2007 AACE International Transactions

PS.05
Converting Linear Schedules to
Critical Path Method Precedence
Dr. Douglas D. Gransberg, PE CCE
he critical path method (CPM) of scheduling is used
widely in many project controls applications [1, 4]. A
number of commercial scheduling software packages
are in use throughout the construction industry. Most
of these software packages are based on the CPM using the
precedence diagram method (PDM) as the network analysis
algorithm [5]. The PDM scheduling method is an activitybased methodology. Its output can be structured to furnish
powerful project control tools that are useful in executing the
project plan in a manner that fits both cost and time constraints.
Because this scheduling method has no inherent algorithmic
mechanism to manage both space and time simultaneously, the
cost engineer must assume that the durations derived from the
production rates for the crews associated with each activity will
not be hindered or conflicted by on-going work on parallel
activities [2]. Thus, there is always a possibility that two sets of
equipment and their crews will converge on the ground and
need to use the same space in order to maintain their target production rates. If this occurs, one crew will inevitably delay the
other until the space conflict is over. When a disruption occurs
for this reason on a labor-intensive project such as a building
project, the cost is usually not as high as it is on equipmentintensive heavy-civil construction project.
As a result of the above issue, many heavy-civil construction
project managers prefer to use linear scheduling to furnish the
basis for their project planning and scheduling system. Linear
schedules display time and space graphically on the same
instrument [1]. This allows the cost engineer to visually deconflict production activities on the project space representation.
Additionally, instead of being activity-based, they are production-based and allow the cost engineer to synchronize the
schedule with the same assumed production rates that were
used in the project cost estimate. This furnishes a method for
seamlessly transitioning from project planning to project execution. A succinct synopsis of the advantages of linear scheduling
is contained in the training course material from Peter Kiewit
and Sons, Inc., a large heavy-civil construction company. It is
described as follows:

Linear schedules are simple charts that show both

when and where a given work activity will take place.
Because they put time and space together on one chart,
linear schedules allow us to see how the pieces of the project fit together. Enhanced with color, varying shades, or

patterns they also communicate types of work and crew

movement. This is something neither bar charts nor CPM
schedules can do... [3].
The issue of achieving reliable project control systems that
are based on the production rates used in the bid arises when a
construction contractor wins a project from an owner that
requires their construction contractors to use a specific PDMbased commercial project scheduling software package to facilitate the process of controlling the projects schedule [2]. Thus,
it is imperative to be able to take the output derived from a linear schedule and convert it to PDM so that it can be used directly in contract-mandated computer scheduling and project control software. Combining, the two methods is an excellent way
to develop a construction schedule. Using linear scheduling
techniques to plan the overall sequence of work for productiondriven activities is the first step in the development of the final
construction schedule and can have many advantages.
CONVERSION PROCESS
The following discussion assumes that the reader understands
both how to develop a linear schedule as well as how to develop a PDM schedule. Those readers who do not have an understanding of both the scheduling methods are directed to the literature references before reading this paper [1,2,3,5]. The
process described below assumes that the linear schedule for a
given project has been developed and that the key productionrelated decisions are made using the visual representation that
the linear schedule provides. Thus, once these important decisions are made for the major activities that are associated with
ensuring the projects profitability, the cost engineer can then
convert the linear schedule into a PDM and complete the
detailed scheduling task using the following steps:

PS.05

Develop a comprehensive listing of all the activities shown

in the linear schedule, including their durations (partial
days rounded up to a whole day), and their precedence relationships to other activities.
For each line activity, decide whether to show it in the
PDM as a single activity or to break it down into several,
related activities. It if is broken down, make sure the sum
of the durations of the series of new activities do not exceed

2007 AACE International Transactions

the duration of the line they represent in the linear sched- A series of small concrete box culverts must be built
between STA 2+00 and 4+00. The group will take seven
ule.
working days. The specifications restrict putting equip For each bar activity, increase the level of activity detail by
ment loads on the new culverts until two days after last culbreaking it down into the series of activities that the bar repvert is poured. This work by accomplished by a concrete
resented and distribute the total bar duration in the linear
subcontractor and includes excavation, backfill and final
schedule to each of the new activities. The total duration
grading for the culverts.
of the new activities that make-up the hammock represented by the bar cannot exceed the duration assigned to the bar The last activity in the project is clean-up/demobilization,
and it will take two days.
in the linear schedule.
Similarly, for increase the level of detail each block, if
The linear schedule shown in figure 1 is developed from the
required by determining if it should be shown in the PDM
as a single activity or a series of activities. If broken out, the above information and will be converted to a PDM. It shows
sum of the durations of the series of new activities cannot that the project can be completed in a total of 19 working days.
exceed the duration of the block they represent in the lin- Table 1 is a list of the activities and their respective durations
ear schedule. Also, as some blocks represent a constraint taken directly from the linear schedule in figure 1.
This completes both Step 1, listing the activities off the linear
rather than a production activity, determine if it is more
appropriate to show the block in the PDM as an activity that schedule and Step 2, the deciding how the lines on the linear
has duration but no resources or as a lag on the finish of a schedule will be broken down. One can see that the cost engineer has chosen to break each of the production-driven activirelated activity.
Assemble the final list of linear schedule activities to be ties represented by lines into separate activities as they break up
developed into a PDM network. Add to it those minor activ- on the linear schedule. One should also not that activity 070
ities that were not shown on the linear schedule with their computed duration of 2.5 days was rounded up to three days to
associated durations and precedence relationships and allow it to be input into PDM.
Having completed the above allows the linear schedule line
develop the final network in the scheduling designated softactivities to be related to the build culverts bar activity and the
ware package.
Check the initial project completion date computed by the no loads block activity. Additionally, all the important work
software against the contractual completion date. If the ini- sequencing decisions made on the linear schedule are now reptial schedule is longer than the time allowed adjust the net- resented as precedence relationships and as required with lag to
works logic, if possible, to reduce the overall duration. If ensure that the PDM preserves the logic that went into making
this isnt possible, begin to crash activities by adding those production-driven decisions.
The next step will be to convert the Build Culverts bar
resources to reduce their durations the required amount.
The final PDM schedule must conform to the contract activity into individual activities and replace the single activity
specifications and fall within the stipulated contract period. shown in Table 1. To do this, one can associate it as a hammock
activity and develop a list of activities and durations based on
the tasks and duration for a single culvert. This list is generated
EXAMPLE CONVERSION
as follows:
The following is an example to demonstrate how this conversion methodology works. A minor highway rehabilitation project is let, and the construction contractors project manager
decides to use linear scheduling to plan the construction
sequence to ensure that none of the crew/equipment packages
conflict with each other or the other constraints imposed on the
project. The construction contract mandates that an official
schedule be submitted using a PDM-based commercial scheduling software package. The project description is as follows:

Mobilization will occur between STA 2+00 and STA 3+00.

It will take two days.
The first task is to demolish 1000 LF of existing pavement,
which has a sustained production rate of 100 LF/day.
After the pavement is demolished, the next activity is to
install cement treated subbase (CTSB). This crew will
have a sustained production rate of 250 LF/day.
On top of the CTSB, asphalt stabilized base (ASB) must be
installed and that crew has a sustained production rate of
200 LF/day.
Finally, Type A hot-mix asphalt paving will be laid on the
completed ASB at a sustained production rate of 400 Figure 1Linear Schedule for Example Highway
LF/day.
Rehabilitation Project
PS.05.2

2007 AACE International Transactions

Table 2Detailed List of Build Culverts Activities

Table 1PDM Activities and Durations From Figure 1

excavate and prepare bed four hours;

form box culvert, eight hours;
pour and finish concrete, four hours;
backfill, three hours; and
final grading, one hours.

verts A&B and pour concrete culverts C&D of one-day duration each. Finally, each culvert is assigned a separate form culvert activity with a one-day duration. The resulting output is
shown in table 2 and the fragmentary network (fragnet) for this
series of activities is shown in figure 2.
This project has some miscellaneous activities that were not
included in the linear schedule. The activities, their durations
and precedence relationships are as follows:

Guardrail must be built between STA 2+00 and 4+00. It

will take two days and can begin as soon as the paving is
completed in that area.
Striping of the road will take two days and can begin when
the pavement is ready.
Signs at stations 4+00, 7+50, 9+85, and 10+00 can be
emplaced after the paving is finished at that location. All
the signs can be installed in one working day.

Looking at the above list, the cost engineer decides to simpli-

fy matters a bit by combining the backfill and final grading
for all four culverts into the single activity backfill and final
grading culverts A-D and assigns it a duration of three days.
Next, the excavation and bed preparation activity is broken into
Adding these activities to the activities in tables 1 and 2 comtwo activities, excavate and prepare bed culverts A&B and pletes the final activity listing (table 3) for the PDM shown in
excavate and prepare bed culverts C&D of one-day duration figure 3.
each. Similarly, the decision is made to pour the concrete for
two culverts per day creating the activities: pour concrete cul-

Figure 2PDM Fragmentary Network for Build Culvert Work Sequence

PS.05.3

2007 AACE International Transactions

Linear scheduling provides a method to ensure the scheduling process is focused on those production-driven activities whose successful completion drives an equipmentintensive projects profitability. It does this by reducing the
schedule to its most essential portions and manages both
time and space on the project site in a graphical display,
thus allowing a visual deconflicting of critical productiondriven activities.
PDM furnishes a method to organize the large amount of
detail that comes with most construction projects. It is both
understood and accepted by both owners and construction
contractors, and is often required to be used as a part of the
construction contract.
The cost engineer can accrue the benefits of both methodologies by using linear scheduling as a tool for planning the
sequence and timing of work for the major production
activities and then converting the linear scheduling output
to PDM. Next, all the remaining items of work can be
added to the PDM to produce the final construction schedule for an equipment-intensive heavy-civil construction
project.

Table 3Final List of Activities for Converting Figure 7-12

to PDM
he above example demonstrates that the two scheduling
methods, PDM and linear scheduling can be used in
conjunction with one another to permit the cost engineer to develop the construction projects work sequence in a
rational manner that creates bid based project controls for the
project throughout its construction period. The following conclusions can be made:

REFERENCES
1. Callahan, M.T., D.G. Quackenbush, , and J.E. Rowings.
Construction Project Scheduling, New York : McGraw-Hill,
(1992): pp. 86-112, 200-210.
2. Gransberg, D.D., C. M. Popescu and R.C. Ryan.
Construction Equipment Management for Engineers,
Estimators, and Construction Managers, Taylor and Francis
Books, Inc., (2006): pp.174-182.
3. Jones, C., Linear Scheduling. Presentation Slides
Unpublished Lecture given at Norman, Oklahoma, (April
4, 2005), Peter Kiewit and Sons, Inc., Dallas, Texas.

Figure 3Example Llinear Schedule Converted to PDM Network

PS.05.4

2007 AACE International Transactions

4. Oberlender, G.D. Project Management for Engineering and
Construction. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. (2000): pp.
139-183.
5. Marchman, D.A. Construction Scheduling with Primavera
Project Planner. Albany, NY: Delmar Publishers, (1997):
pp. 97-118.

Dr. Douglas D. Gransberg, PE CCE

Associate Professor
University of Oklahoma
Construction Science Division
830 Van Vleet Oval Rm 162
Norman, OK 73019-6141, US
Phone: +1.405.325.6092
Email: dgransberg@ou.edu

PS.05.5