BUILDING CONSTRUCTION I

( BLD 60303 )
ASSIGNMENT 1 :
EXPERIENCING CONSTRUCTION
TAYLORS LAKESIDE UNIVERSITY

GROUP MEMBERS

LEE YET YEE ( L ) 0322328

HENG SY HUA 0321999
JUSTIN CHONG YONG SHENG 0322845
KAREN CHOO QIAO YING 0322480
NG KWANG ZHOU 0322802
LIM WOO LEON 0322180
MADELINE LIEW ZHI QI 0322150
KOO JIAN XIANG 0322975

CONTENT
Introduction
- Introduction to development site
Site and Safety
- Plants and Machinery
Preliminaries Work
- Site Layout
- Setting Out
- Earth Work
Foundation
- Foundation type and construction process (from site visit)
- Foundation type and construction process (from reference)
Superstructure
- Beam and Column
- Slab
- Wall
- Staircase
Doors And Windows
Roof
- Roof type and construction process (from site visit)
- Roof type and construction process (from reference)
Summary
References

1-3
4 - 11
12 - 15
16 - 19
20
21-22
23
23
24
25
26 - 35
36
37 - 40
41 - 42
43 - 45
46 - 49
50 - 58
59
60 - 74
75 - 77
78
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INTRODUCTION
BY . KOO JIAN XIANG

SITE 1 : LOCATED AT SENAWANG

CAREPLUS GROUP BERHAD IS A COMPANY THAT PRODUCE RUBBER PRODUCTS. CURRENTLY, THEY ARE
BUILDING A NEW 4 STOREY FACTORY SITUATED JUST BESIDE THEIR CURRENT OLD FACTORY, IN ORDER TO
EXPAND THEIR PRODUCTION FACTORYS TOTAL SURFACE AREA.

LOCATION PLAN (NOT TO SCALE)

The location of the factory is situated at Senawang, Seremban, the primary industrial area of the prosperous
Senawang town. The construction of the new factory is currently at its Superstructure Stage. They had just
completed the ground slab of the factory 2 months ago. The whole development of this factory will take
around 2 years of construction time to finish.

INTRODUCTION
BY . KOO JIAN XIANG

SITE 2 : LOCATED AT TAMAN PUNCA EMAS

THIS SITE IS OWNED BY MR.HOE SOON YEE AND HE HAD PROPOSED TO BUILD A 1 AND A HALF STOREY
BUNGALOW HOUSE AT TAMAN PUNCA EMAS, SEREMBAN, A HOUSING AREA SURROUNDED BY TAMAN VISION
HEIGHT AND TAMAN LOOP.

LOCATION PLAN (NOT TO SCALE)

The bungalow itself is located at the prime area of the neighbourhood as it is easily accessible to the
highway which leads to the city centre of Seremban not more than 10 minutes of driving. The
bungalow now is currently at its Superstructure Stage and estimated time to finish the whole
construction will be around a year and a half.

INTRODUCTION
BY . KOO JIAN XIANG

SITE 3 : LOCATED AT TAMAN SEREMBAN

THIS SITE IS OWNED BY MR.LEE SIEW WAI AND HE HAD PROPOSED TO BUILD A 2 STOREY BUNGALOW
HOUSE AT JALAN SEROJA 3, SEREMBAN, A HOUSING AREA SURROUNDED LOCATED NEAR TAMAN KIAN KEE.

LOCATION PLAN (NOT TO SCALE)

The bungalow itself is located at the prime area of the neighbourhood as it is easily accessible to the
highway which leads to the city centre of Seremban not more than 10 minutes of driving. The
bungalow now is currently at its Superstructure Stage and estimated time to finish the whole
construction will be around a year and a half.

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INTRODUCTION
BY . KOO JIAN XIANG

SITE 4 : LOCATED AT JALAN TOK UNGKU

BUKIT BLOSSOM COMMERCIAL CENTRE IS A PRESTIGIOUS BUSINESS CENTRE , STRATEGICALLY LOCATED IN
THE HEART OF SEREMBAN TOWN. IT WILL BE A PRIME COMMERCIAL CENTRE EASILY ACCESSIBLE VIA THE
NORTH-SOUTH HIGHWAY, JALAN RASAH TO JALAN TOK UNGKU RAHANG KECHIL AND A MERE 2 KM DRIVE
TO SEREMBAN TOWN.

LOCATION PLAN (NOT TO SCALE)

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The area is well-connected to a network of banks, offices, shops, food & beverages outlet and etc. It is
surrounded by more than 30 housing area which captured about 90,000 population, and strategically
located in heart of Seremban whereby its only 100m away from the Middle Ring Road that is linked to
S2,S3, Town Center and etc. The development of the commercial building is currently at its
Preliminaries Stage and it will be taking about 2 years to complete the whole project.

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SITE AND SAFETY

BY . KAREN CHOO QIAO YING

Construction work is a dangerous land-based job which include many dangerous task and unsafe
condition such as falling from height, collapsing and electric shock. However these can be controlled
by the management to decrease the rate of hazards occur in construction site. Safety equipment and
training are needed to provide for construction worker to create a safe construction environment.
Safety awareness is required to everyone who are included in the construction site

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SITE AND SAFETY

BY . KAREN CHOO QIAO YING

Scaffolding

Ladder

Scaffolding often caused dangers like worker falls from

height, falls of materials, and collapse of structure. Fall
hazards may occur when scaffolds are not used or erected
in a proper way. Scaffold must be sound, rigid and sufficient
enough to carry its own weight included the intended load
without settling and displacement. It must be erected on
solid footing to prevent collapse. All scaffolding should be
design, erected and disassembled by a competent person
and to be inspected before the start of the work every day
to make sure it is safe to be use. Personal fall protection is
required on all scaffolds that is higher than 10 feets. Fallarrest systems must be used in high-wind or storm condition
to prevent falling of worker.

Another source of injuries caused in the

construction site included ladders and
stairways. Falls and slips on ladder and
stairways are the main source of injuries
happened in the site. Appropriate length of
ladder should be used and it has to be
inspect by worker who are in charge of
safety. The ladder should have the ability to
support the weight of the worker and the
materials. Slippery condition of ground base
should be avoid for ladders to decrease the
hazards of slipping.

Public Protection
Public and visitors have the hazard to be
injure in or nearby the construction site. The
boundaries of the construction site has to be
fenced to prevent outsider. Fencing should
not be lower than 2 meters high to prevent
the accessing of unauthorized people to the
construction site. Pedestrians and road users
should not be affected by vehicles entering
or leaving the construction site. Netting are
required on scaffolds for high rise building to
prevent object fly off the construction site.
Holes and uneven ground has to be covered
and lighting has to be provided during the
night. The construction site must hire security
to secure the site during day and night to
prevent access of unauthorized people.

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SITE AND SAFETY

BY . KAREN CHOO QIAO YING

Storage For Materials

Personal Protective Equipment

Materials will be affected by improper handling and

storage. All the materials that are used in construction site
have to be store in a proper place to avoid accident.
Storage areas should be free from accumulated materials
that will cause tripping, fires and explosion. All the materials
such as steel bar and plywood are not allowed to be stack
for more than 2 meter to prevent falling and sliding.
Materials that are affected by weather have to be stored
and placed on flat and dry surface. Flammable material
should be stored far away from other material and
protected from accidental ignition. Timber must be placed
under a certain level to prevent moisture. Explosive materials
such as gas should store upright. All stored materials must not
create a hazard for construction workers. Place stored
materials inside buildings that are under construction have
to be at least 6 feet from hoistways, or inside floor openings
and at least 10 feet away from exterior wall.

Personal protective is vital for all construction worker because it decreases the
hazard of been injured while working. Boots with slip-resistant are required for all
construction worker. It is worn to prevent crushed toes from falling objects when
working around with equipment. Safety glasses or face shields have to be worn at
any time work operations which may cause foreign objects getting into the eye.
For example during welding, cutting, grinding, nailing, or when working with
concrete and harmful chemicals or when exposed to flying particles. When
construction worker has to be exposed to any electrical hazards, safety glasses or
face shields have to be worn. Gloves are required when worker doing heavy duty
work and insulated gloves are required when exposed to electrical hazard. Hard
hats is required when there is a potential for objects falling from above or bumps
into the workers heads from fixed objects, or accidental head contact with
electrical hazards. Hard hats are routinely inspected by people in charge for
dents, cracks or deterioration and have to be in good condition at all time. It
must be replaced after an electrical shock or heavy blow.

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SITE AND SAFETY

BY . KAREN CHOO QIAO YING

Disposing Waste Materials

Waste materials in construction site can cause hazard to the
environment especially materials that contain chemical
property. Flammable material has to dispose properly to
prevent fire on site. Plasterboard will cause environmental
hazard once it is landfilled because it will release toxic gas in
such condition. Most of the waste materials in construction
site have the potential to be recycle. Most of the waste
wood can be recycle. Planning for disposal of waste
material is an important role in site safety and have certain
procedure to be follow.

Electricity Supply
Electricity is one of the main cause of fire on site and electric shock to the
construction worker. All electrical equipment has to be safe condition and
maintain regularly and has to be planned, managed and monitor by person in
charge to reduce the risk of construction worker exposed to electricity.
Equipment such as scaffolds and ladders should be placed not more 3 meters
from electrical power line. Damage and worn electrical cords have to be
replaced and multiple plug adapters are strictly prohibited in the construction site

Vehicle
Vehicles can cause on-site accident to the construction worker and road traffic
accident to the public. Traffic road must be properly planned in the construction
to ensure the safety of the site. Fire and explosion may occurs on the vehicles that
carry explosive and flammable materials into the site. Advance planning of route
for transportation in the site is vital to ensure both drivers and vehicles are
capable and competent to carry out the task. Traffic rule in site is also necessary
to be included into the site safety plan.

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PLANTS AND MACHINERY

BY . KAREN CHOO QIAO YING

Plants and machinery act as an important role in all construction site. It can be categories to transport
vehicles, earth-moving and excavating equipment and material handling machinery. However,
supervisor in the construction site should make sure that a safe and suitable access are provided, the
traffic and pedestrian routes are organized and be in controlled.

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PLANTS AND MACHINERY

BY . KAREN CHOO QIAO YING

Earth moving and excavating equipment

Bulldozer

Earth moving and excavating equipment is known as heavy

equipment which refers to heavy-duty vehicles. It designs to
perform earth moving and excavating works in the construction
industry. There are also known as heavy machines, heavy trucks,
construction equipment, engineering equipment, heavy vehicles,
or heavy hydraulics.

Excavators
Excavator is heavy
construction equipment
which consists of a
boom, dipper, bucket
and a cab on rotating
platform which is known
as a house. The house
sits
atop
an
undercarriage with
tracks or wheels. They
are a natural progression
from the steam shovels
and often mistakenly
called power shovels. The used of hydraulic system achieved the
function and the movement of the excavator. It uses to excavate and
dig the natural surface below or above the ground, lifting the earth
and general grading work in the construction site.

Loader
A loader is a type of vehicle that is
primarily used to clear, dig or load
material such as rock and sand into
another type of machinery. It is often
used to carry loose object from the
ground and move it from one place
to another without push the object
on ground. However, there is a
limitation a loader can dig which is
that it cannot dig a lot below the
level of its own wheels. The deep
bucket can store around 3-6 cubic
meters of earth and it is depending
on the model. Most of the loader are
wheeled but not tracked. Although
the sharp edged materials on
construction site would damage the
rubber wheels but it provides better
mobility and speed to the loader
and it do not damage the paved
roads.

Bulldozer is a very powerful vehicles

used in the construction site. The
tracks in bulldozer gives it a great
ground mobility and it has the ability
to hold through rough surface. It was
designed in a way that has high
torque capacity which gives it
power to dag object from the
ground. Besides that, it can also uses
to remove object from the ground.
In construction site, the bulldozer is
used mainly to clear obstacles or
earth for the building. A bulldozer
has variety of blade which has it
owns function. Straight blade is used
only for fine grading which it has no
curve and no side wing. Universal
blade has the ability to carry
material around and it is very tall
and is curved. Combination blade is
the combination of straight blade
and universal blade which is short
but less curved and has small wings.

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PLANTS AND MACHINERY

BY . KAREN CHOO QIAO YING

Transporting vehicles

Material Handling

Transporting vehicles are mainly used to transport

excavated material from a distance in construction.

Crane is designed to move equipment or machinery in the construction site. It can

be used both to lift and lower materials and to move it horizontally. It is mainly used
to lift heavy materials or equipment and transporting it to another places.

Standard Dump Trucks

Mobile Crane
Mobile crane is the most basic type
of crane and is mounted on a mobile
platform. A mobile crane is a cablecontrolled crane mounted on
crawlers or rubber-tired carriers or a
hydraulic-powered crane with a
telescoping boom mounted on trucktype carriers or as self-propelled
models. It is designed to transport or
lift heavy object easily to a site with
the flexibility to access the sites which
may be difficult to other types of
cranes.

Tipper is a type of truck or lorry

which the rear platform allow
to be raised at the front end to
enable the load to be
discharged by gravity. A
common dump truck is
equipped with a hydraulically
operated open box bed that
hinged behind, which the front
part is able to be lifted for the
materials to be discharged by
gravity to the ground.

Haul Truck

Tower crane
Haul truck is mainly design to
use for high production mining
and heavy-duty work in the
construction site. It is usually has
an open 4 wheeled vehicle
with a load skip in front of the
driver, while its cab in front of
the load. The skip can tip to let
the load falls on the ground. It
has a capacity that range from
40tons to 100 tons.

Tower crane is used for tall buildings

and skyscrapers in the construction
site. It is considered to be the tallest
types of cranes. The tower cranes
can reach up to 256 feet and
outwards of 230 feet. The cranes are
settled to the ground by mounting a
strong concrete pad, so anchor bolts
can be implanted into the pad. While
being secured, this permits the crane
to balance when lifting heavy loads.
These cranes are also often
assembled and affixed inside the
building itself during construction.

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PLANTS AND MACHINERY

BY . KAREN CHOO QIAO YING

Crawler crane

Concrete Mixer
The crawler crane is a crane
mounted on an undercarriage
with a set of crawlers which
provide stability and mobility. It
is a lifting machine which
mounted on a tracked
movable platform. This crane is
capable to per form lifting
operations on different types of
ground sur faces, even soft
grounds because the entire
weight of the machine is

equally deployed on the tracked platform. Because it is on tracks and not on

wheels, the crawler crane is more stable and it can lift more weight than the
wheeled crane. However, the negative side of crawler crane is that some
models are so large that it has to be dismantled in smaller pieces to transport
it to another location.

Forklifts

Concrete mixer is an equipment that

combines cement, aggregate (sand
and gravel) and water to create
concrete. A concrete mixer has a
drum to mix all the components. A
portable concrete mixer is often seen
in the construction site to create small
volume of concrete which gives the
construction workers enough time to
use the concrete before it hardens.
Concrete transport truck is made to
transport and mix the concrete up to
the construction site. This concrete transport truck is able to maintain the concrete
in liquid state before reaching the construction site by turning the drum while on the
roads.

Road roller
Forklift is a material handling
equipment that have the ability
to lift and move a certain
object or material in a short
distance. Most forklift have a
certain load capacity in
between 1 to 5 tons. It is
available in many variation
and load capacity that some
of the forklift is able to lift up to
50 tons.

A road roller is a type of engineering

vehicle used to compact soil, gravel
and concrete in the construction
roads and foundations. It has 2
smooth wheels which is fixed in front
and on the rear side. Both wheels
have the same diameter. Vibrator is
fixed with smooth wheel rollers and
the used of vibration is to reduce the
air voids in between the particles. The
weight of the wheels exert direct
pressure on the layer to make it
smooth.

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PRILIMINARIES
BY . JUSTIN CHONG YONG SHENG

In construction, preliminaries present the GENERAL DETAILS of a project as well as going into the
specifics that should be known, like what will be required to execute the project and what conditions
are relevant.
Preliminaries, in general, tend to outline numerous details concerning a construction project that is
nearing the end of its planning stages

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PRILIMINARIES
BY . JUSTIN CHONG YONG SHENG

Cleaning

Fencing

Removing access trees from the plotted area. Trees or

excess greenery that are found on site have to be unrooted
completely to prevent any incidents.

When the plotted area is cleaned

and levelled, contractors will then
secure the site by placing a
permanent boundary wall or
temporary fencing around the plot.
The companys sign board as well as
safety precaution signs will be placed
on the fence for good measure.

Huge trees and other

obstacles are excavated
to ensure easy construction

The fencing was built to avoid any outsiders

from entering

Excavator

Leveling
Thoroughly level the ground to ensure the safety. If there is
any hole in the ground, it must be filled up completely.

Site office
Site office is a temporary structure
with the necessary accommodations
for the contractors or architects to
either plan out the schedule for the
day or to just take a break.

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PRILIMINARIES
BY . JUSTIN CHONG YONG SHENG

Storage

Labor shed

The storage area is commonly used to keep various building

materials such as bricks or steel from unwanted damage or
stole. A separate storage for cement is also built because
cement is affected by the weathering impact.

It is common practice for the foreign

workers who work in the construction
project to stay at site. A shed with the
essential facilities like water and
power supply and sanitation is
provided.

Storage places are

huge and secured
for the materials

Utility connection
As civil construction needs continuous power and water
supply, a generator as well as a connection to the areas
water line is made to help ease the construction process.

Site office
Site office is a temporary structure
with the necessary accommodations
for the contractors or architects to
either plan out the schedule for the
day or to just take a break.

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PRILIMINARIES
BY . JUSTIN CHONG YONG SHENG

Setting Out

Earthworks

The method of setting out is the reverse of surveying process. The

process involves the positions and levels of building lines and road
alignments shown on the construction plans to be established on
the ground by various techniques and instruments.

The natural surface of ground is not leveled to the extent that there is an
appreciable slope either across or along or both across and along the site.
The ground floor is to be at or just
above ground level at the highest
point, some dry fill material such as
broken brick or concrete hardcore is
imported to raise the level of the
oversite concrete and floor. This fill will
be placed, spread and consolidated
up to the external wall once it has
been built.

Setting out buildings by COORDINATES

A building can be set out by taking referencing from an
already established baseline. For each corner of the
building, a grid line can be established from the baseline.

The thickness of the wall should be at least a

quarter of the height of the fill bearing To
make sure that the stability of the wall is
adequate to withstand the some horizontal
pressure on the wall.

Plumb Bob
To check the verticality
of buildings less than
20m in height)

Floor level

Ground level
Solid filing
under the floor

Earthworks are engineering works created

through the moving or processing of parts of
the earth's surface involving quantities of soil
or unformed rock. The earth may be moved
to another location and formed into a
desired shape for a purpose.
After the earth works are done, the
contractors will place wooden poles or even
flags around the site to indicate the
boundaries set for the shop lots or houses to
prevent any mistakes of calculation from
occurring during the next process.

Picture above shows wooden poles

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FOUNDATION
BY . LIM WOO LEON & NG KWANG ZHOU

The function of any foundation is to safely sustain and transmit to the ground on which it rests the
combined dead, imposed and wind loads in such a manner as not to cause any settlement or other
movement which would impair the stability or cause damage to any part of the building.

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FOUNDATION
BY . LIM WOO LEON

Foundation type on Site

Construction Process of Pad Foundation

Pad Foundation
The site applies only pad foundation or shallow foundation because the
building is constructed below 4 feet below ground which doesnt require any
deep piling and it also has good subsoil condition.
RC or steel column Pad Foundation
The pad foundation uses RC or steel Reinforced
column instead of grillage as it doesnt C o n c r e t e
required to transmit heavy loads from Column
steel columns but just enough to act as a
load bearing foundation
The bars of steel added into the concrete
foundation resist all tensile forces induced
into the foundation.
Pad Foundation

Excavation

Setting
concrete

Reinforcement for
Slump

lean

Add reinforcement
Bar

Build formwork

Add spacer Block

Isolated foundation
It is used to support isolated loads such
as those in columns, piers
Also, it is constructed with a square
base where its reinforcement patterns
are distributed in both ways.
Two way reinforcement pattern
Isolated or pad foundation designed
to span in two directions threfore main
bars are placed in the bottom both
ways.

Add ties
formwork

for

Pour concrete

Pros and Cons of Pad Foundation

Pros
Relatively cheap and easy to construct
Suitable for framed construction
Reinforcement for tension and shear can be added

RC or
S t e e l
Column

Blinding

Cons
Pads are very shallow and can be easily uprooted

Set, curing and

strengthening of
concrete

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SUPERSTRUCTURE
BY . HENG SY HUA & MADELINE LIEW ZHI QI

Superstructure is the building part that is above the foundation or basement, serves the purpose of the
building function. It includes beams, columns, slab, wall and staircase.

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37

Beam

Bea

BY . HENG SY HUA
Beam is a structure that can carry and support external load
preventing the whole structure from collapsing

Reinforce bar
Reinforce bar is used as a frame for the beam
-act as support system for the whole stucture

Beam without wall and slabs

Diagram 1 shows the transmission of load and force from beam to ground
Beam

columns

ground

Advantages of concrete
beam

Type of beam used in the site

Concrete beam D2

-low cost

Extended into column for more

stable structure

Beam with wall and slab

-high tensile strength

Tension reinforce for upward
bending

Bent bars resist diagonal

tension

concrete

150 mm
spacing

R6 link

-combine with slabs

-withstand thermal heat

Hooks are
bends given to
the end of
tension bars to
develop an
equivalent
embedment
length for
anchorage. A
standard hook
is a 90, 135,
or 180

Whenever possible, vary

required steel reinforcement
rather than beam size

Effective depth is
measured from the
compression face to the
centroid of tension
reinforcement

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Beam
Type of beam connection

Other material for beams

Simply supported beam (beam found on site)

Steel beam
Advantage
-withstand corrosion
-withstand higher presuure and load
-shorter fixing time

Beam that support freely at the ends on wall and column

Type of steel beams

Fixed beam has 2 fixed ends into the wall for higher load and strength

S shape

Cantilever beam

W shape

Tension side

C Shape

Compression side

Structural
tubing

One end fixed into the wall to create an open yet sheltered space

Continuous beam
Type of connection

To connects
the girder and
beam

Has 2 or more support and used for a longer distant

Semi rigid connection

Moment connection

Ratio of concrete
6 bucket of stone : 4 bucket lake sand : 1 packet cement : 8 bucket water

Stabilising
angle
Shear connection

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Columns
BY . HENG SY HUA
Vertical structure which responsible in transferring load from ceilings to

Rebars

foundation as well as provide height for the building

All the rebar comes with identification card upon government approval

Column on site

Size of the rebar

Concrete column
Grade / tyoe of the rebar

-easy to be mould
-lower costing

Number of rebars per ton

-high durability and stability

Column donein different stages can be found on site

Series number
Logo for the government unit

Rebar structure for column

Main rebars for structural support

Curved rebars to prevent the main bars
from bending
Lapping area-shorter bar is tied beside
main bar to reinforce the column

Type of concrete column used in the site

Links -steel tying intersected joint to

prevent movement

Columns with 6 main bars and column with 8 main bars as Position of the 2 different

Grove -to increase the grip of concrete

on bar

Types according to the engineers calculation of the pressure and load

Rebars are actually tied manually on each

intersection part . Different tyoe of knot tying
is apply to prevent the bending of rebar
during hot climate

Columns
Framework
Opening for beam
form

40
40
Plywood column

Margin pieces to support

incoming beam
Cleats
Raking struts
Place for clamps and
yoke to resist pressure

Lift out pieces to enable

formwork to be cleaned out
before casting

Foot form around

kicker

Different type of yorks are used

to ensure no leakage of
concrete casting.

Raking struts are used to prevent the column

to be slanted plump line is used to measure
the straightness of the column

Process

Main rebar for

column

Lapping

Rebars are set up according to the

.
engineered calculation , tied and
stabilised together . Columns
foundation (column stumps) are
applied if the columns is ground floor.
This acts as the skeleton of the column
stucture

Casting liquid
Yorks

Excess rebal
for lapping
of the next
floor
Concrete casting go
through

Wooden fromwork
Formwork are inserted
surrounding the column to
create a space for liquid
concrete to pour inside . Yorks
and tropping are added at
the side to support the
formwork from pressure and
secure it from movement.

Excess rebal
for lapping
of the next
floor

Concrete is poured into the formwork when rain is

not present. The max height to pour the concrete
is 3metre and the pouring process can only be
separated into maximum 3 times to prevent the
separation of concrete and produce a weak and
unstable column. After pouring, the concrete is
shaken to eliminate any air bubble trapped inside
the concrete.

hydration reaction to increase

its strength up to 2.5 times and
the formwork is left to dry for 25
to 30 days. The form work will be
taken off leaving the rough
surface. A coat of cement
render will be used to smoothen
the surface.

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SLAB
BY . MADELINE LIEW ZHI QI
Slab is a flat horizontal plane that is a common yet important structural element
of modern buildings. It functions as a walking surface for the users but may be
also serve as a load bearing element. The depth of a concrete slab floor is
relatively smaller compared to its span. Slabs may be supported on two sides
only or have beams on all four sides.

Cast In-Situ Concrete Slab

(site)

Precast Concrete Slab

(reference)

Precast
concrete
slabs

Precast concrete slabs is oneway spanning units that may

be supported by site cast
concrete, precast concrete, or
masonry bearing walls.
Manufactured with normal
density or structural lightweight
concrete and prestressed for
greater structural efficiency.
Size may be limited by the
Structural means of transportation.
frame

Advantages:
Time saving, construction can be done in a shorter time span.
Less labour is required compared to casting concrete on site
Cheaper if large structures are to be built
One Way Slab
One Way Slab is supported by
parallel beams only.
Bends in only one direction.
Main reinforcement is provided in
only one direction.
Suitable for light and moderate load.
Ratio of longer side to shorter side is
more than 2.

Two Way Slab

Two Way Slab is supported by beams
in all four sides.
Main reinforcement is provided in
both direction for two way slabs.
Effective for medium spans and
heavy load.
Ratio of longer side to shorter side is
less than 2 or close to 1

Disadvantages:
Less resistance to Earthquake and wind forces
Limited to sizes that manufacture have in hand
Higher maintenance cost

42

SLAB
BY . MADELINE LIEW ZHI QI

In site, the slabs are casted both separately with the beam and also together
with the beam

Ground Slab Layers

Concrete slab
- Resists compressive force
BRC wire mesh
- E x t r a r e i n f o rc e m e n t :
transfer load to beams
Damp-proof membrane
- Prevent water from
entering
Sand
- To flatten out the ground
surface
Hardcore
- To fill in any voids on the
ground

Construction Process of Higher Slab

(site)

Shoring is set up around the

existing columns to support
the formwork of beams
and columns.

Site using Wooden Formwork

Formwork is inserted at the correct

placement.

Construction Process
Ground beams are installed first, continued by the ground floor slab.
Formwork is inserted at the correct placement for ground slabs.
Sand is filled and levelled, followed by a layer of damp prove
membrane. BRC mesh is inserted and concrete is casted and cured.
Formwork is removed after drying.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Cast InSitu Concrete Slab
Advantages:
Flexible to the design
Less maintenance cost
More resistance to earthquake and wind
forces
Cheaper for small scale projects
Do not require large handing equipment to
ship the slabs pieces

Site using Wooden Formwork

Disadvantages:
Requires more time to let the concrete cur
Will be affected by the weather condition
More skilled labours are required on site

BRC mesh is placed for

reinforcement and concrete is
casted after that.

The scaffolding and formwork is

removed after the concrete has
completely dry.

43
43

Wall
A vertical structure that made up of stone, brick or concrete. It acts as a divider

Type of brick

to create and divide spaces as well as as protection for human. Walls also act as an

cement sand brick

BY . HENG SY HUA

-made of clean sand, fly ash and

dolomite lime

essential part for superstructure as it is used for load bearing, sound

and heat insulator.

- duration to produce shorter

Type of wall

-greyish colour
-compressed by machine to become
a block

Masonry wall
-from by bricks and cement

-cheaper than clay brick

- good heat and sound insulator

- flexible in form and texture
-high durability

Clay brick

-high workmanship is required

-made by clay
Redish colour
-duration to produce longer

Reinforce concrete work

-compressed by burning in furnace

-common used as load bearing

wall

*Choosen to used for the site wall as

it can withstand highest level of
vibration, more stronger and stable ,
more grip between each other and
can insulation more heat and noise

-smoother surface
-formwork and concrete casting
needed
-lowered working duration

Concrete
-combination of cement ,
water, and mine sand
-form work is needed
-cheaper for mass production

Wall

44
44

Joint

Type of bond

used to connect brick to brick and form a wall

Concrete is used to bond all the bricks together and different arrangement
of brick will produce different effect .

Joints found in site

Flush joint

Bonds found in site

Stretcher bond
-Commonly used in veneer wall
-consist of all stretcher overlapping
each other

Flemish bond
-alternating of stretcher and header
arranging side to side
-commonly used for external wall

-a kind of trowelled joint which is finished by striking off excess mortar with
trowel
Raked joint

-higher sound and heat induction

Cement
Mind sand is used in mixture for cement
as it consists of more aggregates which
can produce higher and stronger grip
-made by removing mortar to a given depth

Construction process for brick wall

-for interior use only

Lengthof wall

Wood board
10mm

Concrete mortar is mix and

prepared

Wood board is then place as a formwork for

concrete footing before concrete is poured

2 bricks are layered at each side

of the corner while laser light is
used to measure and mark the
position of the wall

A line is being pull

according to the leser
light to ensure a
vertical wall

Bricks are continue

to be laid according
to the line . the
excess concrete
mortal is being cut
off by trowel

Wall

45
45

Construction technique
On site

Stiffener
Layering technique

-Used to prevent enhance the

stability of the brick wall

-Bricks are laid in 45 degree at

the top most part to ensure no
empty space is left

-horizontal stiffener is added

when the length of the wall
exceed 4 metres

-make the laying process easier

as worker has larger space to
lay the bricks

Dowel bars
-Dowel bars are added into the
wall the prevent collapsing of wall
due to vibration
-The bars are added every in
every 4 layers

-vertical stiffener is added when

the height of the wall exceed 3
metre
Off Site
Damp proof membrane
-used to protect the wall from
soaking in water during rainy days
-made of plastics
-layered at the bottom of the wall

Lintel
-act as the support system above door
frame
-to lessen the load of the door frame
-prevent the wall above door frame from
collapsing

Wire mesh
-commonly used in cement
sand brick
-to enable the cement sand
wall withstand vibration

46

STAIRCASE
BY . MADELINE LIEW ZHI QI

Material: Cast In-Situ Concrete Stairs

-

FUNCTION:
- Provide access between levels
- Provide safe means of travel between floors
- An essential part of an emergency egress

In the sites that we had visited, there are two main types of stair that is present:
-Half Turn Stairs
-Two Quarter Turn Stair
These two types of stairs are commonly used and the area beneath it is used
as storage spaces for most of the buildings.

Plan & Elevation

Half Turn Stair

-Turns 180 at an intervening landing.
-More compact than a single straight-run stair.
-Two flights connected by the landing may be equal or unequal.
Advantages:
- Easier to fit into an architectural plan
- Offer architectural interest
- Offer a resting point part way up the stairs
Disadvantages:
- More difficult to build compared to a straight run stair

Made on site that requires high construction skills

Quality control is more difficult compared to
precast concrete stairs
More time consuming than precast concrete stairs
Enable to have flexibility with the building shapes
Provide a sense of solidity and a strong,
contemporary look.
Concrete is able to be poured into a variety of
creative shapes
Concrete has a tendency to crack so frame
support must be well engineered
Concrete may suffer from chipping on the tread
edges and making repairs is difficult

Plan & Elevation

Two Quarter Turn Stair

-Makes a 180 turn in the path of travel.
-Three flights connected by intervening landing may be equal or unequal.

Advantages:
- More visually interesting
- The landing provide a resting area while ascending

Disadvantages:
- More difficult to build compared to a straight run stair

47

STAIRCASE
BY . MADELINE LIEW ZHI QI

Terminologies
Baluster

The vertical infill member

between a string and handrail

Nosing
The exposed edge of tread that
protrudes over the riser below

Handrail
A protecting member fixed to
posts or a wall for people to
hold on to for support

Landing
The flat surface between flights of
staircase to act as a resting area for
people

Ledger
- Horizontal timber in a scaffold
that is attached to the vertical
- To support the putlogs
Wedges
Timber wedges were used
vertically and horizontally
underneath staircase in slots
cuts into stringer to secure riser
and treads

Step
Consist of a tread and riser

Stringer
- Relates to the portion of
stairs running along the
stairs side
- Acts as main structural
support for the surface
part of stairs

Riser
The vertical part of a
step between two
consecutive treads

Tread
The upper surface of a step
on which the foot is placed

Carriage
An inclined beam which
supports the steps or adds
support between the strings of a
wooden staircase, usually
between the wall and outer
string

48

STAIRCASE
BY . MADELINE LIEW ZHI QI

Concrete In-Situ Staircase Construction Process (on-site)

Scaffolding is added to the

bottom to support the load
when concrete is poured in.

Timber formwork is built in the

box that is marked earlier.

The area of stairs is calculated

and then marked with a box.

5
Starter
Bar

The high tensile reinforcement

bar is placed along the stairs
and overlapped with the starter
bar of the slab.

Precast Concrete Staircase

The stringer and riser board are

constructed to create riser and
thread.

Concrete is poured from the top

to the bottom. Concrete
vibrator is used to ensure the
concrete mixed throughly.

(Reference)
Crane

Mould of Concrete Staircase

Precast
Concrete
Staircase

To begin with, precast concrete

steps are built off-site in a factory,
rather than at the site itself.

Precast
Concrete
Staircase
Next, it is shipped to the site. It will
then be moved in by using cranes.

In-Situ RC
Landing
Lastly, it is installed at the desired
placement by fixing it with suitable
fixations.

Advantages
- Time saving
- Do not stress the foundation wall of building
- Lighter than in-situ concrete stairs
- Better quality control because built in
controlled environment
- Cheaper
- Suitable for large scale projects
- Able to install easily anytime
Disadvantages
- Limited to the sizes that manufacturer has
- Requires big machineries to move it

49

STAIRCASE
BY . MADELINE LIEW ZHI QI

Staircase Materials(Reference)
Timber Stairs

The most traditional staircase

material
Wood is strong and easy to work
with and provides an element of
warmth in the home.
Most affordable staircase material
Strong and easy to work with
Wood is less durable than other
staircase materials and will
require maintenance from
time to time.
Wood can also be damaged by
high humidity.

Metal Stairs

Glass Stairs

Cost more than timber stairs

their strength and durability makes
them an excellent material option.
offers a flexibility of design

Durable, strong and able to be

used in a variety of settings
Can be more light-weight in
appearance than concrete
and timber
Perfect for spiral stairs and for tight
spaces
Metal stairs can be noisy when
traversed
Susceptible to corrosion in high-salt
areas
Heavy to transport and thus a more
expensive option

add a touch of contemporary

glamour to an interior.
lightweight and allow open views
and filtered light through the
levels in a house.
one of the more expensive
material options.
strong and are able to be
strengthened to
accommodate heavy traffic

50

DOORS AND WINDOWS

BY . LIM WOO LEON & JUSTIN CHONG YONG SHENG & MADELINE LIEW ZHI QI

Door: An opening or closing structure which is commonly use as an entrance. It divides both interior
and exterior spaces as well as connects each other.
Window: An opening that allows light, sound and air to pass through. It contributes in air circulation
and heat reduction.

51

DOORS
BY . MADELINE LIEW ZHI QI

Doors and doorways give access from the outside into the interior of a building
and entry between interior spaces. Doorways ought to be sufficiently large to
travel through effectively and accommodate the moving of interior fittings.

Swinging (On-Site)

Terminology

- Door turns on hinges about a

side jam when pushed or pulled
Rough opening
wall opening into which a
doorframe is fitted.
Head
uppermost member of
a doorframe.

Door Operation

Door Operation (references)

Jamb
either of the two side
members of a
doorframe.

- Most common and effective

way for thermal resistance.
Surface Sliding
- Provide access with full width
of doorway
- No operating space needed
Pocket Sliding
- Slides on an overhead track
- Used at spaces where normal
swing door would be obstruct

Stop
projecting part
of a doorframe
against which a
door closes.
Threshold

Casing

sill of a doorway, covering the

joint between two flooring
materials or providing weather
protection at an exterior door.

trim that finishes the

joint between a
doorframe and its
rough opening

Bypass Sliding
- Slides on overhead track and
guides
- Low resistance to weather
and sound
Folding
- Folds flat against each other
- Require less operating space

52

DOORS
BY . LIM WOO LEON & JUSTIN CHONG YONG SHENG

Block Frame hinged door

Offering quiet operation, effective sound and light proofing, and a reduction
in draughts. Theyre also easy to use and can be fitted with a range of
optional additions, such as larger pull hands, transparent panels that allow for
vision through the door, and an automatic door closer.
While hinged doors are usually fitted to swing inwards into the room thats
being opened, they can also be installed to open outwards, maximising
space in small rooms. This versatility allows for hinged doors to be installed and
utilised in many office environments.

Misalignment

Hinge leaf on frame

Hinges
Non-Removable Pin Hinges
This is a common feature in most commercial door
hinges, but is also available for residential use.
It is a security hinge where the hinge pin prevents them
from removing the door to break in. In order to remove
the door, someone would have to cut the barrel off of
the hinge.
Pin must be fully inserted
in leaf for set screw to line
up with notched section
of pin.
Set screw
engages with
notched section
of pin.

53

DOORS
BY . LIM WOO LEON & JUSTIN CHONG YONG SHENG

Installation of block frame hinged door

1. Prepare the opening

2. Prepare the Door

A hinged door is installed on a concrete or masonry wall.

The door is attached using screws through the frame or clips.
The door is sealed to the exterior brick, siding or stucco.

Install the clips into the fin

grooves and secure the clips
to the frame.

Clean the opening.

Ensure it is dry and free
from dirt, oil and debris.

Apply water
resistant
coating

Confirm the
opening is plumb,
level and square.

Measure and mark the

opening where the interior of
the new door will be placed

3. Set and fasten the door

Attach wood
blocking flush with
the opening sill.

Finish pre-drilling and driving

screws through the door
frame or clip

Check door operation

Center the bottom of

the door in the
opening and tilt the
door into position and
check door
placement.

Plumb and square the door

54

DOORS
BY . MADELINE LIEW ZHI QI

Materials: Door (reference)

Door Designs
2030,3050,3660

Sliding Glass Door

1880,2490.3100 (Wood)
1830 3050 3660 (Aluminium)

Sliding glass doors are accessible with

wood, aluminum, or steel frames. Wood
framed doors might be treated with
additive, prepared for painting, then
again clad in aluminum or vinyl. Metal
frames are accessible in an assortment
of finishes.
Sliding glass doors are produced as
standard units completed with all the
requirements needed.

Panel

Panel
with
sash

Louvered

French
Door

Door designs varies from panels, to louvered and

others. Different design suits different type of
atmosphere and style. It is mostly made out of
wood, metal and glass. It maybe solid or divided
to increase the light penetration.
Wood rail-and-stile doors are made up of a
framework of vertical stiles and horizontal rails that
hold the desire material in place.

French
Door
with
divided
lights

55

WINDOWS
BY . LIM WOO LEON & JUSTIN CHONG YONG SHENG

Metal windows (Site)

Aluminium casement windows

Casement windows have operating sashes that are sidehinged and usually swing outward.
When open, the sash is able to direct ventilation.
The inner end of the sash may slide along a track on the sill
or jamb as the sash swings outward.
A pair of sashes may close on a vertical mullion or having
afloating astragal to close on each other.

Advantage and disadvantage of aluminium windows

Advantages
Thermal Performance
Easily achieve improvements in heat gain and heat loss
Durability and low maintenance
Corrosion and weather resistant
Affordability
Aluminium frames can be significantly less expensive than
other framing options, providing a strong yet economical
window
Design Flexibility
aluminium offers a vast range of possibilities from the
economical to most elaborate systems while also delivering
excellent thermal performance.
Disadvantages
Doesnt hold heat in well. The thermal conductance of
aluminium is high. Thus aluminium windows may not work well
in cold climates. Condensation or even frost forms inside the
windows and can present a variety of problems.

56

WINDOWS
BY . LIM WOO LEON & JUSTIN CHONG YONG SHENG

Aluminium Hollow profile Casement Windows

The extruded aluminium profiled sections at the site are designed and
manufactured to create lightweight hollow window framing members.

Double Glazing of Metal casement

windows

Double glazing insulates (reduces

solar gain) almost twice as well as
single glazing.

The air space between the panes

of glass has a large effect on
energy performance. A thin air
space does not insulate as well as a
thicker air space because of the
conductivity through that small
space.

The edge spacer is what holds the

panes of glass apart and provides
the airtight seal in an insulated glass
unit. Essentially they are hollow
aluminium channels, filled with
desiccant beads, to absorb
moisture.

Double glazed unit

Synthetic rubber
sealing gasket
Hollow core may be
filled with closed cell
foam

sub-sill

Thermal Insulation
Poor insulation and high conductivity are characteristics of solid profile
metal windows. This is much less apparent with hollow profile outer
members, as they can be considerably enhanced by a thermal infilling
of closed cell foam.

Finish
Paint application prevents surface oxidation of the aluminium frames.

Condensation
Polyurethane--resin thermal breaks between internal and external
profiles inhibits cold bridging. This reduces the opportunity for
condensation to form on the surface.

Approximate solar gains with

ordinary float glass -

57

WINDOWS
BY . LIM WOO LEON & JUSTIN CHONG YONG SHENG

Aluminium Window Installation

Install window frame
into wall leaving gap
all around over the
rough plastered
masonry wall.

Drill hole through

aluminium
composite packing
around fame to be
screwed through the
wall and shall remain
below track
permanently.

Hang the
window after
total curing.

Align window frame

horizontally and vertically
with thick aluminium
composite panel packing
or any other hard metal.

Dowel and screw the

frames onto wall. Hang in
window and check all
mechanism.

Install window sill if

necessary.

FIx frame with aluminium

composite panels.

Feel gap between frame

and walls with
Polyurethane Foam and
cover the surface with
cement plaster on
exterior side with paint
from inside.

Trim and shape gaps for

protecting and sealing
polyurethane foam.

58

WINDOWS
BY . MADELINE LIEW ZHI QI

Materials: Windows (reference)

Wood frames are normally thicker than aluminum or

steel frames, but they are also more effective as
thermal insulators.
The frames are usually of kilndried, clear, straight
grain wood, factory treated with a water repellant
preservative. The
wood may be stained, painted, or primed for
painting on site. To minimize the need for
maintenance, the majority of wood frames are now
clad with vinyl or bonded to acrylic coated
aluminum sections that require no painting.

Steel window frame and sash sections are

produced from hot-rolled or cold-rolled steel.
Sections of steel are more rigid and thinner than
aluminium. It allows more light to come into the
building as it overall thinner than other material.
Steel has a lower coefficient of heat transfer than
aluminum hence steel window frames do not
require thermal breaks

59

ROOF
BY . LEE YET YEE

Roof , an essential part of every building where it act as a protection towards weather and primary
sheltering element for the interior spaces of a building . The construction of roof must be strong to
withstand wind loads therefore each components has to be securely fastened to each other. The roof
also add attractiveness to the building in creating different architectural effects which will enhance
the ambience of the building when viewing it as a whole.

60

ROOF
BY . LEE YET YEE

ROOF TYPE ON SITE

Hip And Valley Roof
A hip roof has four sloping or pitched sides and a
rectangular base. The hip ends are triangular in shape and
the sides have a trapezoid shape. The inclined rafters at
either end of the ridge will brace the roof.
A hip & valley roof is simply a modified or extended hip roof.
The shape and pitch of the surfaces are basically the same,
however the base shape changes from a simple rectangle
to a T or L shape, on plan.
Hip

Valley

Advantages & Disadvantages

Advantages

Hip Roof

Hip and Valley Roof

The hip & valley roof has an additional ridge, which joins the
main roof ridge at the same height, which creates a single
valley for an L shaped roof. It may also join the roof surface
at the same height or at a lower level on a side or end,
without connection to a hip, creating two valleys for a T
shaped roof.

The pyramid shaped hip roofs are highly preferred

at hill stations where heavy snowfall is recorded in
winter seasons.
Hip roofs generally have consistent fascia from all
directions, so it becomes easy to make installations
for gutters.
Hip roofs are also well suited for warm climates as
they create the perfect shade for houses from all
sides while assisting in fine cooling.
Hip roofs also possess eaves along all directions that
help to provide complete protection to a house
from sun, as well as other atmospheric troubles.
One of the most important advantages of hip roofs
is their ability to provide drainage of water; as all
sides of the roof are angled properly so there is no
chance of water accumulation on these roofs.
They help to create prevention from a roof
collapsing.
Hip roofs that have 30-degree tilting are considered
as the best designs for long life results.

Disadvantages

One of the most prominent

disadvantages of hip roofs is their
typical or complicated construction
procedure.
Hip roofs demand large labor mass,
as well as need additional raw
material, which adds to more cost.
They need maintenance from time to
time to ensure long life service.

61

ROOF
BY . LEE YET YEE

STRUCTURAL ROOF MEMBERS

Ridge Board

Collar Tie

Fascia

Top Plate

Purlin

Centring Rafter
Top Plate

Fascia

Valley Creeper Rafter

Crown-end Rafter

Collar Tie

Common Rafter
Creeper Rafter

Valley Rafter
Valley Cripple Creeper

62

ROOF
BY . LEE YET YEE

2. Laying Out Roof Framing Plan

CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
ThePre-construction
1. Calculating Roof Slope
2. Laying Out Roof Framing Plan
Construction
3. Roof Framing
4. Underlayment
5. Roofing
6. Roof Drainage
7. Roof Flashing

Pre - Construction
1. Calculating Roof Slope

The slope of a roof must be calculated before construction begins.

Hip And Valley Roof
Roof framing plan created when one or more hip roofs
intersect at 90 angles

Factors affecting the roof slope : Roofs span, run and rise.
Span : Distance between outer edges of top plates
Total Run : 1/2 the span

A : Outline of building

Unit Run : Set length used to figure the slope of rafters

B : Outline largest rectangle unsure the building outline

Total Rise : Vertical distance from top plate to the upper end of measuring line

C : Draw centrelines for every rectangle formed inside the

building outline

Unit Rise : Number of inches that a roof rises for every 12 of run ( unit run )
Slope = Ratio ( Unit Rise : Unit Run )
Pitch = Ratio ( Total Rise : Span )

Ridge Board
Measuring Line

12

Unit Run
Pitch

Unit Rise

Tail
Rafter

8
Total Rise
Unit Rise
Unit Run
Span

E : Center lines drawn in C connect the hip and valley rafters.

Draw these as solid lines where the ridges will be located
F : Figure distance between rafters , lay them out on roof
framing plan

Total Rise

Total Run

D : Draw 45 line from each inside and outside corner

( Extend Lines to intersect with centrelines : Indication of hip
rafters on outside corners and valley rafters on inside
corners )

Total Run
Span

ROOF
BY . LEE YET YEE

TRUSSERS AND RAFTERS LAYOUT PLAN

Bungalow at Taman Seremban

63

64

ROOF
BY . LEE YET YEE

3. Roof Framing
In trussed-roof construction, prefabricated trusses are
attached as a unit. Their lower chords form the ceiling of the
room while the top chords form the roof. In conventional
roof construction, carpenters assemble the roof from
individual ceiling joists and rafters. The rafters should not be
erected until the ceiling joists have been fastened in place.
The ceiling joists act as a tie to prevent the rafters from
pushing the exterior walls outward.

Steel Joists :

Joists may frame into a bearing wall

rising to form a parapet or bear on
the wall to form a flush or
overhanging roof edge

To resist uplifting wind forces, every

joist must be securely anchored to
its supporting structure.
Top chord extension for roof
overhang

Horizontal bridging angles for K

series joists are welded to top and
bottom chords.

Diagonal bridging angles for LH/DLH

series joists; weld or bolt bridging to
clip angles secured to masonry wall
or steel edge beam.

Roofing membrane over rigid foam

or lightweight concrete insulation
Roof deck may consist of metal roof
decking, plywood panels,
cementitious roof planks.
Continuous bearing angle for roof
deck bolted to concrete or masonry
Bridging should be securely
anchored to end wall

ROOF

65

BY . LEE YET YEE

3. Roof Framing

TRUSSES

Roof trusses are engineered and pre-fabricated,

triangulated structures which are built in a factory. They are
designed to carry the load of a homes roof to the outside
walls, shipped to the construction site, and installed using a
crane after the homes walls have been framed.

Metal or cementitious roof

decking or panels span purlin
spaces.
Channel or W-shape purlins
span the truss spacing.
If not bearing at a panel
point, purlins subject top
chord to local bending.

Members are bolted or welded with

gusset plate connectors.

To prevent secondary shear and

bending stresses from developing,
the centroidal axes of truss members
and the load at a joint should pass
through a common point

The triangles formed by the beams, bars and ties allow the
truss to distribute the weight it carries over a broader area.

Steel Trusses
Steel Roof Trusses ~ these are triangulated plane frames
which carry purlins to which the roof coverings can be fixed.
Steel is stronger than timber and will not spread fire over its
surface and for these reasons it is often preferred to timber
for medium and long span roofs. The rafters are restrained
from spreading by being connected securely at their feet by
a tie member. Struts and ties are provided within the basic
triangle to give adequate bracing. Angle sections are
usually employed for steel truss members since they are
economic and accept both tensile and compressive
stresses. The members of a steel roof truss are connected
together with bolts or by welding to shaped plates called
gussets. Steel trusses are usually placed at 3000 to 4500
centres which gives an economic purlin size.

Depth range for pitched trusses:

span /4 to span/5

Trusses require lateral bracing in a

direction perpendicular to their
planes

66

ROOF
BY . LEE YET YEE

3. Roof Framing

Steel Roof Truss Details

Purlin Cleats

Angle Rafter

Angle Strut

Truss symmetrical
about center line

Purlin Cleat

HD
#10 SDS HD-B

Angle Tie
8mm thick Gusset Plate

Concrete Beam

Gusset Plate

Shop Bolted
Connections

67

ROOF
BY . LEE YET YEE

3. Roof Framing

Ridge Board

Common Rafters

RAFTERS
Rafters are sloped framing members running downward
from the peak of the roof all the way to the plates of the
outside walls. They are the support for the roof load. Ceiling
joists tie the outside walls together, support the ceiling
materials for the room below, and secure the bottom ends
of the rafters.
Carpenters build conventional rafter roof frames on-site. The rafters are
installed one piece at a time.
Types of Rafters:
1. Common Rafter
2. Centring Rafter
3. Hip Rafter
4. Crown-end Rafter
5. Creeper Rafter
6. Valley Rafter
7. Valley Creeper Rafter

Hip Rafter
Valley Jacks

Hip Jack

Common Rafter & Centring Rafters

These are the main sloping members, which all have the
same length, running from the wall plate to either side of the
ridge. They are spaced at 450 to 600 mm centres for tiled
roofs, and up to 900 mm centres for sheet roofs. They support
the roof battens, which in turn support the roof covering. The
number of common rafters in a hip roof are restricted to the
length of the ridge with the rafters on either side, at the end
of the ridge, being referred to as centring rafters.

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Hip Rafter

3. Roof Framing

Ridges
Usually a deep and narrow member, it is the highest
member of the roof, which runs horizontally for the length of
the roof, less twice the half span, plus one rafter thickness.
It must be level and parallel to wall plates for its length with
the rafters being nail-fixed onto it on opposite sides. The
ridge on a hip roof may be joined in length as for a gable
roof.
The ridges are butt jointed together at the same height to
form a hip & valley T or L shape. The length of the ridge
forming the T or L shape will be equal to the length of the
wall plate extension, plus half the thickness of a rafter, less
half the thickness of the ridge

The hips are deep-sectioned members, which run from the external corners of the wall
plates to the end of the corner formed between the centring rafter and the crown end
rafter. The hips bisect the 90 external corners at 45, when viewed on plan or are placed at
the appropriate bisected angle for external corners other than 90, as would be the case
for a semi-octagonal ended hip roof.

Crown-end Rafter
The crown end rafters are cut and fitted against both ends
of the ridge to form the sloping end sections. They act as
opposing braces making the hip e roof a strong self-braced
frame. The length of the crown end is similar
to the common rafter, apart from the top end deduction,
i.e. it is shortened by half the rafter thickness as opposed to
the half ridge thickness of the common rafter.

Centring Rafter

Ridge

Centring Rafter
Crown End Rafter

Pairs of Creeper Rafters

Creeper Rafter
These are basically common
rafters, which are shortened by
equal amounts to fit against the
face of the hips at the maximum
rafter spacing. The lower end is
identical to the common rafters
but the top end has a compound
cut, i.e. face and edge cuts, which
is formed by the plumb bevel for
common rafter and the edge
bevel for creeper. They are usually
set out from a pattern rafter and
cut in pairs to fit on either side of
the hips

Plan

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Tyloc Plates and bolt

Twin Wire support system

3. Roof Framing

Ridge
Support Block

Purlins

Hip

Purlins, also known as underpurlins, are fixed to the underside

of the rafters parallel to the ridge and wall plates. They
provide continuous support under the rafters similar to
bearers under joists in a floor frame.
They are normally spaced at 2100 mm centres, but this will
depend on their section size and stress grade, including the
section size and stress grade of the rafters.
They are placed in a continuous line around the four sides of
the hip roof and joined at external corners, under the hips.
The ends of the purlins, under the hip, have a compound cut
consisting of the face bevel purlin and edge bevel purlin.
The ends may be cut tight against the face of the hip on
either side or have a notch taken out of the edge of both
lengths so they fit tightly under the bottom edge of the hip
for extra support.
Purlin Details :

Common Rafter

Crown End Rafter

Purlin

Adjustable
Centre Fulcrum

Underside View Of Purlins Under Hip :

ELEVATION

Hip Rafter
Hip
Creep Rafter
Purlin

PLAN

Creep Rafter

Underpurlin

Tyloc Plates
and bolt

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BY . LEE YET YEE

3. Roof Framing

- Summary

1. Set out and complete ceiling frames

2. Setting out rafters position on ridge board

3. Fixing first pair of rafter to ridge

4. Fitting Crown End Rafters

5. Fix hips and remaining common rafters

6. Propping the hip and fixing pairs of creeper rafters

7. Complete the Assembly of Structural Frame

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BY . LEE YET YEE

4. Underlayment
The use of super sisaltion under the roof frames.

Super Sisalation
Physical Characteristic
Super Sisalation has an outer later of aluminium foil bonded
to high density Kraft papers, bonded together with a heavy
coating of flame retardant and tear strength.
The blue face of the weave reduces any problems with
reflected glare during installation.

Thermal Performance
When used in conjunction with an
airspace, Sisalation is an effective
thermal insulation material because of
the high reflectivity and low emissivity
of its aluminium foil surfaces.

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BY . LEE YET YEE

4. Roofing

Tile Roofing
Tile roofing consists of clay or concrete units that overlap
or interlock to create a strong textural pattern. Like slate,
roofing tiles are fire-resistant, durable and require little
maintenance. They are also heavy (800 to 1000 lb. per
square; 363 to 454 kg per 9.29 m2) and require roof framing
that is strong enough to carry the weight of the tiles. Roofing
tiles are normally installed over a solid plywood deck with an
underlayment of 30 lb. or 45 lb. roofing felt. Special tile units
are used at ridges, hips, rakes, and eaves.

Ridge cover units

Cover starter units

Cement Mortar
Field Tiles

Arris tiles cover the rake

Pan tiles have an S-shaped cross section,

laid so the downturn of one overlaps the
upturn of the next in the same course.
- Minimum recommended slope4:12
14"(355)wide;19"(485)long
- Exposure:16(405)

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6. Roof Drainage

Gutter
The amount of rain or melting snow a roof and its drainage
system must handle is a function of:
- The roof are a leading to the roof drains or gutters.
- The frequency and intensity of the rain fall for the region
Flat roofs should be pitched to roof drains that are located
at the low points and that connect to the storm drain system
of the building. A system of scuppers or overflow drains may
also be required with the inlet flow 2" (51) above the low
points of the roof. Rainwater shed by sloping roofs should be
caught by gutters along the eave to prevent ground
erosion.Gutters empty in to vertical downspouts or leaders
that, in turn, discharge into a dry well or storm sewer system.
In dry climates or for small roof areas with adequate
overhangs, gutters may be omitted and a bed of gravel or a
masonry strip set in the ground under the eave line. Gutters
are typically of vinyl, galvanised steel, or aluminium,
although copper, stainless steel, terne metal, and wood
ones are also available. Aluminium gutters can be coldformed on-site in continuous runs without joints.

Gutter Details :

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7. Roof Flashing

ROOF TYPE ON SITE

Flashing refers to thin continuous pieces of sheet metal or
other impervious material installed to prevent the passage of
water into a structure from an angle or joint. Flashing
generally operates on the principle that, for water to
penetrate a joint, it must work itself upward against the force
of gravity, or, in the case of wind-driven rain, it would have
to follow a tortuous path during which the driving force
would be dissipated.
Flashing may be exposed or concealed. Exposed flashing is
usually of a sheet metal, such as aluminium, copper, painted
galvanised steel, stainless steel, zinc alloy, terne metal, or
copper-clad lead. Metal flashing should be provided with
expansion joints on long runs to prevent deformation of the
metal sheets. The selected metal should not stain or be
stained by adjacent materials or react chemically with
them.

Flashing concealed within a

construction assembly may be of sheet
metal or a waterproofing membrane
such as bituminous fabric or plastic sheet
material, depending on climate and
structural requirements.
Aluminium and lead react chemically
with cement mortar.
Some flashing material scan
deteriorate with exposure to sunlight.

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ROOF TYPE ( REFERENCE )

Gable Roof
A gable roof has two sloping sides that meet at the top to
for a gable at each end. A gable roof may include dormers
( upright window projections ) that add light and ventilation
to second-floor rooms or the attic. The gable roof is the most
common type of roof.

Ridge board is a non structural horizontal

member to which the upper ends of the
rafters are aligned and fastened.
Common rafters extend from a wall plate
to a ridge board or ridge beam and
support the sheathing and covering of a
roof.
Collar ties unite two opposing rafters at a
point below the ridge, usually in the upper
third of the rafter length.
The ties that resist the outward thrust of the
rafters may be designed as ceiling joists
supporting only attic loads or as floor joists
supporting habitable space.
Rafterspan
Load bearing wall or beam

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BY . LEE YET YEE

Gable Roof Framing

Steel joist roof rafter

Angle clip

Nested steel joists

form ridge.

Light-gauge steel joist sections serve as

rafters; see 4.23 for types and sizes of lightgauge steel joists.

Rafters are typically spaced at12",16", or

24" (305, 405, 610) o.c., depending on the
magnitude of roof loads and the spanning
capability of the roof sheathing.

Steel joist rafter

Steel ceiling joist

Anchor clips secure both rafter sand

ceiling joists to the top runner of the stud
wall framing.

Soffit framed with light-gauge steel stud

sections

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ROOF
BY . LEE YET YEE

Gable Roof Truss

Structure

Details

78

Summary
Heng Sy Hua 0321999
As conclusion, construction process is the most
essential part for an architect to manipulate to ensure
the quality of the building as well as ensuring the
smoothness of every construction stages
Construction of ground floor
slab formwork

A flat land is choosen for

construction

Construction of roof , door ,

windows and also the wall
finishes which also marks the
end of a construction
process

Back filling of sand is carried

on after the completion of
ground beam

Construction of wall and

staircase is carried out
Excavation process is brought
upon

Pilling is implanted as base

Form work of ground beam is

placed

Scaffolding is being built to hold

the formwork for first floor beam

First floor slab is being

constructed after the
completion of first floor
beam

References
Preliminary works
Designing Buildings Wiki The construction industry knowledge base. (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/
Preliminaries_in_construction
What are preliminaries in construction? (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2016, from https://www.reference.com/business-finance/preliminariesconstruction-256e2cde9b00e08f#
Setting out process
http://www.aboutcivil.org/setting-out.html
Earthworks
http://www.epa.ie/licences/lic_eDMS/090151b280013e5a.pdf
Site layout
http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Site_layout_plan_for_construction
Plants and machinery
Thomas, B. M. (2014). The Purpose Of Crawler Crane - PurposeOf. Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.purposeof.com.au/the-purpose-of-crawler-crane/
A. (2015). 4 Types of Cranes and Their Functions | CDH Rentals. Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.cdhrentals.com/4-types-of-cranes-and-their-functions/
Function of Bulldozer in Construction. (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.theconstructionmachinery.com/articles/functions-of-bulldozers.html
Construction Equipments. (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.engineeringcivil.com/theory/construction-equipments
Site safety
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2016, from https://www.osha.gov/Publications/OSHA3252/3252.html
Superstructure
Chudley, R. (1999). Construction technology (2nd ed.). Harlow: Longman.
Ching, F. D., & Adams, C. (2001). Building construction illustrated (4th ed.). New York: Wiley.
Doors & Windows
Chudley, R. (1999). Construction technology (2nd ed.). Harlow: Longman.
Ching, F. D., & Adams, C. (2001). Building construction illustrated (4th ed.). New York: Wiley.
Aluminum Windows Pros and Cons | DoItYourself.com. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.doityourself.com/stry/aluminum-windows-pros-and-cons
BUILD LLC. (2015, May 19). A Modern Guide to Windows | BUILD Blog. Retrieved from http://blog.buildllc.com/2015/05/a-modern-guide-to-windows/
Capral Limited. (2012). The Benefits of Aluminium Windows - Capral. Retrieved from http://www.capral.com.au/The-Benefits-of-Aluminium-Windows
Roofing
Roofing Designs: Advantages and Disadvantages of Hip Roofs. (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.selfhelpandmore.com/building/roofing/designs/
index.php
HIP ROOF FRAMING AND BUILDING - myrooff.com. (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://myrooff.com/hip-roof-framing-and-building/
Trusses, Rafters... What the Heck is the Difference? (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://activerain.com/blogsview/2135174/trusses--rafters----what-the-heck-isthe-difference Open web steel joist. (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.wikiwand.com/en/Open_web_steel_joist
ROOF FRAMING - Construction Knowledge.net. (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.constructionknowledge.net/public_domain_documents/
Div_6_Woods_Plastics/Partial Carpentry pdfs/Framing_Roofs_NAVEDTRA_14044.pdf
Layout Of Roof Plan - ChestofBooks.com. (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://chestofbooks.com/architecture/Cyclopedia-Carpentry-Building-1-3/Layout-OfRoof-Plan.html

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