Rethinking Grammar:

Findings from a Longitudinal Corpus Investigation of

Language Development

American Association for Applied Linguistics 2014 Conference

Portland, Oregon, USA
21 25 March, 2014

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Structure of Presentation

LubnaAlsagoff
NationalInstituteofEducation
Nanyang TechnologicalUniversity,Singapore
lubna.alsagoff@nie.edu.sg
www.nie.edu.sg
1

Project investigating the development of

English by primary school children in
Singapore

Learner corpus of Primary 1 Primary 6 students

(Ages 6-12) compositions
447,391 word longitudinal corpus written by the
same 320 students from 2007 2012 (2137 essays)
Data originally collected by the Ministry of Education
as part of a programme evaluation study.

WorkonthisprojectisfundedbytheNIEEducation
ResearchFundProgramme(OER47/12LA)

Goals of the Project

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Overview: the Project

Background
onthe
Corpus
Project

Preliminary
Findings&
Implications
forTeaching

Rethinking
Grammar

Concluding
Remarks

Document, describe & theorize about the patterns of

English Language grammar and vocabulary
development among Singapore children
To build a corpus of local data to develop a better understanding
of local norms
To inform policy and pedagogical practice enacting the EL
syllabus and develop more effective pedagogical approaches to
the teaching of grammar and writing.

Developing a web-based corpus tool for teachers

to teach grammar using authentic data
to teach grammar with a better understanding of actual language
development patterns

Current Progress of Project

Corpus System Structure

All handwritten texts have been transcribed to text and loaded into
the corpus system

The corpus system

Coding component: developed to allow online tagging of grammar
errors
Research component being developed to allow statistical analysis
of data
Teacher component being conceptualized to allow access to the
data that will feature pedagogically relevant and useful information

Tagging the corpus

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Data

Coding scheme developed, trialled and revised

Manual coding and correction (parallel corpus) of Primary 2
Primary 6 essays (69,000 words, 155 essays coded)

Laravel
Web
framework
MySQL DB

CQP(CorpusQuery
Processor)

Metadata(XMLheader)
Rawdata(UTF8)

Lucene
searchengine

Errorannotation(UAM)
Pos data(CLAWS&Stanford)

R,Weka,Python
Statisticalanalysis

Park,K.,&Alsagoff,L.(2013)
CompilingaCorpusofSingaporean
LearnersofEnglish.Paperpresented
atLearnerCorpusResearch,Bergen,
Norway.)

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Search Interfaces

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Online Coding System

Visualization of Information
Errorsovertime

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Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Querying the Corpus

Top10errors

Browsingbyerrortypes
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Coding Scheme

Coding Scheme

Specially developed for the corpus, to align with the way

grammar is generally taught in Singapore schools.
Organized along word classes, nouns, verbs, pronouns,
determiners, adjectives, as well as clause structure,
lexis/vocabulary, and spelling and punctuation.

Socio-linguistically grounded
Developed to investigate Singapore English grammar

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Pedagogically oriented

Identifying errors that are similar to Singlish (Singapore

English vernacular) features

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Detailed coding scheme involving 94 grammar error types

organized into 9 different categories, and 44 subcategorized:

adjective
adverb
conjunction
determiner
noun
preposition
pronoun
verb
sentence/clause

21 error codes to cover lexical errors as well as punctuation &

spelling errors:
Lexis/vocabulary
Spelling/orthography/punctuation

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Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

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15

Errortypes

Examples

NFQ.1

Incorrectpluralmarkingofirregular
plurals

*childs,oxes,floweres,citys

NFQ.2

Incorrectmarkingofsingular/plural
eitherabsenceofpluralmorpheme
*Sheboughtthreebook.
forpluralcountnouns,oruseof
*Sheboughtabooks.
pluralmorphemewithsingular
countnouns
Incorrectuseofmass/noncount
nounascountnouns:e.g.useof
pluralswithnoncountnouns

*furnitures/*oneluggage

NGQ.2

Incorrectuseofcountnounas
mass/noncountnoun:e.g.lackof
determinerorpluralmarking.

*Elephant isamammal.(The
elephantis/Elephantsare)
*LaterIbuyticket themovie.
(aticket/tickets)

NEQ.1

*Hesmokestensticksof
cigarettesaday.(ten
Incorrectuseofcollectivephrase
constructionsforcountnounswhen cigarettes)
*Hesoldtenunitsof
noneneedtobeused.
apartments.(tenapartments)

Countability:
NGQ.1
Countvs
NonCount
(NQ)

Errors and Standard Language

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Noun

Grammatical
Code
subcategory

One of the goals of this project is to develop, in the long

term, local standards and norms.
In the project, we use the term error to mean a
variation from Standard British English which is the
exonormative standard used by the Singapore Ministry
of Education.
The Ministry does not recognize Standard Singapore
English, although this would very similar to Standard
British English.
We do not code the use of American English (mostly
spelling) as error but will tag this use for further
investigation.

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Preliminary Findings

Preliminary Findings

Majority of grammatical errors go beyond the word level

Majority of grammatical errors go beyond the word level

Errors generally involve constructions at the phrasal or text

level rather than at word level.

Grammatical errors relate to local norms of English use

A number of errors appear to be clearly similar to Singlish
structure as well as the local (endogenous) languages
(Hokkien, Mandarin, Malay).

Use of formulaic structures:

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Grammatical
Category

Errors generally involve constructions at the phrasal or text

level rather than at word level.

Grammatical errors relate to local norms of English use

A number of errors appear to be clearly similar to Singlish
structure as well as the local (endogenous) languages
(Hokkien, Mandarin, Malay).

Use of formulaic structures:

Lack of variety in phrasal/clausal patterns

Lack of variety in phrasal/clausal patterns

Older Students repeat stock phrases or even paragraphs

Older Students repeat stock phrases or even paragraphs

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564

215
201
192
186
147
141

Tenmostfrequent
errorcategories
Ofthe3919errors
coded(March17),
2,282(58.23%)fall
intothese10error
types

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Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

397

Misspelling

Oftheerrortypes,onlyoneisclearly
atwordlevel() :Misspelling.The
othererrorsthatappeartobeword
levelarentactuallywordlevel(?).

Incorrectuseofcapitalletters

131

108
18

VDT.2 Inconsistent
/incorrectmarkingof
tenseatthetextlevel
VDT.1 Incorrectmarking
oftenseinsubordinate
clauses
VFT.1 Incorrectmarking
oftheverbstringfor
aspect

Verb Errors
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Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

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Incorrectmarkingofsingular/pluralforcountnouns

VDT.2 Inconsistent/incorrect marking of tense at the

text level (recount/narrative texts should be in past
tense)
There is a boy named Andrew. He and his friend are coming
home from school

VDT.1 Incorrect marking of tense in subordinate

clauses
She ran quickly as she can.
Their mother told them why their uniforms are wet.

VFT.1 Incorrect marking of the verb string for aspect

Mary did [had done] a good deed.
Mary and her brother went [had gone] back from school.

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Spelling & Punctuation Errors

TPU.3 Errorswithfull
stops

TPU.1 Incorrectuseof
capitalletters

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

TSU.1 Misspelling

TSU.1 Misspelling
Her brother was coveling (covering) his head.
As we reach to our bloke (block)

TPU.3 Errors with full stops

One day in the evening after school.
One day after school when my brother and I were coming
back from school.

TPU.1 Incorrect use of capital letters

Last sunday, It was raining.
the girl Shivering the kitten was carried.

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Most Frequent Errors

SEZ.3 Incorrectstructure
ofcompound/complex
sentences
NFQ.2 Incorrectmarking
ofsingular/pluralfor
countnouns

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

LLU.2 Nonconventional
collocation

LLU.2 Non-conventional collocation

They said it (the kitten) was very poor and sad.
Both of them were shivering their face.

SEZ.3 Incorrect structure of compound/complex

sentences
After carried home, Alan puted the kitten into the basket.
The kitten felt happy for the two children what they had done.

NFQ.2 Incorrect marking of singular/plural for count

nouns
Then the two boy was run to chase the thief.
However, most of them brought their umbrella.

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NFQ.2:incorrectmarkingof
singular/plural

Typically,thisissimplytaught,
andkidscanactuallyformthe
plural:place places;school
schools;exercise exercises...

Typically,thisissimplytaught,
andkidscanactuallyformthe
plural:place places;school
schools;exercise exercises...
Ifwelookattheerrorsofthis
pluralinwriting,weseethatthis
shouldinfactnotbetaughtata
wordlevel.

Ifwelookattheerrorsofthis
pluralinwriting,weseethatthis
shouldinfactnotbetaughtata
wordlevel.
Oneofthecluesarethe
premodification constructions:
Alotofschool
Differentschool
Alloftheexercise

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

NFQ.2:incorrectmarkingof
singular/plural

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NFQ.2:incorrectmarkingof
singular/plural

NFQ.2:incorrectmarkingof
singular/plural

Typically,thisissimplytaught,
andkidscanactuallyformthe
plural:place places;school
schools;exercise exercises...

Typically,thisissimplytaught,
andkidscanactuallyformthe
plural:place places;school
schools;exercise exercises...

Ifwelookattheerrorsofthis
typeinwriting,weseethatit
shouldinfactnotjustbetaught
atawordlevel.
Thepremodification sequences
areimportantmarkersoftheuse
ofthepluralmarking:
alot ofschool
()differentschool
almostalloftheexercise
Meaningisalsoimportant:
Crowdedplacelikeshopping
malls,cafandmanymore

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

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Alotofschool
Differentschool
Alloftheexercise
Meaningisalsoimportant:
Crowdedplacelikeshopping
malls,cafandmanymore

Meaningisalsoimportant:
Crowdedplacelikeshopping
malls,cafandmanymore
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Oneofthecluesarethe
premodification constructions:

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Ifwelookattheerrorsofthis
typeinwriting,weseethatit
shouldinfactnotjustbetaught
atawordlevel.
Thepremodification sequences
areimportantmarkersoftheuse
ofthepluralmarking:
alot ofschool
()differentschool
almostalloftheexercise
Meaningisalsoimportant:
Crowdedplace likeshopping
malls,cafandmanymore

Implications for Teaching

At present
The plural form is taught primarily at word level
as spelling or morphological alternations, i.e.

Implications
The plural should not be taught simply as a
morphological alternation or spelling variant but
also as in relation to noun phrase structure.
Teachers should explore the co-occurrence of
many determiners and to develop an awareness of
a wider range of complex structures and meanings
which require plurals

place places
school schools
city cities

Also taught are simplistic meaning definitions of

the plural as more than one.

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Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Implications for Teaching

Majority of grammatical errors go beyond the word level

Errors generally involve constructions at the phrasal or text
level rather than at word level.

Grammatical errors relate to local norms of English use

A number of errors appear to be clearly similar to Singlish
structure as well as the local (endogenous) languages
(Hokkien, Mandarin, Malay).

Use of formulaic structures:

Interference Errors
Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

all the animals

all of the animals
almost all of the exercises
many different schools

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Preliminary Findings

Lack of variety in phrasal/clausal patterns

Older Students repeat stock phrases or even paragraphs

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TSU.1 Misspelling
Her brother was coveling (covering) his head.
As we reach to our bloke (block)
Some of the misspelling may be due to Singapore English
pronunciation.

NEQ.1 Incorrect use of collective phrases

*He smokes ten sticks of cigarettes a day. (ten
cigarettes)
*He sold ten units of apartments. (ten apartments)

Singlish Grammar
Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

NGQ.2:incorrectuseof
countnounsas
noncount nouns

The use of count nouns as mass nouns is related to the

use of non-count nouns sometimes as count nouns.
Singlish often uses plural forms for nouns normally
classified as non-count.
All our furnitures are on sale this Christmas.
Please do not leave your luggages unattended.
Use only the right equipments to be on the safe side.

These words, however, are also used as non-count:

Cheap and good furniture is not easy to find.
You should use Samsonite luggage.
The shop got sell equipment.

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Alsagoff (2012) suggests that there is a different

grammatical system at work:
The distinction is clearly not between count and noncount (Alsagoff and Ho, 1998)
The distinction is instead between specified and
general Ziegeler (2003) suggests that the distinction is
between what is bounded referentially (i.e. specifically
indicated or referred to) and what is generic, general or
non-definite in reference.
Hopper and Thompson (1980) discuss such differences
in similar terms individuated vs non-individuated.

Different Set of Contrasts

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Whats the Pattern?

This accounts for the way in which non-count nouns

appear both in the plural as well as in the bare form:

Cheap and good furniture is not easy to find.

All our furnitures are on sale this Christmas.
You should use Samsonite luggage.
Please do not leave your luggages unattended.

This accounts for the way in which non-count nouns

appear both in the plural as well as in the bare form
and why singular count nouns are used with zero
determiners:
The tickets for the concert already on sale.
Ticket not easy to buy nowadays.

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At present
The contrast between count and noncount
(mass) nouns taught in terms of lists of mass
nouns which dont take the plural:
rice *rices
water *waters
happiness *happinesses

Also taught are meaning definitions of the

noncount or mass nouns as uncountable.

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Implications for Teaching

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Implications for Teaching

Ensuring that teachers have an understanding

of how the grammar of Singlish, Hokkien,
Malay can lead to different systems of
grammatical contrasts.

Majority of grammatical errors go beyond the word level

Errors generally involve constructions at the phrasal or text
level rather than at word level.

Grammatical errors relate to local norms of English use

A number of errors appear to be clearly similar to Singlish
structure as well as the local (endogenous) languages
(Hokkien, Mandarin, Malay).

Use of formulaic structures:

Formulaic Phrases
Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Since errors dont actually involve students

using mass nouns as count nouns, but count
nouns as mass nouns, its important to address
the reasons for this confusion.

38

Preliminary Findings

Lack of variety in phrasal/clausal patterns

Many formulaic phrases used, especially for

Primary 5 and Primary 6 essays, often not
appropriate to the essay topic.
Formulaic phrases, not always contextually
appropriate or accurately used.
Once upon a time, Jack was hungry
It was raining cats and dogs as the clouds enveloped the
sky
The Sun hung low in the cloud forsaken sky, its crimson
rays shooting out sapphire and crimson hues

Older Students repeat stock phrases or even paragraphs

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Implications

40

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Student PP00081 (Primary 5)

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Student PP00081 (Primary 4)

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Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Repeated phrases & chunks

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Student PP00081 (Primary 6)

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P4: One blazing and blistering hot day, the sky was azure blue and
fluffy magnolia white clouds drifted across the sky. The Earth
was bathed with the warm glow of the rising sun. It peeked out
from behind the clouds sending down rays of sunlight. We could
almost see them as rippling weaves.
P5: One blistering and blazing hot day, the sky was azure blue and
fleecy magnolia white clouds drifted across the sky. The sun was
like a huge fireball in the sky. It peeked out from behind the
clouds sending down rays of sunlight. We could almost see them
as rippling waves.
P6: One blazing and blistering hot day, the sky was azure blue and
fluffy white clouds drifted across the sky. The sun peeked out
from behind the clouds sending down rays of sunlight. We could
almost see them as rippling weaves.

P4: One blazing and blistering hot day, the sky was azure blue and
fluffy magnolia white clouds drifted across the sky. The Earth was
bathed with the warm glow of the rising sun. It peeked out from
behind the clouds sending down rays of sunlight. We could
almost see them as rippling weaves.
P5: One blistering and blazing hot day, the sky was azure blue and
fleecy magnolia white clouds drifted across the sky. The sun was
like a huge fireball in the sky. It peeked out from behind the
clouds sending down rays of sunlight. We could almost see them
as rippling waves.
P6: One blazing and blistering hot day, the sky was azure blue and
fluffy white clouds drifted across the sky. The sun peeked out
from behind the clouds sending down rays of sunlight. We could
almost see them as rippling weaves.

P4: One blazing and blistering hot day, the sky was azure blue and
fluffy magnolia white clouds drifted across the sky. The Earth was
bathed with the warm glow of the rising sun. It peeked out from
behind the clouds sending down rays of sunlight. We could
almost see them as rippling weaves.
P5: One blistering and blazing hot day, the sky was azure blue and
fleecy magnolia white clouds drifted across the sky. The sun was
like a huge fireball in the sky. It peeked out from behind the
clouds sending down rays of sunlight. We could almost see them
as rippling waves.
P6: One blazing and blistering hot day, the sky was azure blue and
fluffy white clouds drifted across the sky. The sun peeked out
from behind the clouds sending down rays of sunlight. We could
almost see them as rippling weaves.

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

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47

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Repeated phrases & chunks

46

Repeated phrases & chunks

Repeated phrases & chunks

P4: One blazing and blistering hot day, the sky was azure blue and
fluffy magnolia white clouds drifted across the sky. The Earth was
bathed with the warm glow of the rising sun. It peeked out from
behind the clouds sending down rays of sunlight. We could
almost see them as rippling weaves.
P5: One blistering and blazing hot day, the sky was azure blue and
fleecy magnolia white clouds drifted across the sky. The sun was
like a huge fireball in the sky. It peeked out from behind the
clouds sending down rays of sunlight. We could almost see them
as rippling waves.
P6: One blazing and blistering hot day, the sky was azure blue and
fluffy white clouds drifted across the sky. The sun peeked out
from behind the clouds sending down rays of sunlight. We could
almost see them as rippling weaves.

P4: One blazing and blistering hot day, the sky was azure blue and
fluffy magnolia white clouds drifted across the sky. The Earth was
bathed with the warm glow of the rising sun. It peeked out from
behind the clouds sending down rays of sunlight. We could
almost see them as rippling weaves.
P5: One blistering and blazing hot day, the sky was azure blue and
fleecy magnolia white clouds drifted across the sky. The sun was
like a huge fireball in the sky. It peeked out from behind the
clouds sending down rays of sunlight. We could almost see them
as rippling waves.
P6: One blazing and blistering hot day, the sky was azure blue and
fluffy white clouds drifted across the sky. The sun peeked out
from behind the clouds sending down rays of sunlight. We could
almost see them as rippling weaves.

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Repeated phrases & chunks

48

Repeated phrases & chunks

P4: One blazing and blistering hot day, the sky was azure blue and
fluffy magnolia white clouds drifted across the sky. The Earth was
bathed with the warm glow of the rising sun. It peeked out from
behind the clouds sending down rays of sunlight. We could
almost see them as rippling weaves.
P5: One blistering and blazing hot day, the sky was azure blue and
fleecy magnolia white clouds drifted across the sky. The sun was
like a huge fireball in the sky. It peeked out from behind the
clouds sending down rays of sunlight. We could almost see them
as rippling waves.
P6: One blazing and blistering hot day, the sky was azure blue and
fluffy white clouds drifted across the sky. The sun peeked out
from behind the clouds sending down rays of sunlight. We could
almost see them as rippling weaves.

P4: One blazing and blistering hot day, the sky was azure blue and
fluffy magnolia white clouds drifted across the sky. The Earth was
bathed with the warm glow of the rising sun. It peeked out from
behind the clouds sending down rays of sunlight. We could
almost see them as rippling weaves.
P5: One blistering and blazing hot day, the sky was azure blue and
fleecy magnolia white clouds drifted across the sky. The sun was
like a huge fireball in the sky. It peeked out from behind the
clouds sending down rays of sunlight. We could almost see them
as rippling waves.
P6: One blazing and blistering hot day, the sky was azure blue and
fluffy white clouds drifted across the sky. The sun peeked out
from behind the clouds sending down rays of sunlight. We could
almost see them as rippling weaves.

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Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Repeated phrases & chunks

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At present
One of the critical components in assessing
writing involves the use of vocabulary.
Teachers award marks simply for the inclusion
of vocabulary items that are deemed to be
indicators of better standard of English, e.g.
azure blue rather than blue; purchase rather
than buy.
However, there is little assessment in terms of
appropriacy or grammatical fit.

Implications for Teaching

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Implications for Teaching

52

Implications
Teachers need to see that lexis is related to
grammar.
Words do not only have denotational meanings, i.e.
meanings out of context, but they have other
meanings, to do with context, register, tone, etc.
Words also have a grammar collocational and
colligational patterns need to also be taught and
taken into consideration in assessment.

Manipulating
structure to
conform to rules

Manipulating structure
to express meanings

Grammar as
atheoretical sets
of rules

Grammar as
theoretically grounded

Hierarchical:
Words to phrases to
clauses to sentences to
text

Non-hierarchical:
Words to sentences

Unidimensional

Multidimensional

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

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Lubna Alsagoff
National Institute of Education
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

lubna.alsagoff@nie.edu.sg

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Lubna Alsagoff 2014, NIE

Rethinking Grammar

CONNECTINGGRAMMAR
TOWRITING,TOREADING,
TOSPEAKING,TO
LANGUAGELEARNING