Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Engsg.

158 (1998) 235-254

ELSEWER

COmpUtlPlr
methods
in applDed
me&aNiGs and
engineering

A study on the instability problem for 3D frames

J-L,Meek*, Qiang Xue
Civil Engineering

Deparrment,

Received

The Universit)

19 August

1996;

of Queensland,

2. Lucia 4072, Aw?ralia

revised 15 May 1997

Abstract

Instead of the traditionat load-following process, this paper presents large deflection, post-buckling analysis of the threedimensional etastic frame from a dynamic point of view. A co-rotationat formulation combined with small deRection beam theory
with the inclusion of the effect of axial force is adopted. The pre-buckling anafysis employs the constant arc length method together
with the modified Newton-Raphson iteration method and the extrapolation technique to improve the convergence behaviour. As
the limit state being examined is passed, the previous converged solution is adopted to start the nonlinear dynamic analysis, based
on the average acceleration of the Newmark algorithm with a slow rate of load incrementation, to trace the load-deflection path
beyond the limit point. As a result, the snap-through problem is overcome without down loading. The ef6ciency of the damping
coefhcients on the control of dispiacement overshooting and vibration, which are the common phenomena using this procedure
under conventional structural damping, is also studied and appiied to all the numerical examples. This study is demonstrated by
application to typical three-dimensional frames which show snap-through behaviour in static analysis with any increment of load
after the Limit point. @ 1998 Elsevier Science S.A.

1. Introduction
A limit point corresponding to the primary path and a bi~~r~~~~~~
point corresp~~~ding to the secondary
path have been recognised as the critical state where the determinant of the tangent stiffness matrix
vanishes. However, the determinant criterion alone cannot distinguish a bifurcation point from a limit
point. The incremental work criterion [l] is found to be superior in order to trace both the primary and
secondary paths. In the presence of imperfection either in load or in geometry, a bifurcation point can be
degenerated into a limit point [2--G].The direction and location of the imperfection can be searched for
by the eigenvalue approach by Meek and Loganathan 151,or alternatively the energy method by Chan
(41.There is no static equilibrium state adjacent to the limit point if the external loading is continuously
increased. That is, any increase in the loading causes a sudden snap in the displacements. In order
to trace an adjacent load~~splacement
equ~I~~rium path, the convcnt~onal load following process has
been used for decades. However, this procedure is somewhat artificial and it does not tell us, whether
the solutions obtained correspond to the states at which the actual structure is coming to rest. It is of
interest to determine what happens to the structure if loading is continued beyond the limit point and if
an adjacent load-displacement
path can be traced without decreasing the load. A reliable way to solve
this particular problem is to simulate the dynamic behaviour of the structure as soon as it has reached
an unstable critical state. This was achieved previously by the authors for two-dimensional frames [BJ
Corresponding

author.

00457825/98/$19.00 @! 1998 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved

PII: SOO45-7825(98)00254-5

236

J.L. Meek, Q. Xue/Comput.

Methds

Appl.

Mech. Engrg. 158 (1998) 235-254

and in the present study for three-dimensional

frames by nonlinear
dynamic analysis [7-131 with a slow,
linear increase in load.
The co-rotational
formulation
[14-171 is employed in the present study. The non-vectorial
deformed
rotation quantities
have been successfully considered
by the use of Orans joint orientation
matrix [lg],
consisting
of a triad of orthogonal
unit vectors, to accommodate
the arbitrary large rotations by using
small linear increments.
The numerical
algorithm
used before the limit point is a linearised
incremental-iterative
technique.
The constant arc length method [19] 1s combined
with the modified Newton-Raphson
method with the
extrapolation
[17] technique to improve its convergence
behaviour.
After the limit point being examined
is passed, the previous converged solution is adopted to start the nonlinear
dynamic analysis. The implicit
Newmark
time integration
with the NR iteration
method is employed.
The time-integration
strategy
with average acceleration
(with p = l/4 and y = l/2) is well known as being unconditionally
stable
(irrespective
of the time step) for a linear problem.
For a nonlinear
problem,
a smaller time step is
required.

2. Formulation

strategy

In the present study, the members

are uniform
and have doubly symmetric
cross sections. Thus,
coupling
of the torsional
stiffness to the bending
and axial stiffnesses
is excluded,
and the warping
effect is neglected.
The external
loads are applied at the nodes. Only conservative
or displacement
independent
loading is considered.
The Euler-Bernoulli
hypothesis is assumed to be valid. That is, shear
deformations
are neglected and the material is assumed to be linearly elastic. In the derivation
of the
nonlinear
equations,
two types of coordinate
systems are employed; a fixed global set of coordinates
and
local body attached coordinates
which rotate and translate with the member (Fig. 1). The basic member
force-deformation
relations
are derived in the local coordinates
with member deformations
assumed
to be small relative to them. This formulation
of the equilibrium
equations
through the co-rotational
approach is thus applicable to the analysis of structures exhibiting
large rotation small strain behaviour
with rotations being accumulated
in small increments.
Linear interpolation
for the axial displacement
and cubic interpolation
for the lateral displacements
are employed
for the members
in each of their two principal
directions.
The nonlinear
effect of the
bending distortions
on the axial action is considered
to manifest itself as an axial change in length due
to the bowing of the beam. The lateral displacements
u and w in the directions x2 and xx, respectively,
may be expressed by
u=

(x,-y+;i)

0,3+

(-q+g)

0223

(2)
where 0,i, Hzj are the member rotations
at ends 1 and 2 about
member length. The axial change in length ub due to the bowing

LLb =

du

J (->

l/2

the xj axis, respectively,

and 1 is the
of the member is calculated as

SC >
2

dx, + l/2

hl

dx,

(3)
The axial load P is then given as
p=-

EAe
1

EA
+ 30

w,,

430223

+2@3,

m,',

42022

2fgJl

(4)

J.L. Meek, Q. Xue/Comput.

Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg. 158 (1998) 235-254

(a) Member basic displacements

(b) Member

intermediate

237

and forces

displacements

and forces

FlO
AS10

wi

A
/

F6

AS3

-x1

AS6
x3

(c) Member
Fig. 1. Member

nodal displacements
deformations

and forces

and associated

forces.

where e = u2 - ~1. The torsional stiffness reIationship is given by

A&, 0, and GJ are, respectively, the torsional moment, angle of twist and the torsional rigidity associated
with the member. The total potential energy !P is expressed as

J. 1.. Meek, Q. Xue/Comput.

~ Ml3013
=

y
-

(H,:,
Ml343

+ g

M23022.1 -

Ml242

+ 013 023 + Ht)

-

[(2q25

M23023
-

6363

M22&2

+ y2

Ml2012
+ 2g3)

Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg. 158 (1998) 235-254

+ P4,

(0122 + 012 022 + 6q2)

-

M22Q22

+ (q22

62022

(6)

+2&I

where I,, Mlj and M2j are the moment

of inertia, the moments
at ends
respectively.
Minimising
q, the expressions
for the moments are obtained

Mn=

(t;+rl:;il)
o13+ (T-3

1 and

2 about

the j axis,

023

and

(10)
Note that P, Mt, M13, M23, M12. M22 are the member
2.1. Incremental

stiffness

kll

22

k3.l .

AMu

ku

AM22
AM,

sym.

AP

axes.

by partial

k16

A@13

kxi

A823

k 36

A42

kc,

A022

differentiation

of Eqs. (4), (5) and

(11)

A&

Ae

Details of kij can

with respect to the
force/displacement
force/displacement
matrix since a large
is made of the joint
The tangent stiffness

2.2. Lumped

matrix K, is obtained
deformations.
Hence

.
k

AMa

to the local coordinate

matrix

The member incremental

stiffness
(7)-(10) with respect to the member

AMu

forces with respect

member
force and tangent
stiffness matrix
be referred
to in [17]. The element
can be obtained
by the transformation
from the member basic
global coordinates
to member
intermediate
force/displacement,
and from this to global nodal
(Fig. 1). As mentioned
above, attention
must be paid to the updated transformation
rotation of a joint in a space frame analysis cannot be treated as a vector. Here, use
orientation
matrix to account for the finite rotations.
Details can be found in [17].
matrix of the structure K is then obtained by standard assemblage.

ma.u matrix

In dynamic analysis, the following procedures

are used to evaluate the element mass matrix.
(1) Half the translational
mass of each element is apportioned
to each of its nodes.

J.L. Meek, Q. Xue/Comput.

Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg. 1.78 (1998) 235-254

239

(2) The mass moments

about xi, x2 and x3 axes are given by plfl? + 13), 1/12pA13 and 1/12pAi3,
respectively, and half is apportioned to each node.
The total mass M of the structure is then obtained by standard assemblage after transformation from
local axes to global.

The structure damping may be expressed by the Raleigh quotient

[20].

C=aM+flK

(12)

where LYand /3 are constants to be dete~ined

unequal frequencies of vibration.

from two given damping ratios that correspond

to two

3. Numerical algorithm
The numerical algorithm is similar to that used in [6]. However, Eq. (19) of [6] is not valid for the finite
rotations in the present three-dimensional
frame analysis because of their non-vectorial characteristic.
Again, use is made of the Orans joint orientation matrix in dynamic analysis already used in static
analysis. From Eq. (17) of 161, the small rotation increments with respect to the global X1,X, and
X3 axes, A&$ where i = 1,2,3, can be predicted. Then, the incremental rotation matrix for a joint is
expressed as

[hR]=

[~~~~

z3

Thus, the joint orientation

_~~~j

(13)

matrix [a] can be updated by

[a] = [a] + [ha] = [cr] + [A~][LY]

(14)

Hence, the translational displacements and the joint orientation matrix must be updated properly so as
to evaluate the updated tangent stiffness matrix correctly when using NR iteration method and updating
the final displacement vector.

4. Numerical examples

The Williams toggle frame shown in Fig. 2 has been studied previously by the authors in [6], where
the displacements are overshot by the inertia force and decay with the damping provided. It is used
here as the example to demonstrate the efficiency of the damping coefficient on the control of the
overshooting. A mass density p = 0.282 lb/in3 is used with a time step of 0.05 s and a load-increment rate
of 0.002632 lb per second. Several damping coefficients were tested. Firstly, C = 0.7579M + 0.000306K
where the coefficient is evaluated according to the first two lowest natural frequencies of the original
structure. Secondly, C = 0.1346M + 0.000364K where the coefficient is evaluated based on the frequency
of the structure around the limit state. The third trial uses C = O.lK. Finally, C = 21.255M is adopted.
The displacement versus load curve of the final case is depicted in Fig. 3. The results around the snapthrough point A in all the cases above are given in the figures in Table 1. It is found that dynamic
vibration exists in the first three cases and is absent in the last one. This shows how the displacement
overshoot can be numerically controlled by using a relatively large damping given in terms of the mass
only. The damping coefficient for the additional
examples have been chosen based on this result.

J.L. Meek, Q. Xue/Comput.

240

Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg. 158 (1998) 235-254

EA = 1.855

X 1061b

El = 9.27 X 1 031b=in2
Fig. 2. Geometry,

material

properties

00

01

11,

and load condition

04

DEFLECTION,

Fig. 3. Load-displacement

Table 1
Effection

of damping

C = 0.7579M

coefficient

+ 0.000306K

4.2. Clamped

shallow

on the control
C = 0.1346M

of displacements
+ 0.000364K

response

frame

,,I

03

02

of toggle

of the toggle

05

(I)

frame.

overshooting
C = O.tK

C = 21.255M

arch

Fig. 4 illustrates
a clamped shallow arch with a concentrated
load acting at its apex. A finite element
solution has been presented
by Hsiao [21] and Sandhu et al. [22]. The results of the present study are
obtained
by using two elements for half the arch. In the nonlinear
dynamic analysis, a mass density of
0.000078 N/mm3 is used and a Rayleigh damping of C = 15.0 M is applied to numerically
control the
overshoot.
The time step is 0.025 seconds. The load is increased linearly with the rate of 0.034897 N/s.

J.L. Meek, Q. Xue/Comput.

Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg. 158 (1998) 235-254

241

P
f

Y
1
d

k-_

a
-X

-I
L = 863.6mm

b = 25.4mm

a = 27.69mm

d = 14.99mm

R=3381.lmm

E = 6.895 X 104MPa

Fig. 4. Geometry,

material

property

and load condition

of the shallow

arch.

Fig. 5 indicates that by the current method, the adjacent displacement can be traced after the limit point
with the slow increment of load. The snap-through point A given by the usual load following process is
reached herein by the nonlinear dynamic analysis. The amplified figure around the snap-through point
is presented in Fig. 6 with a corresponding change of scale. Overshooting of the displacements from the
static equilibrium position is well controlled numerically by the large damping. The solution after the
snap-through point is almost identical to that obtained from the conventional nonlinear static analysis
using the down loading technique.

10

.
.

Present analysis
JSSandhu et al.

20

30

DEFLECTION, v(mm)
Fig. 5. Load-displacement

response

of the shallow

arch.

242

J. L. Meek, Q. Xue/Comput.

34 90

Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg. 158 (1998) 235-254

35 10

35 00

DEFLECTION,

Fig. 6. Enlarged

figure around

the snap-through

35 20

v(mm)

point A of the shallow

arch.

4.3. Two-hinged deep arch

The two-hinged deep arch depicted in Fig. 7 is studied with a concentrated load applied at its apex.
This problem has been treated extensively by Huddleston [23], Da Deppo and Schmit [24], Wood and
Zienkiewicz [2.5], Tan [17] and Loganathan [26]. The results from some of the literature are plotted in
Fig. 8. In this research, the structure is modeled with eight elements. It is found that this structure
exhibits multiple instability phenomena and imaginary roots occur in Eq. (10) of [19] when using the
arc length method. Better control can be achieved by reducing the arc length and the arbitrary external
load, or artificially suppressing the equilibrium iteration and simply using pure incrementation. The
buckling modes of the structure are characterised by two asymmetric modes, one out-of-plane and one
in-plane, and by a symmetric in-plane limit point. In the present analysis, all these modes have been
traced, the lowest of which being the out-of-plane asymmetric mode (Fig. 8). The imperfect approach
is used in which a small perturbing load is introduced to degenerate the bifurcation point problem into
a limit point problem so as to find the secondary path. The out-of-plane buckling is traced with a force
0.1 P in the 2 direction at the crown and the hinge supports rotate freely about the Z axis only. The
in-plane asymmetric buckling mode is found with a moment 0.00133 PL about the Z axis at the crown.
In the nonlinear dynamic analysis, a mass density of p = 0.282 lb/ in3 and a time step 0.1 s are used. The
Rayleigh damping of C = 3.0 M, C = 3.0 M and C = 5.0 M for the out-of-plane, in-plane asymmetric
and in-plane symmetric buckling modes, respectively, are applied. The corresponding load is increased
linearly with the rates of 0.00638 lb/s, 0.010505 lb/s and 0.01291 lb/s, respectively.

b__~

~~~
L = 160

Lo

thickness

R=looln
a=lo,n
Fig. 7. Geometry,

material

---I
t =1I
areaA=,
In2

E=lOX1061b/1n2

property

and load condition

of the deep arch

J. L. Meek, Q. Xue/Comput.

10

Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg. 158 (1998) 235-254

20

30

40

50

60

70

243

80

DEFLECTION,v(in)
Fig. 8. Load versus

the horizontal

displacement

of the deep arch.

The curves for load versus the vertical deflection of the different modes are drawn in Fig. 8. The
enlarged figures around the corresponding snap-through points are shown in Figs. 9, 10 and 11, respectively. The overall deformation histories of the arch under the different buckling modes are presented
in Figs. 12, 13 and 14, respectively, and the projections of Fig. 14 on XY and ZY planes are plotted in
Table 2. Results indicate that the unsymmetric buckling mode curves finally join the symmetric branch.
Overshooting of the displacements due to the inertia force is perfectly controlled numerically by the
damping for the two asymmetric buckling modes. With the current damping used, the displacement
overshoots only 0.37% from the snap-through point for the in-plane symmetric buckling mode.

zz1294.70

9
3
1294.65 -

1294.60 -

1294.55 -

83.0

83.1

83.2

83.3

83.4

DEFLECTION,v(in)

Fig. 9. Enlarged

figure

around

the snap-through

point A of the symmetric

mode.

244

J.L. Meek.

Q. Xue/Comput.

Methods

,,,*k ,

Appl.

Mech. Engrg. LS8 (1998) 2.75-254

,
82.5

82.0

83.0

DEFLECTION,v(in)

Fig. 10. Enlarged

figure around

the snap-through

point

B of the in-plane

asymmetric

mode.

640.6

640.4

640.2
____I
6400

6398

639.6

82.4

/I,

,/

82.5

82.6

82.7

OEFLECTION,v(in)

Fig. 11. Enlarged

figure around

-50

Fig. 12. The overall

deformation

the snap-through

point C of the out-of-plane

of the deep arch under

50

asymmetric

X(h)

the symmetric

buckling

mode

mode

J.L. Meek, Q. Xue/Comput.

Fig. 13. The overall

deformation

245

Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg. 158 (1998) 235-254

of the deep arch under

the in-plane

asymmetric

buckling

mode

, A(in)

k
Fig. 14. The overall

4.4. Star-shaped

shallow

deformation

Z(in)

of the deep arch under

the out-of-plane

asymmetric

buckling

mode.

dome

Fig. 15 shows a star-shaped

shallow dome with the supports assumed to be pinned and restrained
against translational
motion. This problem has been solved by Tan [17] and Kuo-mo Hsiao et al. [15]. In
this study, three load conditions
are applied: (a) a concentrated
load acting at the apex of the dome, (b)
all nodes loaded symmetrically
and (c) unsymmetrical
loading. The structure is modeled as 24 elements
for cases (a) and (c), and as 48 elements for case (b). In the nonlinear
dynamic analysis, a mass density
p = 0.00005 N/ mm3 is used with the damping coefficient
C = 3.0 M and the time step of 0.025 s. The

J.L. Meek, Q. Xue/Comput.

246
Table 2
The out-of-alane

asvmmetric

Projection

buckling

historv

Methods Appl. Mrch. Engrg. 1% (1998) 235-254

in XY and ZY okme

of Fig. 14 on XY plane

Projection

all dimensions

jY*

in mm

/
82.16

v20
A
7
_

Fig. 15. Geometry.

I_

250

25%. I

~_I_..
_, .

433

._
A_& x u _
4,
433

Area = 317 mm2

ix=0918X104mm4

ly=2377X104mm4

lr=0295X104mm4

E = 3.03

G=1.096X103N/mm~

material

of Fig. 14 cm ZY plane

X 103 N/mm2

property

and load condition

of the star-shaped

dome.

load-increment rates are 0.056 N, 0.00607 N and 0.005864 N per second for load conditions (a). (b) and
(c), respectively. Results are shown in Figs. 16, 18 and 20 and their details around the corresponding
snap-through points A, I3 and C are plotted in the enlarged Figs. 17, 19 and 21 for load conditions (a),
(b) and (c), respectively. Again, adjacent load-deflection responses are traced in all cases after the limit
point up to the snap-through point without down loading. The overshooting effect of the inertia force on
the displacements is also well controlled. The snap-through points achieved here are in good agreement
with previous research, especially for case (b) which gives better results than those in [17], where the
same element model is used, and is much closer to the results of [15], where a 72-elements modef was
used.

J.L. Meek, Q. Xue/Comput.

Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg. 1.58 (1998) 235-254

247

.
A
A
A

___

Present analysis
H.S.Tan
Kuo-MO Hsiao

15

10

I
30

25

20

DEFLECTION, v(mm)
Fig. 16. Load-displacement

response

of the star-shaped

frame

under

concentrated

central

load.

2-T
C563.0

3
-I
562.5 -

562.0 -

561.5 -

561.0
t

32.4

32.5

32.7

32.6

DEFLECTION, v(mm)
Fig. 17. Enlarged

figure

around

the snap-through

point

A of the star-shaped

frame

under

concentrated

central

load.

J. L. Meek, Q. Xue/Comput.

248

Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg. 158 (1998) 235-254

600
f

iT
,,,

I!
8 500

400

300
.,

.;

Present analysis
H.S.Tan
Kuo MO Hsiao

/
a

200

i
i

Pi2 P

.
P/Z

;
loo

0
0

30

20

10

40

DEFLECTION, v(mm)
Fig. 18. Load&displacement

response

of the star-shaped

frame

under

symmetrical

load

615

610

605

Fig. 19. Enlarged

figure around

the snap-through

point

B of the star-shaped

frame

under

symmetrical

load.

J.L. Meek, Q. Xue/Comput.

249

Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg. 158 (1998) 235-254

$j 500

400

300

Present analysis
HSTan
Kuo MO Hsiao

A
.

200

100

L,

I<

10

>

11

,I

I,

30

20

DEFLECTION, vfmm)
Fig. 20. Load-displacement

response

of the star-shaped

frame

under

unsymmetrical

load.

589

586

585

k
I

I
37.6

37.7

37.8

37.9

38.0

38.1

DEFLECTION, v(mm)
Fig. 21. Enlarged figure around

the snap-through

point

C of the star-shaped

frame

under

unsymmctrica1

load.

4.5. A shallow geodesic dome

The shallow geodesic dome shown in Fig. 22 has been analysed by Loganathan [26] using a loadfollowing procedure. In the present analysis, the dome is idealised with 156 frame elements with a
concentrated load acting at its apex. In the nonlinear dynamic analysis, a mass density of 78000 N/m3
is used with the damping coefficient C = 2.0 M and the time step of 0.1 s. The load-increment rate
is 0.~005 of the corresponding limit load per second. Multiple symmetrical snap-through behaviour is

J.L. Meek, Q. Xue/Comput.

250

Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg. 158 (1998) 235-254

v = 0.3
G = 2.652 X 1 ON/m
E = 6.895 X 1ON/m*
Xl

A=6.5X10-4m2
a = 0.75 m
f = 0.6 m
L = 6.0 m

Equation of surface:
XT+ X2,+ (Xs + 7.2)2= 60.84

Xl

Fig. 22. Geometry,

material

property

and load condition

of the geodesic

dome

exhibited by this structure. The load-deflection

curves for the vertical displacements
of the nodes 1, 2, 8
and 20 are depicted in Figs. 23, 24, 25 and 26, respectively.
After the first snap-through,
static analysis is
again performed
up to the next limit state where once again the nonlinear
dynamic analysis is restarted
with a slow load increment
and so on for the forward solution. It is found that when node 1 has snapped
through, nodes 2, 8 and 20 have also snapped through. Snapping-back
behaviour
which is troublesome
to evaluate in [26] disappears
in the present analysis. With the damping value used, overshooting
of the
displacements
due to the inertia force is perfectly controlled
numerically.
The deformation
history of

2140

K\

i?

:
1

120 I

,iAYM
L

100

60 -

60

40 -

20 -

O~,,,,,,,,~
0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

06

0.7

0.8

0.9

DISPLACEMENT,

Fig. 23. Load-displacement

response

of the shallow

geodesic

dome

10

w(m)

at node

J.L. Meek, Q. Xue/Comput.

0
0.0

~,11111,,1111111111
0.1

0.2

251

Methodr Appl. Mech. Engrg. 158 (1998) 235-254

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.6

0.9

DISPLACMENT, w(m)
Fig. 24. Load-displacement

2
Y

response

of the shallow

geodesic

dome

at node 2.

140

z
9
2

120

60

0.0

0.1

II/

I,

0.2

1 ,

0.3

I,

0.4

0.5

0.6

DISPLACEMENT, w(m)
Fig. 25. Load-displacement

response

of the shallow

geodesic

dome

at node 8.

252

J.L. Meek, Q. Xue/Comput.

/
/

40.

:
20.

Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg. 158 (1998) 235-254

'I
,

OV1",""""'
000

",','I
002

0.04

006

'1,"
0.08

',I",
0.10

012

DISPLACEMENT,

Fig. 26. Load-displacement

response

of the shallow

geodesic

w(m)

dome at node 20

the structure
shape corresponding
to the marked points A to M in Fig. 23 and for further loading is
illustrated
in Table 3. The results of the first three snap-through
points are in excellent agreement
with
that obtained in [26]. Unfortunately,
the authors arc unable to compare later results, because in [26] an
imperfection
of unrecorded
magnitude
was used and some data appears to be incorrect from the authors
point of view.

5. Conclusions
A more realistic post-buckling
behaviour
of elastic three-dimensional
frames has been described in
this paper by using a nonlinear
dynamic analysis with small load incrementation
after the limit point.
The results show that there is no sudden snap-through
in the load-deflection
path without down loading.
Overshooting
of displacements
due to the inertia force can be well controlled
by using a relatively large
damping factor which is related to the mass only. The snap-through
point achieved in this way without
decreasing
the load is very close to that obtained from the conventional
nonlinear
static analysis, using
load-following
procedures
after the limit point, carried out by previous researchers.
The results following
this point are almost the same as those obtained by the nonlinear
static analysis, since the load increment
in the dynamic analysis is very small. Snap-back
behaviour
of the vertical displacement
observed from
the static analysis in the geodesic dome example vanishes in the present dynamic analysis where the
load is not decreased.
The purpose of this paper has been to demonstrate
an alternative
approach
to the current loadfollowing techniques
for determining
the load-deflection
behaviour
past the limit point, where loads
are slightly increased.
It is shown that the nonlinear
dynamic analysis is capable of handling the large
rotations
experienced
in the three-dimensional
frame analysis by using small linear increments
in the
co-rotational
approach
(see Sections 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5). The example of the deep arch is interesting
because it shows that the final configuration
reached after the out-of-plane
buckling behaviour,
using
the co-rotational
matrix to accommodate
the large rotations,
is the same as that reached during the
in-plane buckling modes. Through such snap-through
phenomena,
the present dynamic approach must
be considered
a more realistic representation
of the structure behaviour.
From the examples included,
it would appear that it is relatively simple to implement
the technique.
Animation
of the process gives
a most helpful insight into the snap-through
phenomena.

J.L. Meek, Q. Xue/Comput.

Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg. 158 (1998) 235-254

253

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