit
comosus
7
Caesalpinia
Uterine stimulant activity on isolated
Weak activity on late pregnancy in

rats
Seeds
bonducella
Anti-estrogenic activity in mice and

rabbits and Antifertility action in
mice and rats
Calamintha
Whole plant
Spermicidal activity in rat semen
Latex of green
Oxytocic property of very high order
umbrosa
9
Carica papaya
fruit
10
Capsella bursa
Dry powdered
Impeded ovulation caused

pastoris
11
Cedrus
temporary
Stems
Antifertility activity in female rats
Rhizomes
Antifertility activity due to
deodara
12
Costus
speciosus
Abortifacient properties in albino

rabits
13
Ferula
Fruit
assafoetida
Complete inhibition of human

chorionic gonadotropin mixture of
ingredients of embelia ribes, piper
longum showed contraceptic effect.
14
Hagenia
Flowers
abyssnica-
Decreased fertility in female mice

but was highly toxic.
bruco
15
Hippophae
Bark
salicifolia
Produced degenerative changes in

semniferous epithelium of young
male rats. It also inhibited
testosterone stimulated
development of seminal vesicles in
castracted rats.
15
Medicago
Whole plant
sativa
Increases the age of maturity and

depress
The egg production in white leghorn
pullet
16
Moringa
Stem-bark
oleifera
Little Oxytocic activity shown on

isolated guinea pig uterus.
Antifertility activity on late
pregnancy in rats.
17
Pimpinella
Oil
Oestrogenic activity in rats

anisam
18
Pimpinella
Whole plant
Spermicidal activity in rat semen
Fruits
Some Antifertility activity observed
diversifolia
19
Piper chaba
hunter
20
Piper longum
in fruits
Fruits and roots
linn
Estrogen induced alkaline

phosphatase activity in the
endometrium of immature rabbits
was considerably inhibited by
administration of the drug
21
Rauwolfia
Roots
serpentine
22
Release of pituitary gonadotrophin

backed in rats and mice.
Rubus
Plant excluding
Alcoholic extract shows anti-
ellipticus
roots
implantation activity in rats but no

antiovulatory activity in rabbits
23
Solanum
Whole plant
khasianum
24
Spondias
ovulatory activity in rabbits

Bark
cytherea
25
Terminalia
Alcoholic extract shows anti-
Antifertilizing action on mice and

pigs
Bark
Antifertility activity in female rats
Flowers
Abortifacient in mice
Ecbolic property in mice and rats
arjuna
26
Woodfordia
fruticosa Kurz
27
28
Zea mays linn

CHAPTER NINE
Plant Derived Anticancer Agents
A series of malignant diseases, which affects different parts of the
body, is known as cancer. These diseases are characterized by a rapid
and uncontrolled formation of abnormal cells which may mass together
to form a growth or tumor or proliferate throughout the body, initiating
abnormal growth at other sites.

Although at present the worlds developing countries have lower
cancer incidence rates than industrialized nations, it is anticipated that
the types of cancer now prevalent in the north such as breast, colon
and lung cancer will become much more widespread in Africa and Asia.
The main forms of treatment for cancer in humans are surgery,
radiation, and chemotherapeutic agents. The drugs can often provide
temporary relief of symptoms, the prolongation of life and occasionally
cures.
Many hundreds of chemical drugs of known classes of cancer
chemotherapeutic agents have been synthesized.

The activity of these compounds is based on their capacity for

biological alkylation. The effective dose of such alkalylating agents was
almost the same as the toxic doses.

Some antitumour compounds from plants
Antitumour compounds can be classified into:
1. Monoterpene
2. Sesquiterpene
3. Diterpene
4. Quassinoid
5. Triterpenoid
6. Lignin
7. Quinone
8. Alkaloid
9. Peptide
S/N
Class compound
Plant source
O
Monoterpene
1
Allamandin
Allamandin catherica
Penstimide
Penstemon deuttus
Sesquiterpene
1
Baccharin
Baccharis megapotamica
Elephantopin
Elephantopus elatus
Helenalin
Helenium autumnale
Vernolepin
Vernonia hymenolepis
Diterpene
1
Gnidin
Gnidia lamprantha
Jatrophone
Jatropha gossypiifolia
Mezerine
Daphne mezereum
Taxol
Taxus brevifolia

Quassinoid
1
Bruceantin
Brucea antidysenterica
Glaucarubinone
Simarouba glauca
Halocanthone
Holacantha emoryi
Triterpenoid
1
Cucurbitacin E
March oreganus
Strophanthdin
Paraquetina nigrescens
Lignin
1
Podophyllotoxin
p.hexandrum, p.peltatum
Quinone
1
Jacaranone
Jacaranda caucana
Lapachol
Stereospermum suaveolens
Alkaloid
1
Emetine
Cephaelis acuminata
Nitidine
f. macrophylla
Acronycine
Acronychia baueri
Ellipticine
Ochrosia elliptica
Camptothecin
Camptotheca acuminata
Leurosine
Catharanthus lanceus
Vinblastine
c. roseus
Vincristine
c. roseus
Colchicine
Colchicum speciosum

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Pharmacognosy Lecture Note, prepared by: Redwan Abdihakim Hussein

Bpharm, Bsc In Nutrion and food science