ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD

(Department of English Language & Applied Linguistics)

Course

Educational Psychology

Course Code

(5664)

Assignment

Semester

Spring 2016

Level

MA TEFL

Submitted to

Mr. Abdul Ghaffar Bhatti

Submitted By

Syed Asim Raza

Roll No

BI587782

A l l a m a I q b a l O p e n
U n i v e r s i t y , I s l a m a b a d

Table of Content
Preface
Dedication
Problem Statement
Significant of the Study
Literature Review
The Stages of Problem solving
The Situation (Problem)
Findings
Solution
Conclusion

Preface
This assignment aims at the problem solving
techniques used by the teachers during their school
life. Teachers come across varied nature of issues
in a school environment. Whether you have just
started your first teaching assignment or you have
years of experience in the classroom, you are
working hard to become a successful educator. You
are going through multiple phases. As a teacher you
need to keep an effective and efficient classroom
environment,

prevent

and

manage

student

discipline and other issues, make the most of the

limited time and resources. In between there are
meetings, other extra curriculum activities, exams
and above all the clock was ticking.

Dedication
This assignment is dedicated to my father, who
taught me that the best kind of knowledge to
have is that which is learned for its own sake. It
is also dedicated to my mother, who taught me
that even the largest task can be accomplished if
it is done one step at a time. To my wife who is
a constant support.

Problem:
Think of your teaching career and recall any one problem which you were able to solve in your
classroom. Discuss the problem/issue in detail and explain how you solved the problem by using
your problem solving cognitive ability. Also point out all the four stages in problem solving.
What would you recommend to the teachers? State in the light of your own experience

Significant of Study
A teacher has to face numerous classroom situations and he/she has to deal with it in an effective
and efficient manner. He/she has to play multiple roles. Your slightest concentration can lead a
student to his / her utmost goal and you would be the biggest source of inspiration for him/her
throughout life. It can also lead to otherwise. This study is significant in a way that how one can
successfully resolve a serious classroom situation.

Literature Review
Motivation
The following definitions of motivation were gleaned from a variety of psychology textbooks
and reflect the general consensus that motivation is an internal state or condition (sometimes
described as a need, desire, or want) that serves to activate or energize behavior and give it
direction (see Kleinginna and Kleinginna, 1981a).

internal state or condition that activates behavior and gives it direction;

desire or want that energizes and directs goal-oriented behavior;

influence of needs and desires on the intensity and direction of behavior.

Franken (2006) provides an additional component in his definition:

the arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior.

While still not widespread in terms of introductory psychology textbooks, many researchers are
now beginning to acknowledge that the factors that energize behavior are likely different from
the factors that provide for its persistence.

Importance of motivation
Most motivation theorists assume that motivation is involved in the performance of all learned
responses; that is, a learned behavior will not occur unless it is energized. The major question
among psychologists, in general, is whether motivation is a primary or secondary influence on
behavior.

That

is,

are

changes

in

behavior

better

explained

by

principles

of

environmental/ecological influences, perception, memory, cognitive development, emotion,

explanatory style, or personality or are concepts unique to motivation more pertinent.
For example, it is known that people respond to increasingly complex or novel events (or stimuli)
in the environment up to a point and then the rate of responding decreases. This inverted-Ushaped curve of behavior is well-known and widely acknowledged (e.g., Yerkes & Dodson,
1908). However, the major issue is one of explaining this phenomenon. Is this a conditioning (is
the individual behaving because of past classical or operant conditioning), another type of
external motivation such as social or ecological, an internal motivational process (e.g., cognition,
emotion, or self-regulation), or is there some better explanation?

The relationship of motivation and emotion

Emotion (an indefinite subjective sensation experienced as a state of arousal) is different from
motivation in that there is not necessarily a goal orientation affiliated with it (Huitt, 2003a).
Emotions occur as a result of an interaction between perception of environmental stimuli,
neural/hormonal responses to these perceptions (often labeled feelings), and subjective cognitive
labeling of these feelings (Kleinginna and Kleinginna, 1981b). Evidence suggests there is a
small core of core emotions (perhaps 6 or 8) that are uniquely associated with a specific facial
expression (Izard, 1990). This implies that there are a small number of unique biological
responses that are genetically hard-wired to specific facial expressions. A further implication is
that the process works in reverse: if you are motivated to change how you feel and your feeling is
associated with a specific facial expression, you can change that feeling by purposively changing
your facial expression. As most people would rather feel happy than otherwise, the most
appropriate facial expression would be a smile.

Explanations of influences/causes of arousal and direction may be different from

explanations of persistence
In general, explanations regarding the source(s) of motivation can be categorized as either
extrinsic (outside the person) or intrinsic (internal to the person). Intrinsic sources and
corresponding theories can be further subcategorized as either body/physical, mind/mental (i.e.,
cognitive/thinking, affective/emotional, conative/volitional) or transpersonal/spiritual.

In current literature, needs are now viewed as dispositions toward action (i.e., they create a
condition that is predisposed towards taking action or making a change and moving in a certain
direction; Franken, 2006). Action or overt behavior may be initiated by either positive or
negative incentives or a combination of both. The following chart provides a brief overview of
the different sources of motivation (internal state) that have been studied. While initiation of
action can be traced to each of these domains, it appears likely that initiation of behavior may be
more related to emotions and/or the affective area (optimism vs. pessimism; self- esteem; etc.)
while persistence may be more related to conation (volition) or goal-orientation.
Sources of Motivational Needs

elicited by stimulus associated/connected to innately

connected stimulus

obtain desired, pleasant consequences (rewards) or

escape/avoid undesired, unpleasant consequences

imitate positive models

acquire effective social competence skills

be a part of a dyad, group, institution, or community

increase/decrease stimulation (arousal)

activate senses (taste, touch, smell, etc.

decrease hunger, thirst, discomfort, etc.

maintain homeostasis, balance

maintain attention to something interesting or threatening

develop meaning or understanding

increase/decrease cognitive disequilibrium; uncertainty

solve a problem or make a decision

eliminate threat or risk

behavioral/external

social

biological

cognitive

affective

conative

increase/decrease affective dissonance

increase feeling good

decrease feeling bad

increase security of or decrease threats to self-esteem

maintain levels of optimism and enthusiasm

meet individually developed/selected goal

obtain personal dream

develop or maintain self-efficacy

take control of one's life

eliminate threats to meeting goal, obtaining dream

understand purpose of one's life

connect self to ultimate unknowns

spiritual

Theories of motivation
Many of the theories of motivation address issues introduced previously in these materials. The
following provides a brief overview to any terms or concepts that have not been previously
discussed.

Behavioral
Each of the major theoretical approaches in behavioral learning theory posits a primary factor in
motivation. Classical conditioning states that biological responses to associated stimuli energize
and direct behavior (Huitt & Hummel, 1997a). Operant learning states the primary factor
is consequences: the application of reinforcers provides incentives to increase behavior; the
application of punishers provides disincentives that result in a decrease in behavior (Huitt &
Hummel, 1997b).

Cognitive

There

are

several

motivational

theories

that

trace

their

roots

to

the information

processing approach to learning (Huitt, 2003b). These approaches focus on the categories and
labels people use to help identify thoughts, emotions, dispositions, and behaviors.
One cognitive approach is attribution theory (Heider, 1958; Weiner, 1974). This theory proposes
that every individual tries to explain success or failure of self and others by offering certain
"attributions." These attributions are either internal or external and are either under control or not
under control. The following chart shows the four attributions that result from a combination of
internal or external locus of control and whether or not control is possible.
Internal

External

No Control

Ability

Luck

Control

Effort

Task Difficulty

In a teaching/learning environment, it is important to assist the learner to develop a selfattribution explanation of effort (internal, control). If the person has an attribution of ability
(internal, no control) as soon as the individual experiences some difficulties in the learning
process, he or she will decrease appropriate learning behavior (e.g., I'm not good at this). If the
person has an external attribution, then the person will have a believe that nothing the person can
do will help that individual in a learning situation (i.e., responsibility for demonstrating what has
been learned is completely outside the person). In this case, there is nothing to be done by the
individual when learning problems occur.
A second cognitive approach is expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) which proposes the following
equation:

Motivation = Perceived Probability of Success (Expectancy) *

Connection of Success and Reward (Instrumentality) *
Value of Obtaining Goal (Valance, Value)
Since this formula states that the three factors of Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valance or
Value are to be multiplied by each other, a low value in one will result in a low value of
motivation. Therefore, all three must be present in relatively high levels in order for motivation
to occur. That is, if an individual does not believe he or she can be successful at a task OR the
individual does not see a connection between his or her activity and success OR the individual
does not value the results of success, then the probability is lowered that the individual will
engage in the required learning activity. From the perspective of this theory, all three variables
must be high in order for motivation and the resulting behavior to be high.

The third cognitive approach is cognitive dissonance theory which is in some respects similar to
disequilibrium in Piaget's theory of cognitive development (Huitt & Hummel, 2003). This theory
was developed by Leon Festinger (1957), as social psychologist, and states that when there is a
discrepancy between two beliefs, two actions, or between a belief and an action, individuals will
act to resolve conflict and discrepancies. The implication is that if an appropriate amount of
disequilibrium is created, this will in turn lead to the individual changing his or her behavior
which in turn will lead to a change in thought patterns which in turn leads to more change in
behavior.

Summary
To summarize the cognitive approaches, notice the relationship between William James' (as cited
in Huitt, 2009) formula for self-esteem (Self-esteem = Success / Pretensions) and the attribution
and expectancy theories of motivation. If a person has an external attribution of success, selfconcept is not likely to change as a result of success or failure because the person will attribute it
to external factors. Likewise, if the person has an Internal/Ability explanation, his or her selfconcept will be tied to learning to do a new activity quickly and easily (I do well because I am
naturally good at it). If failure or difficulty occurs, the person must quickly lower expectations in
order to maintain self-esteem. However, if the person has a Internal/Effort explanation and high
expectations for success, the person will persevere (i.e., stay motivated) in spite of temporary
setbacks because one's self-esteem is not tied to immediate success.
On the other hand, cognitive dissonance theory suggests that individuals will seek balance or
dynamic homeostasis in one's life and will resist influences or expectations to change. How,
then, does change or growth occur. One source, according to Piaget, is biological development.
As human beings mature cognitively, thinking processes and organizations of knowledge (e.g.,
schemas, paradigms, explanations) are reworked to more accurately reflect one's understanding
of the world. One of those organizations involves explanations or attributions of success or
failure. After puberty, when biological change slows down considerably, it is very difficult to
change these attributions. It requires a long-term program where constant feedback is provided
about how one's behavior is responsible for one's success.

Psychoanalytic theories
The psychoanalytic theories of motivation proposed a variety of fundamental influences. Freud
(1990) suggested that all action or behavior was a result of internal, biological instincts that are
classified into two categories: life (sexual) and death (aggression). Many of Freud's students

broke with him over this concept. For example, Erikson (1993) and Sullivan (1968) proposed
that interpersonal and social relationships are fundamental, Adler (1989) proposed power, while
Jung (1953, 1997) proposed temperament and search for soul or personal meaningfulness.

Humanistic Theories
One of the most influential writers in the area of motivation is Abraham Maslow (1954), who
attempted to synthesize a large body of research related to human motivation. Prior to Maslow,
researchers generally focused separately on such factors as biology, achievement, or power to
explain what energizes, directs, and sustains human behavior. Maslow posited a hierarchy of
human needs based on two groupings: deficiency needs and growth needs. Within the deficiency
needs, each lower need must be met before moving to the next higher level. Once each of these
needs has been satisfied, if at some future time a deficiency is detected, the individual will act to
remove the deficiency. The first four levels are:
1) Physiological: hunger, thirst, bodily comforts, etc.;
2) Safety/security: out of danger;
3) Belonginess and Love: affiliate with others, be accepted; and
4) Esteem: to achieve, be competent, gain approval and recognition.

According to Maslow, an individual is ready to act upon the growth needs if and only if the
deficiency needs are met. Maslow's initial conceptualization included only one growth need-self-actualization. Self-actualized people are characterized by: 1) being problem-focused; 2)
incorporating an ongoing freshness of appreciation of life; 3) a concern about personal growth;
and 4) the ability to have peak experiences. Maslow later differentiated the growth need of selfactualization, specifically naming two lower-level growth needs prior to general level of selfactualization (Maslow & Lowery, 1998) and one beyond that level (Maslow, 1971). The growth
needs in this revised formulation are:
5) Cognitive: to know, to understand, and explore;
6) Aesthetic: symmetry, order, and beauty;
7) Self-actualization: to find self-fulfillment and realize one's potential; and
8) Self-transcendence: to connect to something beyond the ego or to help others
find self-fulfillment and realize their potential.
Maslow's basic position is that as one becomes more self-actualized and self-transcendent, one
becomes more wise (develops the ability to efficiently and effectively make decisions and solve
problems based on personal experience) and becomes fluid in interacting with the environment in
a wide variety of situations. Maslow's ultimate conclusion that the highest levels of selfactualization are transcendent in nature is especially important as it comes from someone who
spent most of his professional life investigating the topic.

Norwood (1999) proposed that Maslow's hierarchy can be used to describe the kinds of
information that individual's seek at different levels. For example, individuals at the lowest level
seek coping information in order to meet their basic needs. Information that is not directly
connected to helping a person meet his or her needs in a very short time span is simply left
unattended. Individuals at the safety level need helping information. They seek to be assisted in
seeing how they can be safe and secure. Enlightening information is sought by individuals
seeking to meet their belongingness needs. Quite often this can be found in books or other
materials on relationship development. Empowering information is sought by people at the
esteem level. They are looking for information on how their ego can be developed. Finally,
people in the growth levels of cognitive, aesthetic, and self-actualization seek edifying
information. While Norwood does not specifically address the level of transcendence, I believe
it safe to say that individuals at this stage would seek information on how to connect to
something beyond themselves or to how others could be edified and empowered.
Maslow published his first conceptualization of his theory almost 60 years ago (Maslow, 1943)
and it has since become one of the most popular and often cited theories of human motivation.
An interesting phenomenon related to Maslow's work is that it enjoys such wide acceptance
despite a lack of evidence to support the hierarchy as he described it (Wahba & Bridgewell, 1976;
Soper, Milford & Rosenthal, 1995).
The few major studies that have been completed on the hierarchy seem to support the proposals
of William James (1892/1962) and Mathes (1981) that there are three levels of human needs.
James hypothesized the levels of material (physiological, safety), social (belongingness, esteem),
and spiritual. Mathes proposed the three levels were physiological, belonginess, and selfactualization; he considered security and self-esteem as unwarranted. Alderfer (1972) developed
a comparable hierarchy with his ERG (existence, relatedness, and growth) theory. His approach
modified Maslow's theory based on the work of Gordon Allport (1960, 1961) who incorporated
concepts from systems theory (Boulding, 1956) into his work on personality.

Alderfer's Hierarchy of Motivational Needs

Level of Need

Growth

Definition

Properties

Satisfied through using

Impel a person to make
capabilities in engaging
creative or productive effects
problems; creates a greater
on himself and his
sense of wholeness and
environment
fullness as a human being

Relatedness

Involve relationships with

significant others

Satisfied by mutually sharing

thoughts and feelings;
acceptance, confirmation,
under- standing, and
influence are elements

Existence

Includes all of the various

forms of material and
psychological desires

When divided among people

one person's gain is another's
loss if resources are limited

Maslow recognized that not all personalities followed his proposed hierarchy. While a variety of
personality dimensions might be considered as related to motivational needs, one of the most
often cited is that of introversion and extroversion. Reorganizing Maslow's hierarchy based on
the work of Alderfer and considering the introversion/extraversion dimension of personality
results in three levels, each with an introverted and extroverted component. This organization
suggests there may be two aspects of each level that differentiate how people relate to each set of
needs. Different personalities might relate more to one dimension than the other. For example,
an introvert at the level of Other/Relatedness might be more concerned with his or her own
perceptions of being included in a group, whereas an extrovert at that same level would pay more
attention to how others value that membership.

A Reorganization of Maslow's and Alderfer's Hierarchies

Level

Introversion

Extroversion

Growth

Self-Actualization
(development of
competencies [knowledge
, attitudes, and skills]
and character)

Transcendence (assisting
in the development of
others' competencies and
character; relationships
to the unknown,
unknowable)

Personal identification
with group, significant
others (Belongingness)

Value of person by
group (Esteem)

Other
(Relatedness)

Self
(Existence)

Physiological, biological
(including basic
Connectedness, security
emotional needs)

Maslow's work lead to additional attempts to develop a grand theory of motivation, a theory that
would put all of the factors influencing motivation into one model. An example is provided by
Leonard, Beauvais, and Scholl (1999). These authors propose 5 factors as the sources of
motivation: 1) Instrumental Motivation (rewards and punishers), 2) Intrinsic Process Motivation
(enjoyment, fun), 3) Goal Internalization (self-determined values and goals), 4) Internal Self
Concept-based Motivation (matching behavior with internally-developed ideal self), 5) External
Self Concept-based Motivation (matching behavior with externally-developed ideal self).
Individuals are influenced by all five factors, though in varying degrees that can change in
specific situations.
Factors one and five are both externally-oriented. The main difference is that individuals who
are instrumentally motivated are influenced more by immediate actions in the environment (e.g.
operant conditioning) whereas individuals who are self-concept motivated are influenced more
by their constructions of external demands and ideals (e.g., social cognition).
Factors two, three, and four are more internally-oriented. In the case of intrinsic process, the
specific task is interesting and provides immediate internal reinforcement (e.g., cognitive or
humanistic theory). The individual with a goal-internalization orientation is more task-oriented
(e.g., humanistic or social cognition theory) whereas the person with an internal self-concept
orientation is more influenced by individual constructions of the ideal self (humanistic or
psychoanalytic theory).

Social Learning
Social learning (or observational) theory suggests that modeling (imitating others) and vicarious
learning (watching others have consequences applied to their behavior) are important motivators
of behavior (Huitt, 2004).

Social Cognition
Social cognition theory proposes reciprocal determination as a primary factor in both learning
and motivation (Huitt, 2006). In this view, the environment, an individual's behavior, and the
individual's characteristics (e.g., knowledge, emotions, cognitive development) both influence
and are influenced by each other two components. Bandura (1986, 1997) highlights self-efficacy

(the belief that a particular action is possible and that the individual can accomplish it) and selfregulation (the establishment of goals, the development of a plan to attain those goals, the
commitment to implement that plan, the actual implementation of the plan, and subsequent
actions of reflection and modification or redirection. The work of Ames (1992) and Dweck
(1986) discussed below is a major component of social cognitive views on motivation.

Transpersonal or Spiritual Theories

Most of the transpersonal or spiritual theories deal with the meaningfulness of a person's life or
ultimate meanings. Abraham Maslow (1954) has also been influential in this approach to
motivation. Other influential scholars included Gordon Allport (1955), Victor Frankl (1998),
William James (1997), Carl Jung (1953, 1997), Ken Wilber (1998).

Achievement Motivation
One classification of motivation differentiates among achievement, power, and social factors (see
McClelland, 1985; Murray, 1938, 1943). In the area of achievement motivation, the work on
goal-theory (Pintrich, 2000) has differentiated three separate types of goals: mastery goals(also
called learning goals) which focus on gaining competence or mastering a new set of knowledge
or skills; performance goals (also called ego-involvement goals) which focus on achieving
normative-based standards, doing better than others, or doing well without a lot of effort;
and social goals which focus on relationships among people (see Ames, 1992; Dweck, 1986;
Urdan & Maehr, 1995). In the context of school learning, which involves operating in a
relatively structured environment, students with mastery goals outperform students with either
performance or social goals. However, in life success, it seems critical that individuals have all
three types of goals in order to be very successful.

One aspect of this theory is that individuals are motivated to either avoid failure (more often
associated with performance goals) or achieve success (more often associated with mastery
goals). In the former situation, the individual is more likely to select easy or difficult tasks,
thereby either achieving success or having a good excuse for why failure occurred. In the latter
situation, the individual is more likely to select moderately difficult tasks which will provide an
interesting challenge, but still keep the high expectations for success.

Other Theories
At this point there is little agreement about the identification of basic human needs, how they are
ordered, and which theory of motivation might be most basic or correct. Drawing on the work of
Maslow (1954) and those who have critiqued his theory,
Ryan and Deci (2000) suggested three needs, although they are not necessarily arranged
hierarchically:
(1) autonomy,
(2) competence, and
(3) relatedness.
Thompson, Grace and Cohen (2001) stated the most important needs for children are:
(1) connection,
(2) recognition, and
(3) power.
Nohria, Lawrence, and Wilson (2001) provided evidence from a sociobiology theory of
motivation that humans have four basic needs:
(1) acquire objects and experiences;
(2) bond with others in long-term relationships of mutual care and commitment;
(3) learn and make sense of the world and of ourselves; and
(4) to defend ourselves, our loved ones, beliefs and resources from harm.
The Institute for Management Excellence (2001) suggested there are nine basic human needs:
(1) security,
(2) adventure,
(3) freedom,
(4) exchange,
(5) power,

(6) expansion,
(7) acceptance,
(8) community, and
(9) expression.
Pink (2009) suggested there are three basic drives:
(1) autonomy,
(2) mastery, and
(3) purpose.
The concept of autonomy suggests that human beings are not as easily modifiable as behavioral
theorists would suggest. The use of reinforcement for physical or mechanical tasks works
reasonably well (i.e., there is little or no cognitive processing involved.) However, for any tasks
that require even a low level of cognitive skill, offering a larger reward sometimes results in
equal or lower performance. Rather, if people are allowed to be self-directed (i.e., use skills in
the conative/volitional domain), they will be more highly engaged in task performance. The
concept of mastery suggests that achievement motivation is an important component of human
behavior. People will engage in activities for no other reason than it offers an opportunity to get
better at doing something. This is especially true if it offers the opportunity to engage in Pink's
third component, a purposeful activity that provides for the greater good.
Pink's conceptualization fits well with Conley's (2007) ideas about leadership in organizations.
He proposed three levels of meeting human needs:
(1) survival,
(2) success, and
(3) transformation.
He related this hierarchy to three different groups:
(1) employees,
(2) customers, and
(3) investors
and suggested that meeting the needs of these different groups at where they are can lead to a
more satisfied personal life. Most importantly, he proposed that measurement of the intangibles

related to meaningfulness and purpose are just as important, if not more important, than
measuring the tangibles associated more with survival.
Seligman (2011) offers yet another viewpoint. His earlier work on the types of happiness
(Seligman, 2002) has been modified to focus more on a high level of well-being, called
flourishing, rather than happiness. His most recent theory includes five components that he
labels as PERMA:
1.

Positive emotion: this was the first element in Seligman's (2002) theory of happiness and
is the focus of such researchers as Fredrickson (2009).

2.

Engagement: this was the second element in Seligman's (2002) theory and relates to the
use of personal strengths (Peterson & Seligman, 2004;) in the involvement with challenging
tasks that creates an experience of flow (Csikszentmihihaly, 1991). (complete theValues in
Action Signature Strengths Questionnaire)

3.

Positive Relationships: this is a new element in Seligman's theory, reflecting the work of
many researchers as to the importance of social connections (Huitt & Dawson, 2011).

4.

Meaning and Purpose: this is the third element of Seligman's theory, defined as serving
something larger than self. It is similar to Maslow's (1971) concept of transcendence and
Pink's (2009) concept of purpose.

5.

Accomplishment or Achievement: this is also a new element in Seligman's theory of

well-being and related to Pink's concept of mastery.

Summary
Notice that there does not seem to be a lot of overlap in the motivating factors mentioned by all
theorists. Franken (2006) suggested this lack of accord may be a result of different philosophies
of researchers rather than differences among human beings. In addition, he reviewed research
that showed a person's explanatory or attributional style will modify the list of basic needs.
Therefore, it seems appropriate to ask people what they want and how their needs could be met,
then observing their reactions when those are provided, rather than relying completely on any
specific theory (i.e. use an action research approach to identifying what motivates specific
individuals or groups; Ferrance, 2000). For example, Waitley (1996) advised having a person
imagine what life would be like if time and money were not an object in a person's life. That is,
what would the person do this week, this month, next month, if he or she had all the money and

time needed to engage in the activities and was secure that both would be available again next
year. With some follow-up questions to identify what is keeping the person from engaging in
those activities presently, this open-ended approach is likely to identify the most important needs
and potential goals of the individual. As the individual develops and implements an action plan
to work towards those goals, data can be collected on the effort expended and whether that effort
was sustained. After several cycles it will become much clearer what is actually motivating the
individual.
There is much work still to be done in this area before those interested in motivating themselves
and others can rely on a theory as more than a good starting hypothesis. However, this body of
research can be very important to parents, educators, administrators and others concerned with
developing and using human potential. It provides an outline of some important issues that must
be addressed if human beings are to achieve the levels of character and competencies necessary
to be successful in the information age.

Impacting Motivation in the Classroom

Sternberg (1994) and Stipek (1988) suggested there are a variety of reasons why individuals may
lack in motivation and Stipek provided a list ofspecific behaviors associated with high academic
achievement. This is an excellent checklist to help students develop the conative or selfregulation component of their lives. In addition, teacher efficacy is a powerful input variable
related to student achievement as it impacts a teacher's motivation to engage students in the
teaching/learning process (Proctor, as cited in Huitt, 2000).
There are a variety of specific actions that teachers can take to increase motivation on classroom
tasks (Huitt, 2005). In general, these fall into the two categories discussed above: intrinsic
motivation and extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic

Extrinsic

Explain or show why

learning a particular content or skill
is important

Provide clear expectations

Give corrective feedback

Allow students some

opportunities to select learning
goals and tasks

Provide valuable rewards for

simple learning tasks

Create and/or maintain

curiosity

Provide a variety of
activities and sensory stimulations

Provide games and

simulations

Set goals for learning

Relate learning to student

Make rewards available

Allow opportunities for

students to observe more correct
exemplars

Allow for opportunities to

engage in social learning activities

Provide for scaffolding of

corrective feedback

needs
Help student develop plan of

action

As a general rule, teachers need to use as much of the intrinsic suggestions as possible while
recognizing that not all students will be appropriately motivated by them. The extrinsic
suggestions will work, but it must be remembered that they do so only as long as the student is
under the influence of the external factors. When outside of that influence, unless the desired
goals and behaviors have been internalized, the learner will cease the desired behavior and
operate according to his or her internal standards or to other external factors.

The stages of problem solving

The problem solving process can be divided in different. ways and the stages have been given
various labels. This has been done to make it easier to understand but how it is divided and the
labels that are used are not important. To be a successful problem solver you need to understand
what the stages involve and follow them methodically whenever you encounter a problem.
To be a successful problem solver you
must go through these stages:

recognising and defining the

problem

finding possible solutions

choosing the best solution

implementing the solution.

These stages are examined in detail in later

articles, but here is a summary of what is
involved at each stage.

1. Recognising and defining the problem

Obviously, before any action can be taken to
solve a problem, you need to recognise that a
problem exists. A surprising number of
problems go unnoticed or are only recognised
when the situation becomes serious. Opportuni
ties are also missed. There are specific
techniques you can use to help you recognise
problems and opportunities.

Once you have recognised a problem you need to give it a label..... a tentative definition. This
serves to focus your search for relevant information, from which you can write an accurate
description or definition of the problem.
The process of definition differs for closed and openended problems. With closed problems you
need to define all the circumstances surrounding the deviation from the norm. Sometimes this
will provide strong clues as to the cause of the problem.
Defining open-ended problems involves identifying and defining your objectives and any
obstacles which could prevent you reaching them. The problem definition provides the basis for
finding solutions.

2. Finding possible solutions

Closed problems generally have one or a limited number of possible solutions, while open-ended
problems usually can be solved in a large number of ways. The most effective solution to an
open-ended problem is found by selecting the best from a wide raJ.1ge of possibilities. Finding

solutions involves analysing the problem to ensure that you fully understand it and then
constructing courses of action which will achieve your objective.
Analysing the problem involves identifying and collecting the relevant information and
representing it in a meaningful way. Analysing closed problems helps you to identify all the
possible causes and confirm the real cause, or obstacle, before looking for a solution. With openended problems you are looking for information which will help to suggest a range of possible
ways to solve the problem. Analysis also helps you to decide what the ideal solution would be,
which helps to guide your search for solutions.
Constructing courses of action to solve the problem involves discovering what actions will deal
with any obstacles and achieve your objective. Workable solutions are developed by combining
and modifying ideas and a range of creative techniques are available to help in this process. The
more ideas you have to work with, the better your chances of finding an effective solution.

3. Choosing the best solution

This is the stage at which you evaluate the possible solutions and select that which will be most
effective in solving the problem. It's a process of. decision making based on a comparison of the
potential outcome of alternative solutions. This involves

identifying all the features of an ideal solution, including the constraints it has to meet

eliminating solutions which do not meet the constraints

evaluating the remaining solutions against the outcome required

assessing the risks associated with the 'best' solution

making the decision to implement this solution

A problem is only solved when a solution has been implemented. In some situations, before this
can take place, you need to gain acceptance of the solution by other people, or get their authority
to implement it. This may involve various strategies of persuasion.

4. Implementing the solution

This involves three separate stages:

planning and preparing to implement the solution

taking the appropriate action and monitoring its effects

reviewing the ultimate success of the action

Implementing your solution is the culmination of all your efforts and requires very careful
planning. The plan describes the sequence of actions required to achieve the objective, the
timescale and the resources required at each stage. Ways of minimising the risks involved and
preventing mistakes have to be devised and built into the plan. Details of what must be done if
things go wrong are also included.
Once the plan has been put into effect, the situation has to be monitored to ensure that things are
running smoothly. Any problems or potential problems have to be dealt with quickly. When the
action is completed it's necessary to measure its success, both to estimate its usefulness for
solving future problems of this type and to ensure that the problem has been solved. If not,
further action may be required.
These stages provide a very flexible framework which can be adapted to suit all problems. With
closed problems, for example, where there is likely to be only one or a few solutions, the
emphasis will be on defining and analysing the problem to indicate possible causes. Open-ended
problems, on the other hand, require more work at the idea generation stage to develop a large
range of possible solutions.
At any stage in solving a problem it may be necessary to go back and adapt work done at an
earlier stage. A variety of techniques and strategies are available to help you at each stage and
these are described in later articles.

Role of a Teacher
A teacher is considered as a source of inspiration and motivation for students. Beyond
that, teachers serve many other roles in the classroom. Teachers set the tone of their classrooms,
build a warm environment, mentor and nurture students, become role models, and listen and look
for signs of trouble. The most common role a teacher plays in the classroom is to teach
knowledge to children.

The Situation (Problem)

The student about whom I am going to discuss is of class 5 and belongs to well educated and
civilized family. He has been in The City School since play group and his performance remained
satisfactory throughout this period, but suddenly a change has been observed in his attitude
towards learning in particular and socially in general. Following were observed:

Lagging behind in academics

Socially detached from peers

Remain silent in the class

Refuses to take part in any class activity

Starts crying without reason

Refuses to go home ( One day he remained in the school for 1 hour after pack up)

The class teacher was quite worried and reported the incident to Principal. Besides other
obligations, I am acting as student counselor and have successfully dealt with such situations. I
was asked to find out the root cause of the issue.

Findings
With the coordination of the class teacher, I had held multiple sessions with the student and was
able to find out the actual problem. The student had been subjected to the propaganda by his
paternal aunt against his mother. He had been under her trance and was quite annoyed and
irritated. He was told that his mother doesnt care about him and his aunt claimed that she is the
only person who cares for him. This situation psychologically disturbed the child a lot.

Solution
We (The class teacher, Principal, and myself) had to conduct multiple sessions with the child to
convince him that his parents do love him and care for him. We had to conduct sessions with the
parents too in order to take them in confidence and to resolve the situation on a positive note.
Our efforts proved fruitful and gradually the child became normal. Now he is back on track and
performing well.

Conclusion

A teacher should always be responsive not reactive, only then we can find out the reasons
behind any classroom situation. A teacher is thought to be the master of the situation and
should always act in a positive manner.
In a study conducted in 2011on the extent of the impact teacher's personal factors have on
the students' personality and performance, it was observed that a teacher with the
characteristic of supporting the students, that is who considers mental issues and
differences between individual students, is regarded as the main force behind the success
by the students.
Least but not the last : A teacher takes a hand, opens a mind and touches a heart .

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