Mondal2008 PDF

Review
Direct use of vegetable oil and

animal fat as alternative fuel in
internal combustion engine
Pinaki Mondal, International Centre for Automotive Technology, Manesar, India
Manisha Basu, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India
N. Balasubramanian, National Automotive Testing and R&D Infrastructure Project, Delhi, India
Received October 9, 2007; revised version received December 25, 2007; accepted January 4, 2008
Published online February 14, 2008 in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com); DOI: 10.1002/bbb.61;
Biofuels, Bioprod. Bioref. 2:155174 (2008)
Abstract: Gradual depletion of world petroleum reserves and the impact of environmental pollution of increasing
exhaust emissions lead to the search for a suitable alternative fuels for diesel engines. The substitution of conventional fuels (gasoline, diesel) by renewable biofuels is considered a potential way to reduce pollution and to support
the sustainable development of a country. Direct use of vegetable oil and animal fat is a promising alternative to solve
these problems. An exhaustive review of the experiments in this area, carried out by several researchers in last three
decades, is presented here. Different problems associated with the direct use of vegetable oil and animal fat and
potential solutions from both public and private sectors are discussed. Some engine manufacturers have started to
launch full-warranty engines with vegetable oil as fuel. It is expected that the competitive engine market will witness more intense research, resulting in the launch of more vegetable-oil engines with full warranties. The steep rise
in food prices in recent years is concerning policy-makers and has raised the old food vs fuel debate. It has been
concluded that vegetable oil can probably only substitute small to medium portions of petroleum-based fuel due to
future severe land-usage competition from food sector. This calls for intense research initiatives into the production
of suitable fuel from non-edible vegetable oil, grown in wasteland. In this regard, genetic engineering may prove to be
extremely effective in developing designer fuel. 2008 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
Keywords: Alternative fuel; vegetable oil; animal fat; IC engine; renewable energy
Introduction
udolf Diesel tested vegetable oil (Groundnut source)
as fuel for his engine and demonstrated it at the Exhibition Fair in Paris, France in 1898.13 In 1912, he
stated, The use of vegetable oils for engine fuels may seem
insignificant today. But such oils may become in course of

time as important as petroleum and the coal tar products of
the present time. Henry Ford shared a similar vision to that
of Diesel.4 With the advent of cheap petroleum, appropriate
crude oil fractions were refined to serve as fuel; diesel fuels
and diesel engines evolved together. In the 1930s and 1940s,
Correspondence to: Pinaki Mondal, International Centre for Automotive Technology, Manesar, Gurgaon, Haryana, 122050, India.
E-mail: mondal.pinaki@gmail.com
2008 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
155
P Mondal, M Basu, N Balasubramanian
vegetable oils were used as an alternative for diesel fuels

from time to time, but usually only in exigency situations.5
To address the problem of the gradual depletion of the
worlds petroleum reserves and the effects of exhaust emissions on environmental pollution, there is an urgent need
for suitable alternative fuels for use in diesel engines. The
heightened consciousness of noxious effects associated with
air pollution compels the introduction of more stringent
environmental regulations worldwide. Renewable fuels, such
as biomass-derived products, are spreading rapidly as they
would promote energy efficiency and reduce green house
gases (GHG) and other harmful emissions to control global
warming and level of potential or probable carcinogens.1,6,7
Environmental issues
It is a well-known fact that CO2 released by petroleum diesel
was fi xed from the atmosphere during the formative years
of the earth. But CO2 released by vegetable oils gets continuously fi xed by plants and may be recycled by the next generation of crops.
The carbon cycle time for fi xation of CO2 and its release
after combustion of petroleum-based fuel can be a few
million years, whereas that for vegetable oil is claimed to be
only a few years.8 The natural sulfur content of plant fuels is
also low (less than 100 ppm) in comparison to that of diesel
fuel; for example, 500 ppm (locomotives, marine and offroad in USA and Canada), 2000 ppm (China), 20005000
ppm (Russia, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Tajikistan, Srilanka,
Kazakhstan, Pakistan, Kyrgyzstan, Armenia, Azerbaijan),
and 500 ppm (India, Vietnam, Malaysia). The effect of acid
rain is therefore abridged or ameliorated.9 Concerning
the environmental aspect, rational and efficient end-use
technologies are identified as key options for achieving the
Kyoto targets of GHG emissions reduction. For the transport sector of the European Union (EU), energy savings
of 510% in the medium term and an aggregate of 25% in
the long term (2020) are targeted, with an expected cut of
CO2 emissions by 8% by the year 2010. The EU set an objective of 2% of transport fuel to be produced from renewable sources by the year 2005 and a 5.75% market share for
biofuel by the year 2010.10 In particular, automotive fuel
quality has proved to be one of the main factors in meeting
the obligatory emission limits adopted for 2005.11 It should
156
Review: Alternative fuel for IC engine
be also noted that Diesel engine exhaust (DEE) is classified

as carcinogenic to experimental animals and probably as a
carcinogenic agent to humans by the International Agency
for Research on Cancer. Several studies reported a risk of
approximately 1.5 for lung cancer by DEE after a long-term
exposure. It has been also proved that DEE of diesel fuel
has more mutagenic and cytotoxic effects than emissions of
alternative fuels derived from vegetable oils; this may be due
to the fact that the latter contains fewer polycyclic aromatic
compounds (PACs).12 Mutagenicity of diesel exhaust particles from two fossil fuels (normal diesel (DF) and low sulfur
diesel (LS-DF)) and two plant oil fuels (rapeseed oil methylesters (RME) and soybean oil methylesters (SME)) has been
studied. The results reveal that diesel exhaust particles from
RME, SME and LS-DF contain less black carbon and total
polynuclear aromatic compounds and are significantly less
mutagenic in comparison with DF.13 A comparative study
has been conducted to check the mutagenic effects of DEE
from two different batches of rapeseed oil (RSO) with RME,
natural gas derived synthetic fuel (gas-to-liquid, GTL), and a
reference DF. The strong increase of mutagenicity using RSO
as diesel fuel compared to the reference DF and other fuels
caused deep concern and revealed the necessity of more
research to solve the problem.14 It is also established that
there are significant local impacting emissions, for example,
a 99 % reduction of SOX emissions, and reductions of 20%
for CO, 32% for hydrocarbon (HC), 50% in soot and 39% for
particulate matter, while there is a slight increase of nitrogen
oxides (NOx) emission; with a delay of injection timing,
however, a decrease of 23% can be obtained by using fuels
derived from biosources.15
Selection of vegetable oil as alternative fuel

The substitution of conventional petroleum-based fuels by
biofuels has been considered as a potential way to reduce
pollution and support sustainable agriculture. In view
of this, vegetable oil is a promising alternative because it
has several advantages it is renewable, environmentally
friendly and produced easily in rural areas where there is
an acute need for modern forms of energy.1621 In the case
of agricultural applications, fuels that can be produced in
rural areas in a decentralized manner, near the consumption
points will be favored. For agricultural applications where
2008 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd | Biofuels, Bioprod. Bioref. 2:155174 (2008); DOI: 10.1002/bbb
small amounts of fuel are consumed in every engine, the

use of neat vegetable oil is likely to be more attractive than
the transesterified oil (biodiesel) which requires chemical
processing.22 Though biodiesel is spreading more rapidly,
some specific scopes are there to use neat vegetable oil as an
alternative fuel. Vegetable oils show promise in providing
all the liquid fuel needed on a typical farm by diverting
10% or less of the total acreage to fuel production.23 Therefore, in recent years, systematic efforts have been made by
several research workers 9,11,1822 to use vegetable oils as fuel
in engines. Mller24 claims that vegetable oil motor fuels
of E DIN 51605 quality can be used without problems in
utility vehicles, trucks, agricultural machines, buses, and in
stationary engines, such as compact heat and power plants.
There are advantages of using vegetable oils as fuel:
They are renewable.
Vegetable oil combustion has cleaner emission spectra.
Some inedible vegetable oil species are more tolerant to

biotic and abiotic stress, which makes them potential
candidates for turning degraded and wasteland into
productive land.
The production of vegetable oil is less energy intensive.
Vegetable oils have higher energy content than other

energy crops like alcohol.
Their liquid nature is convenient for transport and

processing.
Because of their high heat content, which is close to 90%

of diesel fuel, 21 storage requires no governmental conditions since it is a biological product with a high flash
point and low volatility.24
Vegetable oils have a favorable output/input ratio of

about 24:1 for non-irrigated crop production.
They require simpler or no processing technology.
Vegetable oil fuels are pH neutral, contain no water, and

are relatively stable.25
Depending on climate and soil conditions, different

nations are looking into different vegetable oils for diesel
fuels. For example, soybean oil in the USA, rapeseed and
sunflower oils in Europe, palm oil in Southeast Asia (mainly
Malaysia and Indonesia), jatropha oil in India and coconut
oil in the Philippines are being considered as substitutes for
mineral diesel.8 Animal fats, although mentioned frequently,
have not been studied to the same extent as vegetable oils.

Some methods applicable to vegetable oils are not applicable
to animal fats because of natural property differences. Oils
from algae, bacteria and fungi also have been investigated.1
Microalgae have been examined as a source of methyl ester
diesel fuel.26 Due to the steep price hike of crude petroleum
in the last decade, research on the usability of vegetable oil
as diesel fuel from new and unknown sources is the demand
of the day.27
The pictures of total world oilseed production and the
percent recovery of oil from different known oilseed crops
are not encouraging28,29 which indicates that the use of vegetable oils as a source of diesel would require more effort to
increase the production of oilseeds and to develop new and
more productive plant species with high oil yield. Besides,
some species of plants yielding non-edible oils, for example,
jatropha, karanji, mahua, sal, neem and pongamia may play
a significant role in providing resources. All these plants
may be grown on a massive scale on agricultural/degraded/
wastelands.29,30
Production and prices of oil seed and

vegetable oil
In 20062007, cumulative world production of seven major
oilseeds, namely soybean, cottonseed, rapeseed, peanut,
sunflower, palm kernel and copra, stood at 407 million tons
(Mt) and the figure for nine major vegetable oils stood at
123 Mt. The USA produced the highest oilseeds (97 Mt) in
the world and in vegetable oil production Indonesia ranked
first with 19 Mt in 20062007. A summary of world production and prices of different oilseed crops and vegetable oils is
presented in Table 1. Comparative productions of vegetable
oils in major oil-producing countries from 20022003 to
20062007 are given in Fig. 1.28 Comparative price trends of
crude petroleum and soybean oil one of the most important vegetable oils in terms of oilseed production and oil
production are given in Fig. 2.27,28 It is clear from Fig. 2
that in last decade crude petroleum price experienced a
steep rise while vegetable oil price exhibits a within-range
fluctuation. But a recent trend of high-priced vegetable oil
is evoking the famous food vs fuel debate. High petroleum
prices are one of the primary reasons for the widespread
adoption of alternative biofuels like vegetable oil.
157
Table 1. Production and prices of oil seed and vegetable oil in 20062007.28
World Production of
vegetable oil, million
tons (Mt)
Oil seed priceb

(US $ per ton)
Vegetable oil priceb

(US $ per ton)
235.8
36.3
254
684
Cottonseed
46.0
4.9
787
Peanut
32.4
4.9
394
1253
Sunflower
30.2
10.9
343
1279
Rapeseed-canola
46.7
17.8
852d
2.5a
37.0
655c
Source
World Production
of oilseed, million
tons (Mt)
Soybean
Sesame
Palm
Palm kernels
10.3
4.5
Copra-coconut
5.3
3.3
537
812d
Linseed
2.6a
Castor
1.3a
Niger
0.8
Olive
2.9
20022003 value.
35
20022003
20042005
20062007
30
25
20032004
20052006
20072008 (Nov.)
20
15
10
5
er
th
di
a
O
en
In
tin
SA
U
Ar
g
ay
al
M
In
do
ne
as
ia
si
a
-2
Rotterdam.
EU
na
Malayasia .
hi
Price in USA.
Veg. oil production, Mt
Country
Note: Producer countries may use imported seed.
Example: EU-27, China etc.
Figure. 1 World over production of vegetable oil.28
Properties of vegetable oil and animal fat
fatty acids and are commonly referred to as triacylglycerols
Vegetable oils, also known as triacylglycerols, comprise

of 98% triacylglycerols and small amounts of mono- and
diglycerides. Fats and oils are primarily water-insoluble,
hydrophobic substances in the plant and animal kingdom
(Fig. 3).5,31 The fatty acids vary in their carbon chain length
that are made up of one mole of glycerol and three moles of
158
and in the number of double bonds.29 They contain significant amounts of oxygen. Vegetable oils contain free fatty
acids (generally 15%), phospholipids, phosphatides, carotenes, tocopherols, sulfur compounds and traces of water.
60
700
50
40
500
30
20
300
07
20
06
20
05
20
04
20
03
20
02
20
01
20
00
20
99
19
98
19
97
10
19
Soybean oil price,

US$/Mt
Crude petroleum price,

US$/barrel
70
Year
Crude petroleum
Soybean oil
Poly. (Crude petroleum)
Poly. (Soybean oil)
Figure. 2 Comparative trend of price of crude petroleum and soybean oil.27,28
the range of 3240. The iodine value ranges from 0 to 200

depending upon unsaturation. The cloud and pour points of
vegetable oils are higher than those of diesel fuels. Different
types of oils have different types of fatty acids.30 Table 4
summarizes the chemical structures and empirical formula
of common fatty acids found in vegetable oils.29,37
Beef tallow is considered one alternative fuel from animal
sources. The saturated fatty acid component accounts for
almost 50% of the total fatty acids in beef tallow. The disadvantageous high melting point and high viscosity of beef
tallow may result from higher stearic and palmitic acid
contents. Table 5 gives the compositions of crude tallow.31
Figure. 3 Structure of a typical
triacylglycerol molecule.5,31
Stearic, palmitic, oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids are

fatty acids commonly found in vegetable oils.32,33 Fatty
acid composition of some common as well as uncommon
vegetable oils and animal fats are given in Table 2.2,5,3438
Table 3 shows the typical physical and thermal properties
of different vegetable oils.8,22,30,33,35,39,40 Vegetable oils have
high molecular weights in the range of 600 to 900, three
or more times higher than diesel fuels. The flash point of
vegetable oils is very high (above 200oC). The heating values
of these oils are in the range of 3940 MJ/kg, which are low,
compared to diesel fuels (about 45 MJ/ kg). The presence
of chemically bound oxygen in vegetable oils lowers their
heating values by about 10%. The cetane numbers are in
Use of direct vegetable oil and animal fat

as alternative fuel
Two major oil crises (1973 and 1979) renewed interest in
using vegetable oil and animal fat in diesel engines. Along
with academicians, many approaches came from industry
to use vegetable oil directly as fuel. For example, Elsbett
Technology began investigating vegetable oil as an alternative fuel with the oil crisis. In 1979, it started production of
a pure vegetable-oil-fuelled engine, the Elsbett Multi-Fuel
Direct-Injected passenger car diesel engine, which ran on
petrodiesel or straight vegetable oil.41
Remarkable efforts started in early 1980s in search of alternative fuel from renewable sources. At that time the concept
of food for fuel began.42 Engines with a precombustion
chamber were used to test a mixture of 10% vegetable oil by
159
Table 2. Fatty acid composition of some vegetable oils/animal fats.2,5,34,35,36,37,38

Vegetable
Fatty acid composition, % by weight
oil
12:0
Soybean
0.1
Palm
0.1
14:0
16:0
18:0
20:0
11.75
3.15
0.00
0.00
0.00
23.26
1.0
Coconut
Cottonseed
46.5
Jatropha oil
0.1
22:1
18:2
0.00
55.53
40.5
10.1
0.2
0.00
0.00
0.00
64.40
0.00
22.30
8.23
11.38
2.39
1.32
2.52
1.23
48.28
0.00
31.95
0.93
9.8
3.0
28.33
0.89
0.00
0.00
0.00
6.9
2.2
13.27
0.00
57.51
0.00
6.08
3.26
0.00
0.00
0.00
16.93
0.00
73.73
0.00
11.67
1.85
0.24
0.00
0.00
25.16
0.00
60.60
0.48
14.115.3
3.79.8
2.09
0.80
1.12
34.345.8
0.3
6.85
Hazelnut
4.9
2.6
81.4
75.4
10.0
5.15
22.17
56.12
14.6
12.26
Poppy seed
58.51
9.00
0.70
Olive oil
18.86
2944.2
2.07
0.1
6.31
4.5
Crambe
Tomato seed
18:3
0.85
Sunflower
Corn
18:1
3.49
19.2
0.1
24:0
42.8
Rapeseed
Peanut
22:0
10.5
2.77
12.6
4.0
22.3
60.2
Lard
0.1
1.4
23.6
14.2
44.2
10.7
0.4
Tallow
0.1
2.8
23.3
19.4
42.4
2.9
0.9
Table 3. Physical and thermal properties of common vegetable oils/fats.8,22,30,33,35,39,40

Vegetable
oil
Corn
Kinematic
viscositya
Cetane
no.
Heating
value
(MJ/kg)
Cloud
point
(0C)
Pour
point
(0C)
Flash
point
(0C)
Density
(Kg/l)
Carbon
residue
(wt%)
Ash
(wt%)
Sulfur
(wt%)
34.9
37.60
39.50
1.1
40.0
277
0.9095
0.24
0.010
0.01
45
39.07
91
41
229 4
0.9186
0.440.64
0.03
0.0
Jatropha oil
35.98 1.3
Cottonseed
33.5
41.8
39.5
1.7
15.0
234
0.9148
0.24
0.010
0.01
Cramble
53.6
44.6
40.5
10.0
12.2
274
0.9044
0.23
0.050
0.01
Linseed
22.2
34.6
39.3
1.7
15.0
241
0.9236
0.22
<0.01
0.01
Peanut
39.6
41.8
49.8
12.8
6.7
271
0.9026
0.24
0.005
0.01
Rapeseed
37.0
37.6
39.7
3.9
31.7
246
0.9115
0.30
0.054
0.01
Safflower
31.3
41.3
39.5
18.3
6.7
260
0.9144
0.25
0.006
0.01
H.O. safflower
41.2
49.1
39.5
12.2
20.6
293
0.9021
0.24
<0.001
0.02
Sesame
35.5
40.2
39.3
3.9
9.4
260
0.9133
0.25
<0.01
0.01
Soybean
32.6
37.9
39.6
3.9
12.2
254
0.9138
0.27
<0.01
0.01
Sunflower
33.9
37.1
39.6
7.2
15.0
274
0.9161
0.23
<0.01
0.01
Opium poppy oil
56.1b
38.9
0.9210
Palm
39.6
42.0
31.0
267
0.9180
Jojoba oil
25.5
292
0.8640
Babassu
30.3
38.0
20.0
150
0.9460
40.0
201
6.21
Tallow
a
at 400C.
at 270C.
160
42.76
0.014
Table 4. Names and chemical structure of common fatty acids found in vegetable oils.29,37
Common name
Chemical name
Shorthand
Molecular formula
Lauric
Dodecanoic
12:0
C12H24O2
Myristic
Tetradecanoic
14:0
C14H28O2
Palmitic
Hexadecanoic
16:0
C16H32O2
Stearic
Octadecanoic
18:0
C18H36O2
Arachidic
Eicosanoic
20:0
C20H40O2
Behenic
Docosanoic
22:0
C22H44O2
Lignoceric
Tetracosanoic
24:0
C24H48O2
Oleic
cis-9-Octadecenoic
18:1
C18H34O2
Linoleic
cis-9,cis-12-Octadecadienoic
18:2
C18H32O2
Linolenic
cis-9,cis-l2,cis-15-Octadecatrienoic
18:3
C18H30O2
Erucic
cis-13-Docosenoic
22:1
C32H42O2
Table 5. Properties and composition of crude beef

tallow.31
Characteristics
Iodine number
Saponification number
Value
3548
193202
Titer, C
4046
Wiley melting point, C
4750
Fatty acid composition, wt.%

Myristic
28
Palmitic
2437
Stearic
1429
Oleic
4050
Linoleic
15
Glyceride composition, mole%

Total S3
1528
Total S2U
4652
Total SU2
22037
Total U3
02
Caterpillar Brazil, in 1980.43 A blend of 20% vegetable oil

and 80% diesel fuel was successful. Some short-term experiments used up to a 50/50 ratio.5
Different types of feedstock and blends
A good number of engine tests took place with different
types of feedstocks and different types of blends. The most
common vegetable oils like soybean oil, rapeseed, sunflower,
palm oil etc., and more uncommon oils like neem oil,
karanji, rice bran, Deccan hemp oil etc., have been discussed
in here. As complete coverage is not possible in a single
paper, some representative studies are given.
Barsic and Humke44 conducted experiments using 100%
sunflower oil, 100% peanut oil, 50% of sunflower oil with
diesel and 50% of peanut oil with diesel. A comparison of
the engine performance showed that there was an increase
in power and emissions.
Fort and Blumberg45 made short- and long-term (200 h)
engine performance and emission tests using eight different
fuel samples. They used 2D diesel fuel; 30% cottonseed oil,
70% 2D diesel fuel (by volume); 50% cottonseed oil, 50%
2D diesel fuel; 65% cottonseed oil, 35% 2D diesel fuel; 80%
cottonseed oil, 20% 2D diesel fuel; 50% cottonseed oil, 50%
transesterified cottonseed oil; 50% transesterified cottonseed
oil; 50% 2D diesel fuel; and 100% cottonseed methyl ester.
These experiments concluded that short-term results had
been more desirable than long-term results. Long-term tests
showed carbon deposits, ash and wear in the combustion
chamber and sticky gum content in fuel-line elements.
Geyer et al.,46 conducted trials on a certified diesel fuel,
cottonseed oil, sunflower seed oil, methyl ester of cottonseed
oil, and methyl ester of sunflower seed oil. They compared
the engine performance and emission characteristics and
reported slight improvements in thermal efficiency and
higher exhaust gas temperatures when operating on vegetable oils; equal or higher gas-phase emissions with vegetable
oils; and significantly higher aldehyde emissions, including
an increased percentage of formaldehyde.
161
Adams et al.,47 conducted long-duration (600 h) testing

with mixtures of degummed soybean oil and No. 2 diesel
fuel in the ratios of 1:2 and 1:1 for engine performance and
crankcase lubricant viscosity in a John Deere 6-cylinder, 6.6
L displacement, direct-injection, turbocharged engine. The
lubricating oil thickening and potential gelling existed with
the 1:1 blend, but it did not occur with the 1:2 blend. The
results indicated that 1:2 blend should be suitable as a fuel
for agricultural equipment.
Winter rapeseed oil as a diesel fuel was studied because of
its high yield and oil content (45%).48 The viscosities of 50/50
and 70/30 blends of winter rapeseed oil and diesel and whole
winter rape oil were much higher (618 times) than No. 2
diesel. A blend of 70/30 winter rapeseed oil and No. 1 diesel
was used successfully to power a small single-cylinder diesel
engine for 850 h. No adverse wear and no effects on lubricating oil or power output were noted.
Senthil Kumar et al.,49 used preheated animal fat with
fuel inlet temperatures of 30, 40, 50, 60 and 70 C to run
a Lister Petter-TS 1 single-cylinder direct-injection diesel
engine with rated power of 2.8 kW at 1500 rpm. Preheated
animal fat showed reduced ignition delay and combustion
duration and a rise in peak pressure. Preheated animal fat
resulted in lower smoke emissions than diesel. HC and CO
emissions were higher with animal fat at low temperatures
as compared to diesel. Fuel preheating reduced these emissions. They concluded that the preheating of animal fat can
be helpful to use in diesel engine.
Engler et al.,50 found negative results with crude,
degummed and degummed-dewaxed sunflower oils, as well
as crude, degummed and alkali-refined cottonseed oils,
when used in a single-cylinder, indirect-injection engine
with a precombustion chamber. Crude oils showed very
poor performance and were considered unsuitable for use
as alternative fuel. The processed oils, though slightly better
than crude oils, were not suitable for use as alternative fuels
because of carbon deposits and lubricating oil fouling, even
though they performed satisfactorily for a short time.
Msipa et al.,51 developed a model and used it to evaluate
soybean oil/diesel and sunflower oil/diesel blends. At 85oC,
viscosities and surface tensions were measured. The data
were used in a model to predict permissible concentrations
of vegetable oil in blends with No. 2 diesel fuel. The model
162
predicted that allowable concentrations ranged from zero to

34% depending on injection parameters.
Ziejewski et al.,52 blended sunflower oil and diesel in 25/75
(v/v) ratio and found that the viscosity was 4.88 cSt at 40C,
while the maximum specified ASTM value was 4.0 cSt at
40C. This fuel was considered not suitable for long-term use
in a direct-injection engine.
Bagby53 studied fuel injection characteristics of four
vegetable oils soybean, sunflower, cottonseed, and peanut
in inert nitrogen atmosphere at 480C and 4.1 MPa. It
was reported that injection and atomization characteristics of vegetable oils were markedly different from those of
petroleum-derived diesel fuels. Heating the vegetable oils to
lower their viscosities increased the spray-penetration rate,
reduced spray-cone angles, and resulted in spray characteristics resembling those of diesel fuel.
Schlick et al.,54 evaluated the performance of a direct
injection 2.59 L, 3 cylinder 2600 series Ford diesel engine
operating on mechanically expelled unrefined soybean oil
and sunflower oil blended with No. 2 diesel on a 25:75 v/v
basis. The power remained constant throughout 200 h of
operation. Engine torque values with mixtures were found to
be greater than with pure diesel operation. Excessive carbon
deposits on all combustion chamber parts precludes the use
of these fuel blends, at least in this engine under the specified Engine Manufacturers Association (EMA) operating
conditions.
Experiments were conducted on naturally aspirated
exhaust gas turbocharged air-cooled and water-cooled
engines using rapeseed oil.55 It was concluded that the
physical and chemical properties of rapeseed oil as a fuel are
very similar to those of diesel fuel, and on a long-term basis,
it can be used in diesel engines. It has been reported that
the brake power and torque using rapeseed oil as fuel are
2% lower than that of diesel. The heat release rate was very
similar for both fuels. With all the engines tested, maximum
brake power was obtained with rapeseed oil. Also, lower
mechanical stresses and lower combustion noise were
observed. The emission of CO and HC are higher, whereas
NOx and particulate emission were lower in comparison
with diesel fuel.
Mariusz and Goettler56 conducted experiments on
sunflower oil and recommended incorporating a dual fuel
preheater for durability improvements of diesel engines. The

durability of the engine increased through the prevention
of engine operation at low-load and low-speed conditions,
reduced exposure time of fuel injection systems at very high
temperature conditions during transition process from high
to light loads, and eliminated exposure of the fuel injection
system to sunflower oil during the shut-down period.
Dhinagar et al.,57 tested neem oil, rice bran oil and karanji
oil on a low heat rejection engine. An electric heater was
used to heat the oil. The exhaust gas was also utilized for
heating the oil. Without heating, 14% lower efficiency was
reported compared to that of diesel. However, with heating,
the efficiency was improved.
Tests were conducted on direct-injection diesel engine for
its performance and emission characteristics analysis for a
fuel mixture of 30% ethanol, 15% rapeseed oil with diesel
by Czerwinski.58 The same emissions as those of diesel fuel
have been reported but with 15% reduced power output.
Nwafor and Rice59 tested the comparative performance
of three blends of rapeseed oil with diesel, neat rapeseed oil
and neat diesel. There were no significant problems with
engine operation using these alternative fuels. The test
results showed increases in brake thermal efficiency as the
amount of rapeseed oil in the blends increases. Reduction
of power-output was also noted with an increased amount
of rapeseed oil in the blends. Test results include data on
performance and gaseous emissions. Crankcase oil analyses
showed a reduction in viscosity. Friction power was noted to
increase as the amount of diesel fuel in the blend increased.
Rosa 60 used sunflower oil to run the engine and reported
that it performed well. The performance and exhaust emission of a turbocharged DI tractor diesel engine running on
cold-pressed mustard seed oil (MSO) as fuel are examined.
A smooth operation was reported with good stability. The
engine produced an almost equal brake torque both on the
vegetable oils and the reference diesel fuel oil. A maximum
brake mean effective pressure of around 10.7 was measured with MSO. The tested vegetable oils produced reduced
exhaust smoke and NOx emissions. CO emissions increased
at low loads, but decreased at high load.61
Karaosmanoglu et al.,62 performed long-term engine tests
of sunflower oil. Engine tests were conducted at a speed of
1600 rpm under part load condition for 50 h with a single-
cylinder direct-injection, air-cooled diesel engine, having

a bore/stroke ratio of 108:110 mm. An overall evaluation of
results indicates that sunflower oil can be considered as a
possible substitute of diesel fuel.
Masjuki et al.,63 performed dynamometer tests to evaluate
the performance, emission and wear characteristics of
an indirect-diesel engine fuelled by blends of coconut oil
and diesel fuel. Results showed that 1030% coconut oil
blends produced a slightly higher performance in terms of
brake power than that of diesel. All the coconut oil blends
produced lower exhaust emissions including polycyclic
aromatic HC and particulate matter. The wear and lubricating oil characteristics results showed that coconut oil
blends up to 30% produced similar results to that of diesel.
Nwafor9 investigated the emission characteristics
of neat rapeseed oil and its blend with diesel fuel in a
single-cylinder unmodified diesel engine. Tests were also
conducted on pure diesel fuel to make a comparative assessment. Test results showed reduced HC emissions when
running on biofuels. The CO production was higher when
running on biofuel at high engine speed and was significantly reduced at low-speed operations. The CO2 emissions
were similar for all fuels. The analyses of lubrication oil after
the runs on plant fuels showed a net reduction in viscosity.
The effects of coconut oil as a diesel fuel alternative or as
a direct fuel blend are investigated using a single-cylinder,
direct-injection diesel engine.64 The spray characteristics in
terms of the mean droplet diameter of these fuels were measured with a phase Doppler Anemometer. Operation of the
test engine with the pure coconut oil and coconut oil/diesel
fuel blends for a wide range of engine operating conditions
was shown to be successful even without any engine modification. Results show that neat coconut oil fuels gave lower
smoke and NOx emissions.
Senthil Kumar et al.,65 conducted experiments by blending
jatropha oil with diesel. It has been reported that exhaust
gas temperature, smoke, HC and CO are higher compared to
diesel.
Deshpande66 used blends of linseed oil and diesel to run the
CI engine. Minimum smoke and maximum brake thermal
efficiency were reported in this study. De Almeida et al.,67
tested the performance of a naturally aspirated MWM 229
direct-injection four-stroke 70 kW diesel-generator fuelled
163
with 100% palm oil. The high viscosity of palm oil resulted
in poor atomization, carbon deposits, clogging of fuel lines
and starting difficulties in low temperatures. When heated at
100C, palm oil presented lower viscosity, better combustion
and fewer deposits.
Dorado et al.,68 determined the feasibility of running
a 10% waste vegetable oil-90% diesel fuel blend during a
500-h period in a three-cylinder direct-injection, 2.5L diesel
engine and found an approximately 12% power loss, a slight
fuel-consumption increase, and normal smoke emissions.
Combustion efficiency dropped slightly during the testing
period. It can be concluded from that study that the diesel
engine, without any modifications, ran successfully on a blend
of 10% waste oil and 90% diesel fuel without apparent external
damage to the engine parts. Nevertheless, it appears that the
long-term use of waste oil blended with diesel fuel may need
further testing before use as a viable energy solution.
Ghormade et al.,69 used soybean oil as fuel to run a
compression ignition engine. There was no improvement
in brake-specific fuel consumption by blending. It was also
reported that there was only a slight variation in part load
efficiency.
Unmodified waste cooking oil collected from the noodle
industry has been tested by Yu et al.70 The experimental
results indicated that combustion characteristics were generally similar to those of diesel. The energy released at the
late combustion phase was higher, which was due to heavier
molecular weight materials present in the waste cooking oil.
The engine performance was similar to that of diesel fuel.
Negative emission results for waste cooking oil have been
reported for CO, NOx and SOx in comparison to that of
diesel. At high temperatures, tar-like substances were found
to be depositing in the combustion chamber.
Silvico et al.,71 used heated palm oil as the fuel in a diesel
generator. Studies revealed that exhaust gas temperature and
specific fuel consumption were increased with an increase
in charge percentage. The CO emission was increased with
the increase of load. Palm oil NOx emissions were lower
compared to the diesel fuel. They also reported that a diesel
generator can be adapted to run with heated palm oil and
would give better performance.
Senthil Kumar et al.,35 made an experimental comparison
of methods to use methanol and jatropha oil in a CI engine,
164
running at constant speed of 1500 rpm at varying power

outputs. It has been reported that the values of smoke emission are 4.4 Bosch Smoke Units (BSU) with neat jatropha oil,
4.1 BSU with the blend, 4 BSU with methyl ester of jatropha
oil and 3.5 BSU in the dual fuel operation. Jatropha oil
produced lower nitric oxide levels in comparison to diesel.
It was further reduced in dual fuel operation and the blend
with methanol. Dual fuel operation showed higher HC and
CO emissions than the ester and the blend. Ignition delay
was higher with neat jatropha oil. It increased further with
the blend, dual fuel operation and reduced with the ester.
He and Bao72 studied the means of raising the thermal
efficiency of mixed oil composed of rapeseed oil and conventional diesel oil and for improving the performance of an
engine fuelled by the mixture. The experimental results
obtained showed that a mixing ratio of 30% rapeseed oil and
70% diesel oil was practically optimal in ensuring relatively
high thermal efficiency of the engine as well as homogeneity
and stability of the oil mixture.
A blend of 20% vegetable oil and 80% mineral diesel was
successfully tested.8,43 Some short-term experiments used
up to a 50/50 ratio.5 Pramanik et al.,20 found that a 50%
blend of jatropha oil can be used in diesel engines without
any major operational difficulties but further study was also
recommended for the long-term durability of the engine.
Nwafor73 showed that preheating rapeseed oil increased
peak cylinder pressure and was also beneficial at low speed
and under part-load operation. The high combustion
temperature at high engine speed becomes the dominant
factor, making both heated and unheated fuel acquire the
same temperature before fuel injection. Nwafor74 further
confirmed the effect of reducing viscosity by increasing the
inlet temperature of rapeseed oil on combustion and the
emission characteristics of diesel engine. The test results
showed that the CO production with heated fuel is a little
higher than the diesel fuel at higher loading conditions. The
CO concentrations in the exhaust were higher for unheated
oil operation compared to other fuels. The heated oil showed
a marginal increase in CO2 emissions compared to diesel
fuel. The HC emissions were significantly reduced when
running on plant oils. A small increase in fuel consumption
was reported when running on plant fuel. The ignition delay
was longer for unheated plant-fuel operation.
Hebbal et al.,75 studied the performance characteristics

of a diesel engine with Deccan hemp oil. The viscosity of
Deccan hemp oil is reduced first by blending with diesel
in 25/75%, 50/50%, 75/25%, 100/0% on a volume basis. The
performance and emission characteristics of blends are evaluated at variable loads of 0.37, 0.92, 1.48, 2.03, 2.58, 3.13 and
3.68 kW at a constant rated speed of 1500 rpm and results
are compared with diesel. Thermal efficiency, brake-specific
fuel consumption, and brake-specific energy consumption
compared well with diesel, and emissions were a little higher
for 25% and 50% blends. At rated load, smoke, CO and
unburnt HC emissions of 50% blend were higher compared
with diesel by 51.74%, 71.42% and 33.3%, respectively. They
concluded that blends of up to 25% Deccan hemp oil without
heating and up to 50% with preheating can be substituted
for diesel without any engine modification.
Wang et al.,76 evaluated the performance and gaseous
emission characteristics of a diesel engine when fuelled with
vegetable oil and its blends of 25%, 50%, and 75% of vegetable oil with ordinary diesel fuel separately. The engine was
operated at a fi xed speed of 1500 rpm, but at different loads
respectively, i.e. 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of engine full
loads. They reported that the basic engine performance,
power output and fuel consumption are comparable to diesel
when fuelled with vegetable oil and its blends. The emission
of NOx from vegetable oil and its blends were lower than
that of pure diesel fuel.
Distortion of the speed characteristics of a distributor fuelinjection pump with a maximum-minimum speed mechanical governor when using sunflower oil/diesel oil blends has
been observed by Bannikov et al.77 A diesel engine fuelled by
a viscous blend could not develop its rated power. After fuel
delivery was increased to retain the rated power, the engine
was over fuelled at lower speeds and the smoke limit was
exceeded. Readjusting the pump governor and changing the
hydraulic characteristics of the fuel delivery system could be
a potential solution.
Narayana Reddy and Ramesh22 studied the performance of a single-cylinder, constant-speed, direct-injection
diesel engine, operated on neat jatropha oil. Advancing the
injection timing from the base diesel value and raising the
injector opening pressure increased the brake thermal efficiency and reduced HC and smoke emissions significantly.
Retardation of injection timing with enhanced injection

rate significantly improved performance and emissions;
the emissions with jatropha oil were even lower than diesel.
At full output, the HC emission level was 532 ppm with
jatropha oil as against 798 ppm with diesel. NOx level and
smoke with jatropha oil were, respectively 1162.5 ppm and 2
BSU while they are 1760 ppm and 2.7 BSU with diesel.
Morino and Morimune78 experimentally evaluated the
performance and exhaust emissions of a single cylinder,
four-stroke cycle, direct-injection diesel engine with no
modifications operating on gas oil, waste vegetable oils,
waste animal fat from restaurant grease and rice oil methyl
ester. The experimental results showed that the vegetable oil
and animal fat produced a lower amount of CO, smoke and
particulate matter at high load condition. Specially, animal
fat offers a measurable reduction in NOx concentration
compared to JIS # 2 gas oil, while at the same time lowering,
particulate matter and smoke at high load condition. The
usability of the fuel preheater to reduce the effect of the high
viscosity of animal fat, as well as the validity of application to a treatment process of the waste food oil, were also
discussed.
Summary of problems related to vegetable oil as an
engine fuel
In general, most researchers report that if raw vegetable
oils are used as diesel engine fuel, engine performance
decreases, CO and HC emissions increase and NOx emissions decrease.1,3,37,79 In Germany, 107 retrofitted tractors
were tested in a large-scale field test with regard to their
environmental soundness, endurance and field performance
when operated with rapeseed oil for a period of three years.
Only 63 of the 107 tractors (60%) completed the project
period without any or with very few disruptions.80 Direct
use of vegetable oil can lead to many problems (particularly
in direct-ignition engine) like coking and trumpet formation
on the injectors to such an extent that fuel atomization does
not occur properly or is even prevented as a result of plugged
orifices, carbon deposits, and oil ring sticking.81,82 Thickening or gelling of the lubricating oil may also occur due to
contamination by vegetable oils.3 Two severe problems associated with the use of vegetable oils as fuel are oil deterioration and incomplete combustion.48 High viscosity (about
165
1117 times higher than diesel fuel)83 and lower volatility of

vegetable oils and particularly animal fats lead to the formation of deposits in engines due to incomplete combustion
and incorrect vaporization characteristics.3,84,85 Because of
their unsaturation, vegetable oils are inherently more reactive than diesel fuels. Polyunsaturated fatty acids were very
susceptible to polymerization and gum formation caused
by oxidation during storage or by complex oxidative and
thermal polymerization at the higher temperature and pressure of combustion.48 The gum did not combust completely,
resulting in carbon deposits and the thickening of lubricating oil. Consequently, these effects lead to deposits on the
injector, forming a fi lm that will continue to trap fuel and
which can interfere with combustion.86,87 Use of vegetable
oils in unmodified diesel engines leads to reduced thermal
efficiency and increased smoke levels.35,88 These problems
are associated with large triacylglycerol molecules and its
higher molecular mass and can be avoided by modifying the
engine less or more according to the conditions of use and
the oil involved. Micro-emulsification, pyrolysis and transesterification are the remedies used to solve the problems
encountered due to high fuel viscosity.5,39 Similar problems

have been found in cases of animal fat primarily because of
high viscosity and poor volatility. The probable reasons for
the problems and the potential solutions of using vegetable
oil as fuel are shown in Table 6.5,89
Studies to solve the problems of vegetable oil as
engine fuel
Numerous studies took place to solve the problems associated with the direct use of vegetable oil as an IC engine fuel.
Available literature shows that researchers tried many means
like preheating, emulsification, blending etc., to improve
the performance of vegetable oil as an IC engine fuel. Some
representative discussions of the studies on this subject are
presented here.
Anon90 experimented with fi lters, used frying oil as fuel
in a diesel engine. Used cooking oil and a blend of 95% used
cooking oil/5% diesel fuel were tested in a diesel fleet. The
problem of cooler ambient temperatures was compensated
by blending or preheating. There were no coking and carbon
build-up problems. The key was suggested to be fi ltering and
Table 6. Summary of problems of using vegetable oils as fuel in diesel engine.5,89

Problem
Probable cause
Potential solution
1. Cold weather starting
High viscosity, low cetane, and low flash point of

vegetable oils
Preheat fuel prior to injection. Chemically alter fuel to

an ester
2. Plugging and gumming of

filters, lines and injectors
Natural gums (phosphatides) in vegetable oil.

Other ash.
Partially refine the oil to remove gums. Filter to

4-microns.
3. Engine knocking
Very low cetane of some oils. Improper injection

Timing.
Adjust injection timing. Use higher compression

engines. Preheat fuel prior to injection. Chemically alter
fuel to an ester.
4. Coking of injectors on piston

and head of engine
High viscosity of vegetable oil, incomplete

combustion of fuel. Poor combustion at part
load with vegetable oils.
Heat fuel prior to injection. Switch engine to diesel

fuel when operations at part load. Chemically alter the
vegetable oil to an ester
5. Carbon deposits on piston

and head of engine

load with vegetable oils.

fuel when operations at part load. Chemically alter the
vegetable oil to an ester.
6. Excessive engine wear

load with vegetable oils. Possibly free fatty acids
in vegetable oil. Dilution of engine lubricating oil
due to blow-by of vegetable oil.

fuel when operation at part loads. Chemically alter the
vegetable oil to an ester. Increase motor oil changes.
Motor oil additives to inhibit oxidation.
7. Failure of engine lubricating

oil due to polymerization.
Collection of polyunsaturated vegetable oil

blow-by in crankcase to the point where
polymerization occurs.

fuel when operation at part load. Chemically alter the
vegetable oil to an ester. Increase motor oil changes.
Motor oil additives to inhibit oxidation.
Short-term
Long-term
166
the only problem reported was lubricating oil contamination. The lubricating oil had to be changed every 4,000
4,500 miles.5
Kerihuel et al.,91 studied the means to improve the
combustion of low-quality animal fat by making stable
emulsions with water. Animal fat emulsions and microemulsions were prepared by mixing the fat with water,
surfactant (SPAN 83 or sorbitan sesquioleate) and cosurfactant (ethanol). According to the stability, structure,
viscosity, fat content and economical aspects, the optimum
emulsion was found at 36.4% ethanol, 3.6% SPAN 83, 10%
water and 50% animal fat by volume.
Senthil kumar et al.,92 studied preheating at 70C and
emulsification with methanol and ethanol as potential solutions to the problems of using animal fat in diesel engines.
Emulsification is a simple process and needs no modification in the engine design. Improvement in the maximum
rate of pressure rise and cylinder peak pressure took place
with preheating and emulsions. Improved heat-release rates
were achieved with all the methods compared to neat fats. At
peak power output, the smoke level was 0.89 m1 with methanol, 0.28 m1 with ethanol emulsions, and 1.7 m1 with fat
preheating, whereas it was 3.7 m1 with neat fat and 6.3 m1
with neat diesel. Significant reduction of NO emissions due
to the vaporization of water and alcohols took place with
methanol and ethanol emulsions; however NO increased
with fat preheating due to high in-cylinder temperature.
They concluded finally that emulsification with animal fat
was the best solution.
Nwafor93 evaluated the effect of elevating fuel-inlet
temperature on viscosity and the performance of rapeseed
oil in a modern, unmodified diesel engine under part-load
test conditions. The overall test results showed that fuel
heating improved the combustion characteristics of rapeseed
oil fuel. The brake-specific fuel consumption was reduced
and brake thermal efficiency was significantly increased
compared to the baseline test on diesel fuel. For the threequarter-load operation, the high combustion temperature
became the dominant factor in the performance of plant oil
fuels, making both heated and unheated fuel acquire the
same system temperature before fuel injection. The combustion chamber was free of abnormal carbon deposit, though
the lubricating oil test showed a reduction in viscosity.
Experiments were conducted to evaluate the performance

while using small quantities of hydrogen in a compression-ignition engine primarily fuelled with a vegetable oil,
namely jatropha oil. Results indicated an increase in the
brake thermal efficiency from 27.3% to a maximum of 29.3%
at 7% of hydrogen mass share at maximum power output.
Smoke was reduced from 4.4 to 3.7 BSU at the best efficiency
point. There was also a reduction in HC and CO emissions
from 130 to 100 ppm and 0.260.17% by volume respectively
at maximum power output, indicating better combustion of
the fuel.94
Alternative fuels, like vegetable oils have been noted
to exhibit longer delay periods and slower burning rates
especially at low-load operating conditions resulting in
late combustion in the expansion stroke. Advanced injection timing is expected to compensate for these effects. The
effect of advancing the injection timing for neat rapeseed oil
has been studied by Nwafor et al.95 The injection was first
advanced by 5.5 given an injection timing of 35.5 BTDC.
The engine performance was very erratic on this timing.
The injection was then advanced by 3.5 and the effects
were noted. The engine performance was smooth especially
at low load levels. The ignition delay was reduced through
advanced injection but tended to incur a slight increase in
fuel consumption. Moderate advanced injection timing is
recommended for low-speed operations. In another experiment with neat vegetable oil, Nwafor96 found that the lowest
CO and CO2 emissions were obtained with the advanced
injection unit. The HC emissions of the engine running on
vegetable oil fuels were significantly reduced compared to
the test results on baseline diesel fuel. The advanced injection system showed a slight increase in fuel consumption.
The exhaust temperatures were high and the delay period
was reduced with the advanced injection unit.
The induction of small quantities of hydrogen can significantly enhance the performance of a vegetable oil (jatropha)/
diesel-fuelled diesel engine as reported by Senthil Kumar
et al.97 Preheated vegetable oils showed similar performance
to diesel with increased peak pressure and reduced ignition
delay when compared to the straight vegetable oils.44,98
Samaga99 experimented with sunflower oil and groundnut
oil. The performance characteristics obtained were comparable to those of diesel. He suggested some remedies to the
167
practical problems encountered in the dual fuel operation of

IC engines. Periodic cleaning of the nozzle tip is necessary to
ensure adequate spray characteristics. Starting and stopping
with diesel oil while running with vegetable oil eliminates
fi lter clogging.
Forson et al.,100 tested a single-cylinder, direct-injection
engine operating on diesel fuel, jatropha oil, and blends
of diesel and jatropha oil in proportions of 97.4%/2.6%;
80%/20%; and 50%/50% by volume. CO2 emissions were
similar for all fuels, the 97.4% diesel/2.6% jatropha fuel
blend was observed to be the lower net contributor to the
atmospheric level. The trend of CO emissions was similar
for the fuels but diesel fuel showed slightly lower emissions
to the atmosphere. The test showed that jatropha oil could
be conveniently used as a diesel substitute in a diesel engine.
The test further showed increases in brake thermal efficiency, brake power and reduction of specific fuel consumption for jatropha oil and its blends with diesel generally.
The most significant conclusion from the study is that the
97.4% diesel/2.6% jatropha fuel blend produced maximum
values of brake power and brake thermal efficiency as
well as minimum values of specific fuel consumption. The
97.4%/2.6% fuel blend yielded the highest cetane number
and even better engine performance than the diesel fuel,
suggesting that jatropha oil can be used as an ignition-accelerator additive for diesel fuel.
Goodrum and Eiteman101 and Geller et al.,102 have
studied the properties of low molecular weight and biologically modified vegetable oils for use in diesel engines.103
Biological modification of vegetable oils may allow their
direct use as diesel fuel without any problem by reducing
their viscosity.101 Such modifications would result in an
increase in the levels of lower molecular weight, short-chain
triacylglycerols (6 : 010 : 0) and a following decrease in
the levels of the higher molecular weight medium to long
chain triacylglycerols (12 : 018 : 0). Cuphea viscosissima, a
plant species with this type of property, has created interest
among scientists. Random mutagenesis of this plant species
has produced mutants with elevated levels of short chain
triacylglycerols. VS-320, a mutant of this species, is a highly
potential candidate for ideal vegetable oil for fuel, since its
major composition constitutes the shortest chain of triacylglycerols- Tricaproin (6:0), Tricaprylin (8 : 0) and Tricaprin
168
(10:0). Development of such oil by genetic engineering can

be an effective and reliable source of alternative diesel fuel
without chemical modification.102
Geller et al., 102 did rapid screening, using a torque test
that accelerated the tendency of diesel fuels to coke fuel
injectors, of simulated Cuphea VS-320, Captex 355 vegetable
oils and diesel No. 2 (D2). Compositions of Cuphea VS-320
and its simulated analogues are presented in Table 7. The
results of the tests were evaluated using a computer vision
system for the rapid quantification of injector coking. No
significant difference was found in coke deposits from the
modified vegetable oil analogues than deposits from diesel
fuel. They claimed that the results of this study might be
used as a guide for future manipulation of oil biosynthesis in
plants.
Geller et al.,103 analytically studied the atomization characteristics of short chain triacylglycerols and a low molecular
weight vegetable oil (Cuphea VS-320) analogue in DI diesel
engines. They compared the atomization properties of short
chain triacylglycerols and Cuphea VS-320 analogue with that
of peanut oil, peanut oil methyl ester and D2. The low molecular weight triacylglycerols and simulated Cuphea oil exhibited atomization properties between those of D2 fuel and
peanut oil. They concluded that short chain oils and triacylglycerols could provide better fuel performance than traditional vegetable oils. Such analysis will help to determine the
Table 7. Composition of Cuphea VS-320 and its

simulated analogues.102
Triacylglycerol
Captex
355 (%)
Simulated
VS-320 (%)
VS-320
(%)
6:0
0.4
4.20
4.19
8:0
58.5
40.20
40.24
10:0
40.2
36.90
36.90
12:0
4.80
4.81
14:0
6.80
6.84
16:0
3.33
3.33
18:0
0.00
0.15
8:1
1.37
1.37
18:2
2.05
2.05
18:3
0.00
0.13
$ coded triacylglycerols (12:0 to 18:3) cumulatively constitute

0.9% of total Captex 355 composition.
effect of advances in biological modification of oilseeds on

atomization, and will shed more light on further research of
genetically engineered vegetable oils and/or biodiesels for use
as fuel alternatives in diesel engines.104
Higher levels of smoke formation are a problem in using
vegetable oil as fuel. Due to the heterogeneous nature of fuel
combustion, there is a wide distribution of fuel/air ratios
within the cylinder. Smoke emissions are attributed to either
fuel/air mixtures that are too lean to auto-ignite or to support
a propagating flame, or fuel/air mixtures that are too rich
to ignite.94 Soot formation mainly takes place in the fuelrich zone at high temperature and high pressure, especially
within the core region of each fuel spray, and is caused by
high temperature decomposition.105107 If the fuel is partially
oxygenated, it could reduce locally over-rich regions and
limit primary smoke formation.94 One alternative and
demonstrably effective way of reducing the emissions of
smoke and oxides of nitrogen is to emulsify the vegetable oil
fuel with a small proportion of water. This leads to improved
atomization and lower combustion-chamber temperatures.108
Rao and Rama Mohan109 studied the effect of supercharging on the performance of a direct-injection diesel
engine with the use of untreated cottonseed oil under
varying injection pressures (IPs). The performance of
the engine was evaluated in terms of brake-specific fuel
consumption, exhaust gas temperature and smoke density. It
was observed that when cottonseed oil is used as a fuel, there
is a reduction in brake-specific fuel consumption of about
15% when the engine is run at the recommended IP and
supercharging pressure of 0.4 bar (g) in comparison with the
engine operation run under naturally operated conditions.
The investigation revealed that cottonseed oil can be utilized
if supercharging is employed at the recommended IP of the
engine.
Vegetable oils offer the advantage of freely mixing with
alcohols and these blends can be used in the existing diesel
engines without modification. It is also a simple process. The
blending of vegetable oils with methanol results in significant improvement in their physical properties. Viscosity and
density are considerably reduced. Volatility is also improved.
Vegetable oils in varying proportions in the fuel blend were
tried by a number of investigators. Results obtained from the
experiments on a diesel engine using a blend of vegetable oil
and alcohol showed improved brake thermal efficiency and

reduced exhaust smoke emissions than with neat vegetable
oils.35,110,111 However, the maximum quantity of alcohol that
can be blended is limited by the presence of water in alcohol.
High quantities lead to separation as reported by Senthil
Kumar et al.35
Agarwal and Agarwal33 reduced viscosity of pure jatropha
oil by (i) preheating the oil (using waste heat of the exhaust
gases) and (ii) by blending the jatropha oil with diesel. They
found that heating the jatropha oil between 90C and 100C
was adequate to bring down the viscosity in close range to
diesel. Optimum fuel IP was found to be 200 bar for diesel
and preheated jatropha oil. In comparison to heated jatropha
oil and diesel, unheated jatropha oil showed negative results
in the cases of brake-specific fuel consumption, thermal
efficiency, CO2 , CO, HC and smoke opacity. Emissions were
found to be close to diesel for preheated jatropha oil. Emission parameters, such as smoke opacity, CO2 , CO and HC,
were found to have increased with increasing proportions
of jatropha oil in the blends compared to diesel. It can be
concluded that preheated jatropha can be directly used as
straight vegetable oil as a replacement for diesel fuel and
does not require any major modification in the engine.
Modified maintenance schedules, however, may be adopted
to control carbon deposits formed during long-term usage of
vegetable oils/blends.
Some real life solutions
Academic researchers as well as engineers from private fi rms
came out with some exciting real life solutions to using
straight vegetable oil (SVO) in IC engines. Some of the solutions are discussed here.
Beckett et al.,112 developed an SVO modification kit for a
diesel engine. Three areas of concern within the engine have
been identified: highly viscous fuel, variable load on the
engine, and the need to flush the engine of vegetable oil so
that there is no cold oil present in the combustion chamber
at start of subsequent runs. To deal with these issues, a
system has been developed with a fuel preheater controlled
by micro computer as the load changes, and a dual fuel-tank
system to allow toggling between diesel and vegetable oil.
The total cost for the system is below $300, and test of effects
of longevity of the engine are being preformed.
169
Engine modifications required for the direct use of

vegetable oil include dual fueling, injection system modification, heated fuel lines etc.39 The modified engines built
by Elsbett in Germany and Malaysia and Diesel Morten
und Geraetebau GmbH (DMS) in Germany and in the USA
show a good performance when fuelled with vegetable oils
of different composition and grades.3,30 Vemes GmbH of
Leipzig re-equips diesel engines to run on vegetable oil. In
Beam-Plus re-equipping technology, no engine adjustments
are made. The re-equipping needs a system for degassing
and heating the vegetable oil to 65C and a booster pump.24
Some commercial companies are manufacturing SVO kits
and claim to be efficient. WOLF Pflanzenltechnik, Vereinigte Werksttten fr Pflanzenltechnologie etc., have been
providing advanced single-tank SVO systems since the mid1990s.41 Commercially available two-tank SVO kits can be
a solution to direct use of vegetable oil in engine. Here, one
tank holds the vegetable oil and the other petrodiesel (or
biodiesel). The engine is started on the petrodiesel tank and
runs on petrodiesel for the first few minutes while the vegetable oil is heated to lower the viscosity. Fuel heaters are electrical or use the engine coolant as a heat source. When the
fuel reaches the required temperature, usually 7080 0C, the
engine is switched over to the second tank and runs on SVO.
Elsbett Technologie, Biodrive, BioCar, Greasel, Frybrid,
Smartveg, Aetra etc., commercially produce two-tank SVO
kits. Whatever their technical merits and shortcomings,
two-tank kits are better for longer-distance driving than for
short, stop-and-start trips. Some researchers claim that twotank SVO performs better at 150 0C.41
Injectors can be designed to give optimum performance
in a given engine running on a given fuel. The design of the
injector will affect its suitability to run vegetable oil. The
design of the nozzles can aid combustion and affect both
power and fuel consumption.113 Commercially available
Elsbett conversion kits include replacement nozzles. Studies
have shown that moving the injector into a higher position
in the combustion chamber can reduce NOX emissions.
Moving it above a certain amount increases other emissions
and greatly reduces performance. Altering the timing of the
injector pump to give a later fuel delivery also decreases NOX
emissions. These effects have been combined to reduce NOX
emissions by 75%. By doing this a power loss of up to 17%
can be expected at higher engine speeds.113,114 Injector pump
170
malfunctions have been found in engines running on vegetable oil. The most vulnerable type of pump is the rotary type
injector pump. These failures have been generally attributed
to the extra stresses due to pumping a more viscous fuel
and the impurities in waste oil. Adding an additional pump
to aid the transfer of oil from the fuel tank to the injector
pump and altering the tolerances within the injector pump
to provide operating pressures similar to that with diesel has
given good results.114 The lack of full-time engine warranties with the use of vegetable oil as a fuel was a concern for
customers. Progress in research is bringing some good news
for customers. Some companies like Deutz, which already
manufactures engines specially designed for operation with
100% RME biodiesel, simplifies farmer fuel requirements
still further with its Natural Fuel Engines fully guaranteed
for fuelling with crude, unprocessed vegetable oil of DIN EN
51605 standard. 115 It is expected that the competitive engine
market will witness more intense research, resulting in the
launch of more engines with full warranty.
The food vs fuel issue

The steep rise in food prices in recent years in concerning
policy-makers and has raised the old food vs fuel debate. It
is true that more and more cropland will be required to feed
the ever-increasing human population. According to the
International Energy Agency (IEA), scenarios developed for
the USA and the EU indicate that near-term targets of up to
6% displacement of petroleum fuels with biofuels are feasible
using conventional biofuels. A 5% displacement of diesel
requires 13% of USA cropland, 15% in the EU.116 About 14
million hectares of land are currently used for the production
of biofuels about 1% of the worlds available arable land.
This share is expected to rise to over 2.53.8% in 2030. The
future of vegetable oil as alternative fuel like any other biofuel
depends on biomass availability. This availability depends
on future food demand and diet pattern, other types of land
use and agricultural productivity. Analysis that takes these
factors into account suggests an emission reduction incentive of 80 USD/t CO2 as a cost-effective potential for new
primary biomass ranging from 50 to 100 EJ by 2050, with
roughly half being used for biofuels production.116,117 Ultimately, total food crop supply will determine the maximum
biofuel production capacity that can be achieved without
causing food shortages and higher food prices, which would

lead to increased poverty and hunger. The critical challenge
is not only to produce enough food to meet the increased
demand from the population increase and the expansion of
biofuel production, but to do so in an environmentally sound
manner. Achieving these dual objectives in a relatively short
time period will require a substantial increase in research
and extension with an explicit focus on increasing the rate
of gain in crop yields while protecting soil and water quality
and reducing GHG emissions.118 From this point of view,
it can be stated that depending on the entire socio-agricultural condition of any specific country, it is the duty of the
policy-makers to take decisions on judicious proportionate
diversification of cropland from food to fuel to have a proper
balance among them. Conservation and other alternative
carbon-neutral energy sources must be explored simultaneously which can ensure a sustainable balanced use of all these
renewable resources.
The following points may be proved to be important during
an assessment of the global potential for biofuel options:
P Potentials of biomass are enormous (approximately 100
EJ/year, but needs complex, sustainable, development and
a working international market).
P Availability of land for energy crops is a function of
population growth, economic development, global diet,
yield of energy crops on surplus agricultural area and
degraded land etc. So judicious selection of policy and
coordination among different sectors are required as
agriculture, trade, climate, energy and development are
mutually dependent on each other.116,119
Conclusions
The use of vegetable oil can lower any countrys dependence
on imported petroleum-based fuel.5 The use of SVOs needs
further R&D work to modify the engine and for development of on-farm processing technology.8 But the matter of
concern is that it will be expensive and time-consuming to
incorporate even a minor design alteration in the system
hardware of a large number of existing engines operating in
the rural agricultural sector of any country. 8
SVOs can probably only substitute a small to medium
portion of petroleum-based fuel due to future severe landusage competition from the food sector. This calls for an
intense research initiative for production of suitable fuel

from non-edible vegetable oil grown in waste land. In this
regard, genetic engineering may prove to be extremely effective to develop designer fuel, capable of meeting most of the
requirements.
The successful expression of a hydroxylase gene in a high
oleic canola variety led to improved lubricity property of
that oil.120 Similarly, to tackle the typical problems (like
poor atomization, high viscosity) associated with the direct
use of vegetable oil in engines, genetically engineered vegetable oils/oilseeds containing triacylglycerol with very short
carbon chain etc., can be highly potential solutions.
Stringent emission norms in developed countries and
future stringent emission regulations of developing countries
may limit the use of vegetable oil to special applications, for
example, stationary engines, agricultural application, offroad application etc., where regulations are relaxed.
More revolutionary commercial breakthroughs are
expected to come in the near future to exploit the immense
possibility of using vegetable oil directly as alternative
fuel. Private enterprise and government agencies should
adopt this new technology for future Green Fleets, as the
best way of ensuring the economic absorption of these
environmental gains through applying for tax incentives
and obtaining carbon credits through clean development
mechanism (CDM) projects. The current CDM portfolio
expects to generate more than 1.3 billion credits to 2012.116
This approach would work toward ensuring the feasibility
and possible introduction of this greener technology more
widely, ushering in an alternative that is more friendly to
mankind and the to environment.121
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Review

Direct use of vegetable oil and

insignificant today. But such oils may become in course of

P Mondal, M Basu, N Balasubramanian

vegetable oils were used as an alternative for diesel fuels

Review: Alternative fuel for IC engine

be also noted that Diesel engine exhaust (DEE) is classified

Selection of vegetable oil as alternative fuel

Review: Alternative fuel for IC engine

small amounts of fuel are consumed in every engine, the

They are renewable.

Vegetable oil combustion has cleaner emission spectra.

Some inedible vegetable oil species are more tolerant to

The production of vegetable oil is less energy intensive.

Vegetable oils have higher energy content than other

Their liquid nature is convenient for transport and

Because of their high heat content, which is close to 90%

Vegetable oils have a favorable output/input ratio of

They require simpler or no processing technology.

Vegetable oil fuels are pH neutral, contain no water, and

Depending on climate and soil conditions, different

P Mondal, M Basu, N Balasubramanian

have not been studied to the same extent as vegetable oils.

Production and prices of oil seed and

P Mondal, M Basu, N Balasubramanian

Review: Alternative fuel for IC engine

Oil seed priceb

Vegetable oil priceb

Veg. oil production, Mt

Figure. 1 World over production of vegetable oil.28

Properties of vegetable oil and animal fat

fatty acids and are commonly referred to as triacylglycerols

Vegetable oils, also known as triacylglycerols, comprise

that are made up of one mole of glycerol and three moles of

Review: Alternative fuel for IC engine

P Mondal, M Basu, N Balasubramanian

Soybean oil price,

Crude petroleum price,

Poly. (Crude petroleum)

Poly. (Soybean oil)

Figure. 2 Comparative trend of price of crude petroleum and soybean oil.27,28

the range of 3240. The iodine value ranges from 0 to 200

Stearic, palmitic, oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids are

Use of direct vegetable oil and animal fat

P Mondal, M Basu, N Balasubramanian

Review: Alternative fuel for IC engine

Table 2. Fatty acid composition of some vegetable oils/animal fats.2,5,34,35,36,37,38

Fatty acid composition, % by weight

Table 3. Physical and thermal properties of common vegetable oils/fats.8,22,30,33,35,39,40

Opium poppy oil

Review: Alternative fuel for IC engine

P Mondal, M Basu, N Balasubramanian

Table 5. Properties and composition of crude beef

Wiley melting point, C

Fatty acid composition, wt.%

Glyceride composition, mole%

Caterpillar Brazil, in 1980.43 A blend of 20% vegetable oil

P Mondal, M Basu, N Balasubramanian

Adams et al.,47 conducted long-duration (600 h) testing

Review: Alternative fuel for IC engine

predicted that allowable concentrations ranged from zero to

Review: Alternative fuel for IC engine

preheater for durability improvements of diesel engines. The