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NASA
CR
2920
C.1
,.
I7
LOAN C 9 - V : RETI..lF,
AFWL TFr! '?'fCfi1.. LIBRARf ._
KIRTLAND AFB, N. M. -
Calibration of Transonic
and Supersonic Wind Tunnels
CONTRACT NAS2-8606
NOVEMBER 1977
NASA
*.?
~-
Calibration of Transonic
andSupersonic Wind Tunnels
Prepared for
AmesResearch Center
under Contract NAS2-8606
National AeroMubics
and Space Administration
Scientific andT e c h i d
Information Office
1977
"
..
FOREWORD
In April,
1970 a r e p o r t
s o n i cs c a l ee f f e c t s
was issuedbyan
and t e s t i n gt e c h n i q u e s .T h i sr e p o r ta s s e s s e dt r a n s o n i c
t e s t i n gt e c h n i q u e s
t u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n
manualbe
w r i t t e nw h i c hr e v i e w e dt h es t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t .T h i s
was viewedasanecessarysteptowardthedevelopment
o f more a c c u r a t e and
s t a n d a r d i z e dt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o np r o c e d u r e s .
For t h i s purpose,thepresent
U. S. Navy throughtheOfficeofNavalResearch,
(1) t h e
(2) t h e U. S. A i r Forcethrough
and theLewis,Langley
Centers.
(3)
Mr. F. W.
S t e i n l es e r v e d
as t e c h n i c a lm o n i t o r .
A rough d r a f t o f t h i s
ResearchCenter
and ArnoldResearchOrganization.
reviewerswerecompiledby
Themanual
Mr.
F. W.
Steinleat
The comments o ft h ev a r i o u s
Ames and M r .
was improvedconsiderablybytheconstructive
F.
comments t h a t were
received, and we w i s h t o t h a n k a l l t h o s e i n v o l v e d f o r t h e i r t i m e
Our thanks go t o M r .
d i s c u s s i o no fh o tw i r e s
w i s ht o
C.
M. Jackson a t
and e f f o r t s .
J. Stalmach o f t h e Vought C o r p o r a t i o n f o r t h e
and f i l m sw h i c hi sg i v e ni n
acknowledgethesuperiortyping
Appendix 1 .
F i n a l l y , we
and s e c r e t a r i a la s s i s t a n c ep r o v i d e d
by Ms. F. H. Deason.
...
I l l
ARO.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Sect
ion
......................
INTRODUCTION
...................
. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
TUNNEL VARIABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A . Types o f Tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B . OperationalParameters
............
1 . PressureControl . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 . C a l i b r a t i o n Accuracy. Flow U n i f o r m i t y and
R e l a t i o n s h i p t o Model T e s t i n g . . . . . . .
References
C . Flow Parameters and U n c e r t a i n t yR e l a t i o n s h i p s .
1 . Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A
.
c.
B
It
Gackground
H i s t o r i c a lS k e t c h
Calibration Procedures
References
.
.
..
6.
7.
8.
2
3
4
5
111
................
................
.......
..............
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. ..
Temperature
Mach
Number
Flow A n g u l a r i t y and Curvature
Reynolds Number
Unsteadiness.Turbulence.
and Noise
Humidity
T e s t Mediums
References
...............
.......
A . S e t t l i n g Chamber Pressure . . . . . . . . . . .
.
C.
B
References
T o t a l Temperature
References
P i t o tP r e s s u r e s
References
T e s tS e c t i o nS t a t i cP r e s s u r e s
1
TransonicSurveyPipes
2
TransonicStaticPressure
Probes
3
SupersonicStaticPressure
Probes
4
Orifice-InducedStaticPressureErrors
5 GeneralPurpose StaticPressureProbe
References
Measurement o f Flow A n g u l a r i t y
1
D i f f e r e n t i aP
l r e s s u r eY a w e t e r s :
2-D
2
DifferentiaP
l ressure
Yawmeters:
3-0
3 Hot W i r e / F i l m Yawmeters
4
ForceBalance Yawmeters
References
...............
................
. .
..
.
.
E.
..
.
.
D
. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
......
.....
...
...
.........
.. .. ..
..........
..........
8
8
12
22
22
34
36
40
42
47
52
56
59
59
63
68
78
79
86
105
110
116
124
124
128
134
137
Page
Sect ion
."
....
. . . . .. .. .. ..
.
. . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
..
. . . . . . . . . . .. ..
.
H.
. . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ......
..
.......
.
.......
1.
. . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
..
.
. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
.
..............
ERROR AND UNCERTAINTY
CALIBRATION MEASUREMENTS . . . .
A . Random E r r o r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. F i x eEd r r o r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C . Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D . ErrorPropagation
................
References
.;r
"
IV
Measurement o f UnsteadyFlowDisturbances
1
DynamIc Pressure
Measurements
References
TransonicTunnelBoundaryConditionsand
W aI n
l lt e r f e r e n c e
1
C o n v e n t i o n aVl e n t i l a t e d
Walls
2
Adaptive
Wall
Studies
3
Boundary
Layers
and
Wall
Generated
Noise
Standard
Models
1
AGARD Force
Models
2-0
2
TransonicPressureModels:
3
TransonicPressureModels:
3-0
References
O p t i c a l Methods
1
Supersonic
Tunnels
2
Transonic
Tunnels
3 Newer Methods
References
Humidity Measurements
References
IN
..
....
v.
B
C
.
.
.............
Summary o f S t a t e - o f - t h e - A r t
o f Transonic and
Supersonic Wind Tunnel C a l i b r a t i o n
Transonic
Tunnel s
Supersonic
Tunnels
144
147
162
162
165
169
174
174
175
175
182
182
182
183
185
189
189
190
191
192
195
195
198
202
APPENDICES
..
I1
Ill
IV
. .
255
. . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. ..
260
267
.
.
vi
203
217
222
249
"
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Fiqure
-.
Page
Title
..........
1 ....................
Diagram,
Ref.
Data
and
2. B. 1
14
17
2. B. 2
E r r oFrl o w
1.c.1
..................
2. B.
2. B.
2.
Effects of Reynolds
Number o n C a l i b r a t i o n o f t h e
PWT-16T Tunnel a t Mm = 0 . 6 and 0 . 8 f o r ew = 0 and
c. 1
2.c.2
2.c.3
2.C.4
2.c.5
2.C.6
2.C.7
2.C.8
2.C.9
2.c. 10
~ = 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
MachNumber
Gradient OverModel LengthasPercent
o f Average MachNumber f o r Bouyancy D r a g . C o e f f f c I e n t
o f 0.0001
19
.......................
Afterbody DragData a t anAverage MachNumber of
0.95.... ......................
AfterbodyDragDataWithTunnel
MachNumber Given
t o ThreeDecimals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The U n c e r t a i n t y o f P i t o t - t o - S t a t i c P r e s s u r e
F u n cot ifo n
Number
Mach
. . . . . . as. .a . . . .
The S e n s i t i v i t y o f Dynamic P r e s s u r e t o S t a g n a t i o n
PressureError,TransonicOperation
..........
The S e n s i t i v i t y o f Dynamic P r e s s u r e t o S t a t i c P r e s s u r e
Error,TransonicOperation.
..............
The S e n s i t i v i t y o f Dynamic Pressure t o MachNumber
Error,
Supersonic
Operation
..............
The R e l a t i o n o f S t a g n a t i o n t o S t a t i c T e m p e r a t u r e a s
a Function o f MachNumber
...............
The S e n s i t i v i t y o f MachNumber
and Stagnation
Pressure
Error
.t o.S.t a.t i c.P.r e.s s.u r.e . . . .
The S e n s i t i v i t y o f MachNumber t o S t a t i c P r e s s u r e
...............
and StagnationPressures.
Change i n F l o w D i r e c t i o n W i t h
Number, Ref. 3
24
27.
29
31
32
35
38
39
Increment o f Mach
.....................
vii
23
41
'
2.c. 1 1
2.c.12
2.C. I3
2.C.14
Page
Title
Flgure
....................
The Sensitivity of Unit Reyno1,ds Number to Stagnation
Pressure Error. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Sensitivity of Unit Reynolds Number to Stagnation
Temperature Error . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The'Sensitlvity of Unit .Reynolds Number to Statfc
Pressure Error.
46
49
...................
50
53
54
2.C. 16
2.C. I8
3.8.1
3.C. 1
3.C.2
3.c.3
........
. .... . . . . .. ......
Total Temperature Probes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Isentropic Stagnation Pressure Probe, Ref. 8. . . . . .
AEDC Supersonic Mach Number Probes. . . . . . . . . . .
Mach Number Probe forSmall Pilot LEHRT Facilities,
Ref.9....
.....................
Subsonic Static-Pressure Probe . . . . . . . . .
3.0.1
R.A.E.
3. D. 2
..............
3.0.3
3.D.4
3. D. 5
3.D.6
3-0.7
3.D.8
45
....
2.C.15
17
44
Error.........................
2.C.
43
64
70
72
73
83
84
..
87
........
90
93
...................
Dimensions of the R.A.E. Static Pressure Probes . . . .
Transonic Characteristics of the Two
R.A.E. Probes. . .
Effect of Orifice Location Utilizinga Double Wedge
Support Strut, Ref. 32. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
viii
96
97
103
3.D.9
3.D.10
3.0.11
3.E. 1
3. E. 2
3.E-3
3.E.4
3.E.5
3.E.6
3. F. 1
3. F. 2
Paqa
Title
F I qure
...
O r i f i c e - I n d u c e dS t a t i cP r e s s u r eE r r o r s ,
Ref. 50 . . . '.
Transonic/SupersonicStaticPressure
Probe. . . . . . .
Two DimensionalYameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PyramidYameter.
...................
S e n s i t i v i t y o f 60 degConical Yawmeter. . . . . . . . .
S p l i t Hot Film, 20 Wedge Probe C a l l b r a t i o n B r . i d g e
F l o w Angle,Ref.
23 . . . . . . .
V o l t a g eD l f f e r e n c ev s
Geometry o f AEDC ForceBalance Yawmeter . . . . . . . .
S e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e AEDC ForceBalanceYameter.
....
FrequencySpectra o f Noise from a Turbulent Boundary
Layeron a S o l i dW a l l ,
Ref. 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Noise FrequencySpectra for Some E x i s t i n g C o n t i n u o u s
Windtunnels a t
= 0 . 8 0 , Ref. 3. . . . . . . . . . . .
Small P i e z o e l e c t r i c Dynamic Pressure Probe,Ref.
14 . .
General C r i t e r i a for ProbeSurvey
Rakes, Ref.
33.
M-
104
113
117
126
129
131
136
138
139
145
145
154
APPENDIX I
A.l.l
A. 1.2
CorrelationofConvective
Heat T r a n s f e r f r o m
Transverse Cy1 inders, Ref. 3.
206
206
F l u c t u a t i o n Diagrams f o r 1 PercentTurbulent
V e l o c l t yF l u c t u a t i o n s( V o r t i c i t y
Made),Ref.
209
.............
.......................
A. 1.3
A. 1.4
A. 1.5
A.1.6
7.
F l u c t u a t i o nD i a g r a mf o r
1 PercentTemperature
S p o t t i n e s s( E n t r o p y Mode), Ref. 7
...........
F l u c t u a t i o n Diagram f o r SoundWaves
thatareAlmost
Mach
Waves
Having I % P r e s s u r eF l u c t u a t i o n s ,
Ref. 7.
F l u c t u a t i o n Diagram f o r U n c o r r e l a t e d Modes a t
0.1 PerCent:
TurbulentVelocityFluctuationsof
0.2 Percent;
SoundWaves
(Detectable) 0.1 P e r c e n t o f Mass Flow
F l u c t u a t i o n s .( D o t t e dL i n e s
Show S e p a r a t eC o n t r i butions.)Ref.
7.
..
209
21 0
M11.75; TemperatureSpottinessof
....................
fx
21 0
Fiqutc
Title
Page
214
A.1.7
... ..............
APPENDIX I I
A.II.l
A. 11.2
A. 11.3
A.
11.4
A. 11.5
A.
11.6
......
Generation of Interference Fringesin Measuring Volume of Dual Beam Laser Doppler Velocimeter. .
Light Scattered by a Small Particle . . . . . . . . .
Laser Anemometer Signal From Photodetector. . . . . .
Effect of Particle Diameteron Frequency Response . . .
A. 11.9
226
226
238
240
240
243
248
.................
A. 11.8
225
.......................
A.11.7
224
...........
..............
APPENDIX I l l
A.lll.1
................
258
. .. ..
NOMENCLATURE*
a m p l i t u d eo fs i n u s o i d a lo s c i l l a t i o n ,
f u n c t i o ni n t r o d u c e di n
Eq. (3.0.1)
f u n c t i o ni n t r o d u c e di n
c r o s s f l o wi n t e r f e r e n c e
fixederror
*M
Eq.
(3.D.l)
or p r o b ei n t e r f e r e n c e
as a measure o f probe-
BY
Chapman-Rubesin v i s c o s i t y parameter
AC
DG
by a l i n e a rp r e s s u r e .
dragcoefficientincrementproduced
g r a d i e n ti nt h et e s ts e c t i o n
RMS v a l u e o f f l u c t u a t i n g s t a t i c p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t
RMS f l u c t u a t i n g s t a t i c p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t p e r u n i t
widthatfrequency
n.
d i a m e t e ro f
DS
d i s t a n c e between c e n t e r so fs l o t si nt u n n e lw a l l
diameterofstaticpressureprobe
dl
d i a m e t e ro fP i t o tp r o b e
band
a t r a n s v e r s e ,c y l i n d r i c a l ,p r o b es u p p o r t
orifice diameter
F (n)
n o n d i m e n s i o n a ls p e c t r a lf u n c t i o nw h i c hi s
ameasure o f t h e
i n t e n s i t y o f s t a t i cp r e s s u r ef l u c t u a t i o n sp e ru n i t
band w i d t h
a tt h ef r e q u e n c y
n,
ACp =
f
fP
1;
F(n)dn
o s c i lf lraeotqfi oune n c y
frequencyofstaticpressurefluctuations
fr
f i n e n erpa
so
rstofi ob e
t o t a l head or s t a g n a t p
i or n
e s tsseu
ies
nrctet i o n
*Separate
lists of
symbolsappear
nose
(2Ln/d)
i n Appendices I and I I .
xi
t o t a l head i n s e t t l i n g chamber
Pitot pressure at
time-averaged,
a = 0 (eithersubsonicorsupersonic)
t o t a lp r e s s u r eb e h i n d
a normalshock
RMS o f f l u c t u a t i n g t o t a l p r e s s u r e b e h i n d
s l o t parameter, Eq.
a normalshock
(3.6.7)
model l e n g t h
nose 1 eng t h
d i s t a n c e from c o n e - c y l i n d e r j u n c t u r e t o n e a r e s t s t a t i c
pressure orifice
d i s t a n c ef r o m a s t a t i c p r e s s u r e o r i f i c e t o b e g i n n i n g o f
probeenlargement,e.g.,
f l a r e or support
Mach number based on s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i n
Machnumber
plenum chamber
i nt e s ts e c t i o n
mass f l o w p e r u n i t a r e a t h r o u g h v e n t i l a t e d w a l l
mass f l o w p e r u n i t a r e a i n f r e e s t r e a m o f t e s t s e c t i o n
n
r e d u c e df r e q u e n c yo fs t a t i cp r e s s u r ef l u c t u a t i o n s ,
"d
g e n e r a ld e s i g n a t i o nf o rd i r e c t i o nn o r m a l
s t a t i cp r e s s u r ei nf r e e s t r e a mo ft e s ts e c t i o n
<P' >
RMS o f f l u c t u a t i n g s t a t i c p r e s s u r e
fpwT/u,
to a w a l l
measured, unsteady s t a t i c p r e s s u r e
s t a t i cp r e s s u r ei ns e t t l i n g
chamber
t r u e ,u n s t e a d ys t a t i cp r e s s u r eo fu n d i s t u r b e df r e e s t r e a m
time-averaged,
s t a t i cP r e s s u r e
t r u es t a t i cp r e s s u r e
measuredona
i n d i c a t e d dynamicpressure,
probe o r t u n n e l s i d e w a l l
HI-P
incompressible definition of
dynamicpressure,
dynamic p r e s s u r e i n s e t t l i n g
chamber
dynamic p r e s s u r e o f f r e e s t r e a m i n t e s t s e c t i o n
porosityparameter,
Eq.
xi i
(3.G.5)
H-P
RS
number
ReynoldsRe
Rex
wingreferencearea,orwidthof
SY
sy*
period o f sinusoidal
oscillation
time
u(t1
total,
unsteady
velocity
along
ut4
toea1
uncertainty
Interval
"m
turbulent
friction
velocity,
Eq. ( 4 . 0 . 3 )
112
(T~IP)
mode 1 vo 1 ume
Vn(t)
total,unsteadyvelocitynormal
vn
WS
width of slots
WT
square root of
cross-sectional
area
Cartesian
coordinate
measured
along
the
tunnel
axis
Cartesian
coordinate
measured
normal to
the
tunnel
sidewalls
Carteslan
coordinaee
measured
normal
to
the
top
and
bottom
walls of tunnel
to
a probeaxis
o f test
section
Greek Letters
angle of attack
(I"
ratio of specific
heats
angle
between
ll
azmuthal
angle
polar
orcoordinate
angle
2 1 112
orifice planes
of
xiii
a probe
a probe
axis
for Mach
number,
us
T
a strutsupportfor
a yameter
9w
e'
W'
density of gas
wall porosity
TW
rlr
yaw
angle
xiv
I1.
INTRODUCTION
1 .A.
Background
in the final results. The demand for increased wind tunnel data accuracy follows naturally from the demand for improved full scale vehicle performance and
accuracy of performance prediction. A sustained effort has been directed toward
improving the accuracyof test data from existing wind tunnel facilitfcs. In
addition, requirements have been established for new wind tunnel facilities with
more complete simulation capabilities.
The results of one of the first comprehensivetest programs to study the
correlation of wind tunnel data from several transonic facilitieswere reported
by Treon et al. in Ref. ( I ) .
sting were used in each of the three tunnels, this unique series of tests allowed
a comparative evaluation of the effects of facility flow environment
and calibration upon data agreement. The results of this series of tests, using state-of-
but deficient
the-art techniques and instrumentation, were considered good
relative to current goals.
The purpose of this reportis to review the current state-of-the-art
of
t r a n s o n i c - w a l l - i n t e r f e r e n c ep r o b l e m ,t h eu s eo fs t a n d a r dm o d e l s ,
w h i c ho p t i c a l
methodscanhave
IV discusses
d u r i n gt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n s .S e c t i o n
o f e r r o r s i n c a l i b r a t i o n measurements and t h e i r e f f e c t s on
thevarioustypes
In a d d i t i o nt op r e s e n t i n gc o n c l u s i o n s
f i n a lr e s u l t s .
and r e c m e n d a t l o n s , a
summary o f t h eq u e s t i o n n a i r er e s u l t si sg i v e ni nS e c t i o n
w i t h four appendfces.Appendices
V.
Themanual
concludes
I and t i r e v i e w ,r e s p e c t i v e l y ,t h eu s eo fh o t - ,
1 1 1 d i s c u s s e st h ee f f e c t s
w i r t s / f i l m s and laserDopplervelocimeters.Appendix
o f v i b r a t i o no n
and t h e r o l e
a c y l i n d r i c a l ,s t a t i cp r e s s u r e
F i n a l l y , Appendix IV
probe.
sumnarizesthecharacteristicsoftunnelsforwhichquestionnaireswerereceived.
1 .B.
H i s t o r i c aS
l ketch
was recognizedbythe
As r e p o r t e db yP r i t c h a r di n
theRoyalAeronauticalSocietyagreed
i n 1870 t o p r o v i d e f u n d s f o r t h e c o n s t r u c -
t i o n o f 'la s u i t a b l e and w e l l - f i n i s h e d i n s t r u m e n t h a v i n g t h e
settingvariousplanesurfacesat
b o t hh o r i z o n t a l
tion.
seriesoftests
A laterreport
on f l a t p l a t e s
wereundertaken.
ontheresultsnotedthat"theseexperimentswould
steady and c o n t i n u o u s c u r r e n t
f l u c t u a t i o n sc a r r i e db y
i n f l u e n c eo nt h er e s u l t , "
by l a t e re x p e r i m e n t o r s ,
Theneed
e.g.,see
an a p p r e c i a b l e
was a l s or e c o g n i z e d
(3).
Mach) c o n s t r u c t e d a t u n n e la tV i e n n ai n
1893
a w i r es c r e e no v e rt h ei n l e tt os t r a i g h t e n
and s t r a i g h t e nt h ef l o wu p s t r e a m
The W r i g h tb r o t h e r s t' u n n e l ,c o n s t r u c t e di n
honeycomb.
A t u n n e lc o n s t r u c t e d
i n 1901 i n c l u d e ds c r e e n so fc h e e s ec l o t h
it revolved,exerted
photography.Thisapparatusused
bothscreens
have been
been o b t a i n e d , b u t t h e
f o r improved f l o w q u a l i t y
Ref.
t h ef l a w .I n
As a
more s a t i s f a c t o r y hada
Dr.
degrees o f i n c l i n a -
b ep u b l i s h e df o rt h eb e n e f i to ft h eS o c i e t y . ' '
means o f i n s t a n t l y
and capable o f r e g i s t e r i n g
and v e r t i c a l f o r c e s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y f o r a l l
The r e s u l t s t o
t h e Counci 1 o f
Ref.(21,
and w i r e t o
by D r . A .
1901, included
F. Zahm a t Washington
smooth t h e i n l e t f l o w .
force on a llpressure plate" or drag plateat the same time the flow velocity
during
was measured. This method allowed determination of the flow velocity
.later testsby observing the forceon the pressure plate,Ref. 4.
is
Add i t iona 1 discussion of early wind tunnels and measurement techniques
also given in an article by Goin -(Ref. 5).
From the beginning, the development of wind tunnel facilities has usually
been a precursor of improved flight vehicles as outlined by Goethert in Ref. 6.
The development of new and improved wind tunnels has, in turn, required new
calibration procedures, techniques and instrumentation in the struggle to
provide experimental data with the accuracy requiredby vehicle designers.
I.C.
of, t h e w i n d t u n n e l f l o w e n v i r o n m e n t
whichthisenvironmentis
measurements.
CalibratioP
n rocedures
and t h e a c c u r a c y w i t h
known c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e a c c u r a c y o f a e r o d y n a m i c
The t o t a l u n c e r t a i n t y i n
aerodynamicdata
i st h er e s u l t
11.8.2 and I V .
F i g u r e I . C . 1 , from Ref.
t h e manner i n w h i c he r r o r sp r o p a g a t e
c o e f f i c i e n t .C o n s i d e r i n gt h et o t a l
minimizethose
h e l p f u ls i n c e
of a
to a t y p i c a l t e s t r e s u l t
number o f e r r o r
suchasdrag
s o u r c e s ,t h en e c e s s i t yt o
due t ot u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o ni so b v i o u s .T h i sf l o wd i a g r a mi s
i t i s o l a t e st h ef a c i l i t yf l o we n v i r o n m e n t
and c a l i b r a t i o n elements
whicharediscussedherein.
Boththequalityoftheflow
conditionsare
and t h e a c c u r a c y w i t h w h i c h t h e f l o w
known a r e c o n s i d e r e d
as p a r t o f t h e c a l i b r a t i o n c o n t r i b u t i o n .
I t i s s u g g e s t e dt h a tt h ec a l i b r a t i o ne f f o r ti n c l u d et h ef o l l o w i n ge l e m e n t s :
1.
Initial evaluation
of performancecharacteristics
and f l o w q u a l i t y ,
and d e t e r m i n a t i o n as t o need f o r c o r r e c t i v e a c t i o n .
2.
D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f optimum tunneloperationalparameterssuchas
w a l la n g l e
3.
and p o r o s i t y ,c o n t r o l
systemperformance,etc.
D i a g n o s t i c measurements t o i n v e s t i g a t e
or
a specificflowproblem
deficiency.
4.
and
v a r i o u so p e r a t i n gc o n d i t i o n s .
5.
Standard model t e s t s f o r i n t e r - f a c i l i t y
6.
P e r i o d i cr e - e v a l u a t i o no fb a s i ct u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o nf o rc o n t r o l
comparisons.
or
may be accomplished i n p a r tb yt e s t so n
monitoringpurposes.This
a s t a n d a r d f a c i 1 it y model.
Consideringthe
above t a s kd e s c r i p t i o n s ,
q u a l i t y improvements, v e r i f i c a t i o n t e s t s
i n t i m a t e l yr e l a t e d .
The accuracyrequirements
typeofcalibrationtask
and theprimarypurpose
most s t r i n g e n t f o r i t e m s
directly to the
and
i t can be observedthatflow
and b a s i ct u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n sa r e
may vary,depending
upon t h e
6 s i n c ee r r o r si nt h e
random or f i x e d e r r o r i n t h e f i n a l d a t a .
measurements can c o n t r i b u t e
0
FACILITY
FORCE
I'
PRESSURE &
TEMPERATITRF: TRANSIENTS
I
Figure l . C . 1 .
DATA
AND
R . J.:
" F u r t h e rC o r r e l a t i o no f
Data From I n v e s t i g a t i o n so f
Subsonic-Speed T r a n s p o r t A i r c r a f t
Model i n ThreeMajor
a H i gh
Wind Tunne 1
2.
Dawn o f Aerodynamics,''Journal
P r i t c h a r d , J. L.:
"The
A e r o n a u t i c aS
l ociety,
3.
Randers-Pehrson,
H.
o f theRoyal
H. :
"PioneerblindTunnels,"
V.
M i s c e l l a n e o u s C o l l e c t ions.
4.
B i r d , K. D.:
1957,
Sept.-OCt.,
Cornel1AeronauticalLaboratories,Inc.
5.
Goin, K.
L.:
"The H i s t o r y ,E v o l u t i o n ,
Feb. 1971.
A l A A StudentJour.,
6.
Goethert, B. H . :
New York,
7.
pp 2-31,
Perrnagon P r e s s ,
1961.
P i c k l e s i m e r , J. R . ,
Lowe, W.
H.,
and Cumrning, D . P. :
''A Study o f
AEDC-TR-
I I.
II.A.l
TUNNEL VARIABLES
Types of Tunnels
The m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t e d h e r e i n i s d i r e c t e d t o w a r d w i n d t u n n e l s o p e r a t i n g
range from 0.4 t o 3.5.
i n t h e Machnumber
Themodes
o f o p e r a t i o n of t h e
(1) continuousflow,
v a r i o u sf a c i l i t i e ss u r v e y e di n c l u d e :
(3) i n t e r m i t t e n t .
I n thecase
of i n t e r m i t t e n t t u n n e l s ,
s h o r tr u nt i m e sr e q u i r es p e c i a lp r o v i s i o n sf o r
systems.
e.g.,
a Ludwiegtube,thevery
measurement and r e c o r d i n g
Pressure measurementscanbeaccomplishedusing
p r e s s u r et r a n s d u c e r so r
p r e s s u r ea f t e rt h er u n .
However,
i n o r d e rt oc a l i b r a t et h ef a c i l i t y
e i t h e rh i g h - r e s p o n s e
measurements o f
t h e same basicproceduresmustbefollowed
as f o r a l o n g - r u n - t i m ef a c i l i t y .
Thus, t h e
s p e c i a lp r o b l e m sa s s o c i a t e dw i t ht h es h o r tr u nt i m e so fi n t e r m i t t e n tt u n n e l s
a r en o td i s c u s s e d ,b u tt h eg e n e r a ld i s c u s s i o n so fc a l i b r a t i o np r o c e d u r e sa r e
applicable.
A l t h o u g ht r a n s o n i ct u n n e l sw i t hh i g h - a s p e c t - r a t i o
a r eg e n e r a l l yo p e r a t e da th i g h e r
d i s c u s s e ds e p a r a t e l y
(2-D) t e s t s e c t i o n s
Reynolds numbers, t h i st y p eo ft u n n e li sn o t
becausetheysharethe
same c a l i b r a t i o n problemsas
sym-
m e t r i c atl u n n e l s .
Discussionsofthevarioustopicsare
S u b d i v i s i o n si n t ot r a n s o n i c
o f a generalnaturewherepossible.
and supersonicareasare
t h ep e c u l i a r i t i e so ft h e s er e g i o n s .F u r t h e rs u b d i v i s i o n sa r e
a p p r o p r i a t e ,i nd i s c u s s i o n s
made where d i c t a t e d b y
made, as
o f details.
1I.B.
OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS
II.B.l
Pressure Control
Pressure controls are incorporatedin some form in all wind tunnels (with
the possible exception of supersonic,indraft tunnels).
are obviously different for transonic and supersonic wind tunnels and for
intermittent, blowdown and continuous wind tunnels. This section is limited
to discussions of pressure control systems as they influence tunnel calibraby these systems on
tion programs and the effects of variations introduced
tunnel flow quality and measurement accuracy.
Continuous Wind Tunnels
Continuous wind tunnels m a y be either pressure tunnelsor atmosphericvented tunnels. For the pressure or variable density wind
ditions.
T r a n s o n i ct u n n e lo p e r a t i o nr e q u i r e sa d d i t i o n a lc o n t r o lo ft h et e s ts e c t i o n
s t a t i cp r e s s u r e .I na d d i t i o nt oc o n t r o lo f
p r e s s u r ei sc o n t r o l l e d
by some t y p eo f
A t supersonic
t u n n e lp r e s s u r er a t i o s
t h e r e f o r e beone
a range o f
b yo t h e rc o n t r o lv a r i a b l e s .T u n n e l. p r e s s u r er a t i o
may
o ft h ev a r i a b l e si n v e s t i g a t e df o rt u n n e lf l o wo p t i m i z a t i o n ,i n
terms o f b o t h f l o w u n i f o r m i t y
shedby
canbeaccompli
r a t i o ,t h es t a t i c
1.4 a v a r i a b l e geometry,convergent-divergentnozzle
compressorpressure
ejectorflapswhich
Plenum evacuation
usethemainstreamflowto
pump t h e
beused.
Almost a l l o ft h ec o n t i n u o u st u n n e l sr e s p o n d i n gt ot h eq u e s t i o n n a
ma nua 1 con t r o 1 o f t o t a l
haveava i l a b l e
and s t a t i cp r e s s u r e ,a l t h o u g hs e v e r a l
automatic systems t o i n d i c a t e t h e
measured t e s t c o n d i t i o n s t o t h e o p e r a t o r s ,
a f e wi n c l u d ec l o s e d - l o o p ,a u t o m a t i cc o n t r o l .
a l a r g e one, t oc o n t r o li n p u t si si n f l u e n c e d
constantsinvolved.
These t i m ec o n s t a n t sa r e
A b e n e f i c i a le f f e c t
systems.
system
andsmoothed.
mentsover
a l o n g e rp e r i o dt h a nf o rs m a l l
F l u c t u a t i o n si nt h ec o n t r o l l e dp r e s s u r et e n dt oo c c u r
i s t h ei n v e r s e
naturalfrequency,which
can be verylong
a measurement o f t h e
atleast
Precise, smooth c o n t r o li sp o s s i b l e
changes i n l e v e l r e q u i r e
The p e r i o d o f t h e s ef l u c t u a t i o n s
ordertoobtain
and a r eg e n e r a l l yl a r g e .
o f t h el a r g et i m ec o n s t a n t si st h a ts h o r t - t e r md i s t u r b a n c e s
by manual c o n t r o l ,b u t
a tt h e
by thetime
a f u n c t i o no ft h ec i r c u l a t i n ga i r
o f t h em a i nd r i v e ,e t c . ,
tend t o be h e a v i l ya t t e n u a t e d
timeconstant
and
t u n n e l ,p a r t i c u l a r l y
mass, t h e r o t a t i o n a l i n e r t i a
i r e use
o f thetimeconstant.
- up
t o 10-15 seconds.
mean v a l u e o f t u n n e l f l o w c o n d i t i o n s ,
In
measure-
one p e r i o da r er e q u i r e d .
a significanteffect
o nt u n n e lf l o wq u a l i t y .I na d d i t i o nt ot h ea u t o m a t i cs t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r ec o n t r o l system, a u t o m a t i cc o n t r o l
blowdown w i n dt u n n e l sf o r
systems a r e used i n a m a j o r i t y o f t h e t r a n s o n i c ,
Mach number c o n t r o l a l s o .
The s t a g n a t i o n p r e s s u r e c o n t r o l f o r
v a l v e between t h es t o r a g er e s e r v o i r
i nt h e
chamber.
ablowdown
and t h e s t i l l i n g
Constantstagnationpressureisthenormal
windtunnel
uses a c o n t r o l
chamber t o c o n t r o l p r e s s u r e
mode o fo p e r a t i o n ,
be computer or program c o n t r o l l e d t o m a i n t a i n c o n s t a n t
or t h e
Reynolds number a s t h e s t a g n a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p s d u r i n g t h e r u n ,
pressure may be i n c r e a s e d l i n e a r l y w i t h t i m e t o i n v e s t i g a t e R e y n o l d s
number
e f f e c t s ,e x p l o r ef l u t t e rb o u n d a r i e s ,e t c .I ng e n e r a l ,t h ef u n c t i o n a lc a p a b i l i t y
ofthestagnationpressure
duction of digital
computer c o n t r o l .
From t h e f l o w q u a l i t y s t a n d p o i n t , t h e
ofthe
mostimportantperformanceparameter
system i s t h e a c c u r a c y o f p r e s s u r e c o n t r o l o r , i n
t h ev a r i a n c eo ft h es t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r ea b o u tt h e
more s p e c i f i ct e r m s ,
mean l e v e l .
about 1 secondand
thisvariationistypically
up t o 1/2%, can e a s i l y r e s u l t
misadjustment o ft h ec o n t r o l
must o p e r a t e c o n t i n u o u s l y
Thusa
much l a r g e r p e r t u r b a t i o n s ,
or
due t o e l e c t r i c a l n o i s e , m e c h a n i c a l f r i c t i o n
computer.
The s t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r ec o n t r o ls y s t e m
used for a
c o n t r o l l e ro fh i g h e ro r d e rt h a nt h a t
t o a c h i e v et h ed e s i r e d
c o n t i n u o u st u n n e lp r e s s u r ec o n t r o li su s u a l l yr e q u i r e d
accuracy.
The p e r i o d o f
t h ec u r r e n ts t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t
r e s e r v o i rp r e s s u r e .
A simpleregulatorisnormallyinadequate.
The shocksystemgenerateddownstream
oftheblowdown-wind-tunnelControl
v a l v e may i n t r o d u c ee x c e s s i v ef l o wu n s t e a d i n e s s .T e s t - s e c t i o nf l o wa n g u l a r i t y
may a l s o v a r y w i t h v a l v e p o s i t i o n
(and t h e r e f o r e ,t i m e ) .
channel,fromthestoragereservoirtothestilling
when d e s i g n i n gt h es t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r ec o n t r o l
been accomplished i n r e c e n t y e a r s t o i d e n t i f y
b yt h es t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r ec o n t r o l
choked-flowdevices
a c o u s t i cs i l e n c e r s
system.
Considerablework
has
included
chamber.
used i nt r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s ,t h e
Mach
a d e s i r e d Mach number by c o n t r o l l i n g
blowdown,
a choked t h r o a t downstream o f t h e t e s t s e c t i o n t o c o n t r o l
10
system.
as a f u n c t i o no fs t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r e .A l m o s ta l l
t r a n s o n i ct u n n e l su s e
o fa t t a c k )
chamber, mustbeconsidered
and honeycombs i n t h e s t i l l i n g
number c o n t r o l , f u n c t i o n s t o m a i n t a i n
Machnumber
Thus, t h e e n t i r e f l o w
i n s e r i e s downstream o f t h e v a l v e , s p e c i a l i z e d v a l v e s ,
A second pressurecontrolsystem
s t a t i cp r e s s u r e
primaryadvantage
ofthiscontrol
i s determinedbythetestsectiongeometry(at
and i s t h e r e f o r e
mode i s t h a t t h e
a f i x e d model a n g l e
independent o f f l u c t u a t i o n si ns t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r e .
A u t o m a t i cc o n t r o l
of t h e downstream t h r o a t a r e a i s
used i n anumber
of facili-
t i e s .A u t o m a t i cc o n t r o li sh i g h l yd e s i r a b l ei no r d e rt om a i n t a i nc o n s t a n t
number d u r i n g model a t t i t u d e v a r i a t i o n s and simultaneouslymaintain
plenumevacuation.Moresophisticatedoperational
computer c o n t r o l , suchas
Machnumber
possibleatsubsonic
under
The performance o f t h i s
t o be 'about 0.001.
Currentbestperformanceappears
optimum
modes a r e a v a i l a b l e
sweeps, e t c .
system a l s o d i r e c t l y i n f l u e n c e s t h e v a r i a t i o n
Mach
Machnumber.
butlargervariationsare
speeds, p a r t i c u l a r l y a t h i g h m o d e l - p i t c h r a t e s .
I n t h e absence o f p e r t u r b a t i o n s i n t r o d u c e d
by t h e Mach o r s t a t i c p r e s s u r e
c o n t r o ll o o p ,s m a l lv a r i a t i o n si ns t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r ec a n n o tn e c e s s a r i l y
takenintoaccountbysimultaneous
be
measurement of t h e twopressuresbecause
of
phase l a g and a t t e n u a t i o n e r r o r s .
An i m p o r t a n tp r o c e d u r a ld i f f e r e n c ei nm a k i n gc a l i b r a t i o n
a blowdown tunnel i s thatrunsshould
where a l l t u n n e l v a r i a b l e s a r e h e l d c o n s t a n t d u r i n g
o r d e rt od e t e c tt i m eo rv a l v ep o s i t i o n
a n g u l a r i t yp r o b ei s
measurements i n
an e n t i r e blowdown,
dependent e f f e c t s .
If a traversing
moved a l o n g t h e t u n n e l c e n t e r l i n e d u r i n g t h e r u n , f o r
time-dependent e f f e c t s will be o b s c u r e d b y t h e s p a t i a l v a r i a t i o n s
I n t e r m i t t e n t( I m p u l s e )
b a s i c blowdown mode, b u t w i t h
canbeapplied
a r u nt i m eo fa b o u t
a t y p i c a lf a c i l i t yo ft h i sc l a s s .
to e i t h e r a supersonicor
t i o np r e s s u r e
b et h o s et h a to p e r a t ei n
t o 5 seconds or less.
The
The Ludwieg p r i n c i p l e
and i st h e r e f o r er e l a -
An advantage o f theLudwiegtunnel
i st h a tt h es t a g n a -
downstream o ft h ei n i t i a le x p a n s i o nt u b ei sc o n s t a n t( n e g l e c t i n g
v i s c o u se f f e c t s ) .
withthe
and v i c ev e r s a .
a transonicwindtunnel.Pressure
c o n t r o li sl i m i t e dt ot h ei n i t i a lc h a r g et u b ep r e s s u r e
t i v e l ys t r a i g h t f o r w a r d .
example,
Wind Tunnels
I n t e r m i t t e n tw i n dt u n n e l sa r ec o n s i d e r e dt o
Ludwieg t u n n e li s
in
The p r i m a r yc a l i b r a t i o n
L u d w i e gt u n n e lo b v i o u s l ya r i s e
measurement problemsassociated
from t h e s h o r t t e s t d u r a t i o n .
11
ll.B.2
Flow U n i f o r m i t y and R e l a t i o n s h i pt o
C a l i b r a t i o nA c c u r a c y ,
The c a l i b r a t i o n o f a t r a n s o n i c w i n d t u n n e l i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y
than calibration of
s e c t i o nw a l l s .
a supersonictunnel
The v e n t i l a t e d w a l l s
as i s t h ec a s ew i t h
from t u n n e l o r n o z z l e
a c a l i b r a t e ds u p e r s o n i ct u n n e ln o z z l e .
i sr e q u i r e dd u r i n gc a l i b r a t i o n
geometry,the
flow
and t h e b a s i c n a t u r e o f t r a n s o n i c
and r o u t i n et e s to p e r a t i o n s .F u r t h e r ,f o rf i x e d
model o r o t h e r a p p a r a t u s i n t h e t e s t s e c t i o n
can i n f l u -
These f a c t o r sr e q u i r et h a tt h et u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o np r o v i d e
a r e l a t i o n between t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e t e s t s e c t i o n
r e f e r e n c ep r e s s u r e
measured i n t h e
a ventilatedwall,
i.e.,
by t h ea d d i t i o n a ld e g r e e s
w a l la n g l e ,w a l lp o r o s i t y( f o ra d j u s t a b l ep o r o s i t yw a l l s ) ,
r a t e ,t u n n e lp r e s s u r er a t i o ,
Criteria for
plenum e v a c u a t i o nf l o w
and choke c o n t r o l p o s i t i o n
optimum a d j u s t m e n t i n c l u d e u n i f o r m i t y o f
sonic speeds,
anda
plenum chamber o r o n t h e v e n t i l a t e d w a l l .
T r a n s o n i ct u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o ni sf u r t h e rc o m p l i c a t e d
of freedom providedby
geom-
t o s t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r e ,
measurement o f t e s t s e c t i o n s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , i n a d d i t i o n
t e s ts e c t i o n
more d i f f i c u l t
due p r i m a r i l y t o t h e v e n t i l a t e d t e s t
p r e v e n tt h ed e t e r m i n a t i o no ft e s ts e c t i o nc o n d i t i o n s
e t r ya l o n e ,
Model T e s t i n g
must a l l be determined.
u s u a l l ye v a l u a t e d
based on t e s t so fc o n e - c y l i n d e r
additiontominimizingvariationsin
A t subsonic speeds,
and f o r c e s ona
standardmodel.
A recent
I ) p r o v i d e s a comprehensivediscussionoftheprocedures
employed i ns e l e c t i n at r a n s o n i ct u n n e lp a r a m e t e r st om i n i m i z e
Machnumber
varia-
tions.
Many o ft h et r a n s o n i ct u n n e l ss u r v e y e dd e t e r m i n et h ew a l la n g l e
shock and expansion wave c a n c e l l a t i o n a t s u p e r s o n i c
basedon
speeds, and t h i s a n g l e i s
oftenmaintainedconstantatall
Mach numbers, w h i l e o t h e r s a d j u s t t h e w a l l
a n g l ea c c o r d i n gt o
schedule.
w i t h Machnumber
a Machnumber
will p r o v i d e amore
c o m b i n a t i o n so f
Mach numbers i s b a l a n c i n g o f
a c h o k e - c o n t r o l l e d blowdown tunnel.
The
plenum pumpingand
u s u a l l y chosen i s t o m i n i m i z e
12
I ng e n e r a l ,a d j u s t m e n to fw a l la n g l e
uniformflow.
A t y p i c a lo p t i m i z a t i o np r o b l e ma ts u b s o n i c
a v e r a g et e s ts e c t i o n
in
Mach number d i s t r i b u t i o n , o t h e r c r i t e r i a f o r
o p t i m i z a t i o na r et u n n e ln o i s el e v e l
r e p o r t byJackson(Ref.
models.
chokearea.Forexample,the
criterion
theupstreamvalue.
Downstream d i s t u r b a n c e si n
Machnumber
becausetheycancreatebouyancyeffectsfurther
ancemagnitude
i se x t r e m e l ys e n s i t i v et o
upstream.Sincethedisturbchanges i n plenumpumping
0 . 8 5 , t h e optimumpumping
and m a i n t a i n e dc o n s t a n tf o rr o u t i n et e s t i n g .
c o n t r o l l e d by v a r y i n g t h e
a r eu n d e s i r a b l e
a t subsonic
i s d e t e r m i n e dd u r i n gc a l i b r a t i o n
The t e s ts e c t i o n
chokeareawhichdoesnot
alter the
Machnumber
is
downstream d i s t u r b -
ance.
A s i m i l a ru p s t r e a md i s t u r b a n c eo c c u r sa t
one o f thepurposes
+O.OOl,
v a r i o u sl i m i t ss u c ha s
beadopted
20.002,
Machnumber
etc.Jackson(Ref.
as a ni n d u s t r ys t a n d a r df o r
I ) hassuggested
shouldbelessthan
0.01
minimum Machnumber
and t h e r e f o r e f l o w q u a l i t y f o r
i nt h e
Machnumber.
TransonicTunnel
variations in ( I )
M = 1.4,
2.8.1
as a
16T
from t h e AEDC-PWT
comparison.
havesuggestedevenmore
s t r i n g e n tr e q u i r e m e n t s
These i n v e s t i g a t o r s havesuggestedthe
f l o w a n g u l a r i t y be+0.1
-
degand
maximum a l l o w e d
(2) Machnumber
be 20.003 a t
+0.005 a t M = 2, +0.01 a t !
I= 3 .
I t should be n o t i c e d t h a t c r i t e r i a
based o nt h es t a n d a r dd e v i a t i o n
d i s t i n g u i s h between random o r p e r i o d i c v a r i a t i o n s
t u n n e ls t a t i cp r e s s u r eg r a d i e n t s .
t e s ts e c t i o n
mustbe
bouyancy c o r r e c t i o n s c a n b e
o f model drag.
Thus,
empty-
The s t a t i c p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n a l o n g t h e
any g r a d i e n t
o f accuracy so t h a t
made t o a t t a i n t h e r e q u i r e d a c c u r a c y i n
I t i st h e r e f o r eo fi n t e r e s tt oi n v e s t i g a t e ,i n
manner, t h e e f f e c t s
must be g i v e n t o
e i t h e rc o n s t a n t( w i t h i na c c e p t a b l el i m i t s )o r
known a n d r e p e a t a b l e t o
do n o t
and mean f l o w g r a d i e n t s .
i n a d d i t i o n to s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n c r i t e r i a , c o n s i d e r a t i o n
mustbe
Of
and s e t o f t u n n e l
shown i nF i g .
Recent c a l i b r a t i o nd a t a
i sa l s oi n c l u d e df o r
for supersonictunnels.
case o f supersonicflows.
a g i v e nt e s ts e c t i o nl e n g t h
M o r r i s and Winter(Ref.2)
Mach
number
deviationisindicativeofthebestdistribution
c o n d i t i o n s .J a c k s o n ' sf l o wq u a l i t yc r i t e r i aa r e
f u n c t i o no f
the
"good f l o w q u a l i t y " i n
2a d e v i a t i o n si nc e n t e r l i n e
flow
d e v i a t i o n does n o t exceed
transonictunnels.Forsubsonicflows,
course,the
Therefore,
1.0.
o f a c a l i b r a t i o n program i s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r e g i o n o f
alongthetestsectionwithinwhichthe
followingcriteria
of testsectionpressuregradientondrag
and how t h i s r e l a t e s t o f l o w q u a l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s .
measurements
a systematic
measurement accuracy
0.024
l-
0.020
0.01 6
-0
I-
"JACKSON
->
:0 . 0 12
a
"
16T DATA
AEDC-PWT
,/
S CR I T E R I A FOR "GOOD"
FLON QUAL 1 T Y
t
.
'3
0.008
-"
"
I:
0.004
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
1 .o
0.8
TESTSECTIONMACHNUMBER,
F i g u r e 2.8.1
JACKSON'S FLOW Q U A L I T YC R I T E R I A
1.2
1.4
1.6
Mm
FORTRANSONICTUNNELS,Ref.
1.
1.8
The bouyancy d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t r e s u l t i n g
from a l i n e a r s t a t i c p r e s s u r e
3) can be s t a t e d as
g r a d i e n t (Ref.
AC
DG
dP/dx
(2.8.1)
qw
bouyancyon
Based onmodel
above equation,lsaacs
DG
t o an a c c u r a c yo f
g r a d i e n tf o r
0.0001,
, one
-qd,x -dP
should be
known t o
t o 0.00043 per f t ) i n o r d e r
dragcount.
2) d e t e r m i n e dt h ea l l o w a b l ep r e s s u r e
andWinter(Ref.
r e c t a n g u l a r - w i n g ,a i r c r a f t
g r a d i e n ti nt e r m so f
o f 1% o f t h e
modeland
AP/H overthe
model drag.
Eq. 2.8.1,
t h ea l l o w a b l ep r e s s u r e
corresponding Machnumber
a t ?l= 3.0.
number g r a d i e n t , i n p e r c e n t
0.002 a t
g r a d i e n to v e rt h e
Mach number.
o f t h ec o n f i g u r a t i o nc o n s i d e r e di n d i c a t e d
a t M = 1.4 and0.00013
Based on an assumed,
and 0.31% a t M
a bouyancydrag
dragcoefficient
V/S
(0.00014
i .e.
of
models i n a 2.44-111 ( 8 - f t )
valuesoftheparameter
w i n dt u n n e l s ,M o r r i s
4) i n v e s t i g a t e dt h ee f f e c t s
I n a studyof
(Ref.
i st h e
DG
by t h ep r e s s u r eg r a d i e n t .
thedragoftypical,transportaircraft
windtunnel.
i st h ea v e r a g et e s t
and AC
dP/dx i st h ep r e s s u r eg r a d i e n t
d r a gc o e f f i c i e n ti n c r e m e n tp r o d u c e d
U t i l i z i n gt h e
qm
The estimated
On a p e r - d r a g - c o u n tb a s i s ,t h ea l l o w a b l e
Mach
-- 3.0.
model c o n f i g u r a t i o nv a r i a b l e s
specificheatratioof
1.4,
P
H
M 2) -3.5
- x
qW
H
- D
(1
0.2
0.7 M 2 ( 1
Assuminga
t h er e l a t i o n s
+ 0.2
(2.B.2)
M2 -3.5
(2.B.3)
15
may beused
t o w r i t e Eq.
(2.6.1)as
#-
(2. e.4)
M (1+0.2 Hz)
Eq.
Mach
number
v a r i a t i o np e r
model length.
(2.6.4) becomes
AC
"[
DG
2
M(I+O.Z )
'M
SLm
AM
(2.6.5)
and i s t h e r e -
o f model scale.Figure
gradient,overthe
model l e n g t h ,f o r
2.8.2 shows t h ea l l o w a b l e
a b o u y a n c y - i n d u c e d ,d r a gc o e f f i c i e n te r r o r
o f 0.0001 as a f u n c t i o no ft h ec o n f i a u r a t i o np a r a m e t e r
Owing t o t h i s
m'
measurements a c c u r a t e t o w i t h i n one c o u n t , t h e r e
extreme s e n s i t i v i t y o f d r a g
a r e anumber
s h o r tw a v e l e n g t hv a r i a t i o n si n
Machnumber
length.
V/SL
o f problems i na c h i e v i n gt h i sg o a l .F o r
p r e s s u r ed i s t r i b u t i o n s ,
def.ine.
i f t h e random,
example,
a r et o ol a r g e ,t h e
mean g r a d i e n t
measured d u r i n g c a l i b r a t i o n s , t o i n t e g r a t e
However, t h i s procedurecanbe
r e p e a t a b i l i t yo ft u n n e lf l o wc o n d i t i o n s .
i ne r r o r
lrt thecase
1 ) has foundthat
Jackson(Ref.
o ft r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s ,t h e
e.g.,
Parker(Ref.
o f 0.003
i nt u n n e l
T h i s i s an e f f e c tt h a ti sf r e q u e n t l yi g n o r e d
d u r i n gt r a n s o n i ct u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n s .
The d a t a o f F i g .
2.6.2
a r ea l s o
shown i n F i g .
gradientexpressedinpercentoftheaveraae
the criteria
shown onFig.
suggestedby
2.8.4
2.B.4
withthe
Mach
number.
M o r r i s and Winter'(Ref.
Machnumber
P o i n t sd e r i v e df r o m
2) f o r s u p e r s o n i c
f o r comparison.Thiscomparisonindicatesthe
flow are
model
c o n f i g u r a t i o n used by M o r r i s and W i n t e r t o e s t a b l i s h f l o w u n i f o r m i t y c r i t e r i a
hada
16
5)
6
6
from 4.1 x 10 t o 15.8 x 10 (permeter)cancauseanincrease
Mach number, see F i g . 2.6.3.
Over t h e model
because o fl a c ko fe x a c t
Mach
number
"
sLm
L/
2
3
T E S TS E C T I O N
~ l ~ u 2r . 8e. 2
MACH NUHEER
ALLOWABLE
LINEAR
MACH
NUMBER
GRADIENT
OVER MODELLENGTH
FOR BOUYANCYDRAG
C O E F F I C I E N TC Q N T R I B U T I O N OF 0.0001
17
0.020
0.016
0.012
Hm
Mc
0.008
0.004
0
0
1 .o
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Re x 10-6/ft
I~
12
16
20
Re x 10'6/m
Flgure 2.8.3
18
EFFECTS OF REYNOLDS
NUMBER
ON C A L I B R A T I O N OF THE PWf-16T
TUNNELAT
M _ = 0.6 AND 0.8 FOR Ow = 0 AND T = 6%
.5
1.0
1.5
TESTSECTIONMACHNUMBER,
F i g u r e 2.8.4.
2.5
2.0
3.0
MACH
NUHHER
GRADIENT
O V E R NOOELLENGTHASPERCENT
NUMBER FOR RQUYANCY DRAG C O E F F I C I E N TO F
0.0001
OF AVERAGE
MACH
3.5
The v a l u eo ft h ep a r a m e t e r
V/SLm f o r s e v e r a l a i r c 2r. a f t t y p i c a l
a t t a c k and t r a n s p o r t c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a r e l i s t e d
-m
F-1 5
0.054
F-16
0.048
YF-17
0.043
A-7
0.071
oc-8
0.061
DC-9
0.088
DC-IO
0.083
8-741
0.065
8-727-100
0.076
8-727-200
0.056
C-141A
0.055
C -5A
0.078
The above d a t a d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e v a r i a t i o n
i n V/SLm w i t h a i r c r a f t t y p e
i s n o tl a r g e ,a tl e a s t
F o rc o n v e n t i o n a lc o n f i g u r a t i o n s ,
c o n f i g u r a t i o ns e l e c t e d
s u p e r s o n i cf i g h t e ra i r c r a f t .
I t i s a n t i c i p a t e dt h a t
V/SL,
t h e r e f o r e be more s e n s i t i v e t o
and t h a tt h e
model
i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v eo f
V/STOL c o n f i g u r a t i o n s
t h a nt h ea i r c r a f tl i s t e d
above
and would
Hach number q r a d i e n t e f f e c t s .
Due totheapproximatevalues
used f o r some o f t h e a i r c r a f t
valuesof W/SL,
shouldberegarded
as approximate.
20
fighter,
W/SL
Aircraft
would have a l a r g e rv a l u eo f
OF
below.
volumes, the
I I .D.
1.
Jackson, F. M.:
2.
" C a l i b r a t i o no ft h e
\,la11 P o r o s i t i e s o f
TestSection
Jan.
M o r r i s , 0.
E. and & l i n t e r ,
Glauert, H.:
A.R.C.
4.
AEDC-PWT
1 6 - F t TransonicTunnel
at
AEDC-TR-76-13,
1976.
K. G . :
3.
P.eferences
R&M
Isaacs, 0 . :
"Requirements f o rU n i f o r m i t yo f
Flow
"Wind Tunnel I n t e r f e r e n c e on
Vinqs,
Yodies
and A i l e r o n s , "
1566 (1933).
" C a l i b r a t i o no ft h e
R.A.E.
Bedford 8 - f t .
x 3 - f t . Wind Tunnel
5.
Parker,
P..
L.:
Allow f o r t h e D i r e c t
"Flow G e n e r a t i o nP r o p e r t i e s
TestSectionWallConfiaurations,"
and Crlockaae
o f FiveTransonic
AEOC-TR-75-73,
to
Aug.
1975.
Wind Tunnel
1I.C.
a Mach number accuracy of 0.001 has been suggested (i.e., Ref. I).
The neces-
It
also may be noted that for a typical fighter aircraft configuration the trano f 0.001 is "equivalent"
sonic drag riseis such that a Mach numt.er uncertainty
nozzle setting.
Figures 2.C.l and 2 were obtained through private communication with Mr.
Jack
Runkel. NASA Langley Research Center. This requirement for a Mach number accuracy
O f at least 0.001
i s also substantiated by the recent nozzle-afterbody tests
reported by Spratley and Thompson (Ref. 1 7 ) .
22
NASALANGLEY
TAILINTERFERENCE
MODEL
M = .95
.28
cD
.24
"jdP
Figure 2.C.l
h)
MACH
NUMBER
OF 0.95
NASA LANGLEY
T A I LI N T E R F E R E N C E
MODEL
.2a
.24
%
.20
.16
Figure 2 . C . 2
AFTERBODYDRAGDATA
WITHTUNNEL
MACH
NUMBER
GIVEN TOTHREEDECIMALS
Inthetransonicregion
may beused
a staticpressureprobe,orarray
t or e l a t et h er e f e r e n c e
regard t o t h eh i g h e r
uncertaintyin
o f probes
and t e s ts e c t i o ns t a t i cp r e s s u r e s .W i t h
i s e n t r o p i ct o t a l ,
Hs,
and P i t o t , H2,
p r e s s u r e sb yt h ef o l l o w i n gr e l a t i o n s
1.4):
(assuming t h e r a t i o o f s p e c i f i c h e a t s i s
" - a H2
aHS
aM[
H2
HS
P-,
35 (M2
112
(M2 + 5) (7M2
1)
I f it i s assumed t h a tt h et o t a lp r e s s u r ei s
(2.c.1)
measured i n t h e s t i l l i n g
(2.c.2)
a nd
S o l v i n g for
i nt h ef i r s te q u a t i o n
and s u b s t i t u t i n gi n t ot h el a t t e r ,
t h ef o l l o w i n ge x p r e s s i o ni so b t a i n e d .
aH2
"
H2
5 (M2-1)2
M2 ( 7M2- 1 )
'Pm
= o
Po0
(2.C.4)
which yields
aH2
-
a pm
"2
Since
2.
H2
(2.C.5)
M2(7M2-l)
3.5
[F]
2
'
[4"]
2.5
,then
7H - 1
pm
canbe
5 (M - 1 )
(2.C.6)
aH2
a pm
s i m p l i f i e d to:
Hence t h e r a t i o o f u n c e r t a i n t y o f P i t o t - t o - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e
f u n c t i o no f
r a t i o becomes 1 near M
M
1.6,
occursbecausethe
e r r o r si nc a l c u l a t e d
Mach number a t an
may be g r e a t e rt h a n, . t h ee r r o ri n
Mach numbers g r e a t e rt h a n
staticpressure
andsmallabsoluteerrors
It may benotedthatthe
Thus, f o r a s p e c i f i e de r r o ri n
t h ee r r o ri ns t a t i cp r e s s u r e
P i t o tp r e s s u r e .F o r
Mach
1.6.
2.C.3.
becomes a simple
1.6 t h er e v e r s ei st r u e .T h i s
becomes v e r y s m a l l a t h i g h
Mach numbers,
i n t h e .measurement of Pm produce r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e
Mach number.
3 theabsoluteerrorinPitotpressure
t h es t a t i cp r e s s u r ee r r o rf o rt h e
canbe
same e r r o r i n c a l c u l a t e d
the use o f s t a t i c p r e s s u r e f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n
shows t h a t a t
Mach number.
o f Mach number i s g e n e r a l l y
r e s t r i c t e d to Mach numbers l e s s t h a n
1.6; w h i l e P i t o t p r e s s u r e
(withstagnationpressure)athigher
Mach numbers.
*Also
26
Thus
i s employed
The pressure o f t h e t e s t
StagnationPressure:
medium i s measured w i t h t h e
The s e t t l i n g chamber ( i s e n t r o p i cs t a g n a t i o n )p r e s s u r e ,
used for b o t h t r a n s o n i c
and supersonicoperation.
Hs, i s g e n e r a l l y
Because o f t h e a f o r e -
H2,
( p i t o t )p r e s s u r e ,
Dynamic P r e s s u r e :
i s employedaboveanominal
Dynamic pressure, q,
flow parameterused
i s perhapsthe
tonormalizewindtunneldata.
most f r e q u e n t l y employed
d i r e c t l yr e f l e c t e di nt h ea c c u r a c yo fc o e f f i c i e n td a t a .I n
afterstaticpressure
hasbeen
M2Pm
I nt h et r a n s o n i c
Mach number.
mostinstances,
obtained bymeasurement
(transonic)or
by
inference(supersonic)
q =
q is
Thus t h ea c c u r a c yo f
(2.c.8)
Pm and !i
a r e measured.
S
range,both
F i g . 2.C.4
shows
t h es e n s i t i v i t yo f
E r r o r si ne i t h e ra f f e c t
q t o HS w h i c hr e s u l t ss o l e l y
q+pm
aM
= YMP-
(2.C.9)
a HS
aHS
-5
q
31
7~5
(aM/M)/(aHS/Hs)
= 2
aHs
(1 + .2M
Il.C.3)
that
(2.C. IO)
28
-5
Figure 2.C.4
1.0
Mach Number
1.5
2 .o
Equation 2.C.10may
b es u b s t i t u t e di n t ot h ep r e c e d i n ge q u a t i o n
to o b t a i n
(2.c.11)
Errors i n Pm a f f e c t
as i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g .
= yMPm
From q =
2.C.5.
7
Y
Mach number
M 2 Pm :
aM
+ -$ M 2
a
(2.c.12)
(2.C.13)
It will beshown
(aM/(aPm/Pm))
i nS e c t i o n
aM/ (aPJP,)
+ I
(2.C. 14)
Il.C.3 t h a t
- 7M
( 1 +.2M )
(2.C.15)
which upon s u b s t i t u t i o n y i e l d s
(aq/q)/(aPm/Pm)
7 ~ z(M2+5)
D u r i n gS u p e r s o n i co p e r a t i o n ,c a l i b r a t e d
(2.C.16)
30
2.C.6.
The f u n c t i o ni l l u s t r a t e di nt h i sf i g u r e
was obtained
05
I
I
1.0
Mach
er
-2
-3
-4
Figure 2.C.5
'K)
STATIC
31
Mach Number
-1
-2
-3
-4
Figure 2.c.6
(2.C.'17)
(2.C. 18)
= 2
As shown i nS e c t i o n
(2.C. 19)
( a P /P ) / , ( ~ M / M )
W O D
ll.C.3,
aM/(aPw/Pw)
5
- 7M ( 1
2
.2M )
(2.C.20)
hence
(aM/M)/(aP
/P w 1 =
- -
( I + .2M ) -
(2.C.21)
7M2
Then
(2.C.22)
or
(2.C.23)
I n a s i m i l a r manner, e r r o r s i n
HS canbe
shown t o havea
o n e - t o - o n er e l a t i o n s h i p
w i t h errors i n q.
A t lowsubsonic
Mach numbers, t h e p r e s s u r e r a t i o
ments o ft h ei n d i v i d u a lp r e s s u r e s
- )P,
Pw/HS approaches u n i t y ,
pressure from
becomes increasinglyInaccurate.
0.4)a
directlywith
p r e f e r r e dp r o c e d u r e
measure-
A t these
i s t o measure t h e
a o
lw rangetransducer
dynamicpressurefrom:
(2.C.24)
33
0.14 percent a t M = 0 . 5 u s i n g o n l y t h e f i r s t
For example, t h e e r r o r i s o n l y
term.
A t M = 1.0,the
of t h e ' s e r i e s i s u s u a l l y r e q u i r e d .
firstthree
terms y i e l d r e s u l t s a c c u r a t e t o
0.1 per-
cent.
I I .C.2
Temperature
As a fundamental s t a t ep r o p e r t y ,s t r e a m( s t a t i c )t e m p e r a t u r ei so f
o f t h ef l u i df l o w .
s u b s t a n t i a li m p o r t a n c ei ne s t a b l i s h i n gt h ec h a r a c t e r
Thus a na c c u r a t ev a l u eo ft e m p e r a t u r ei sr e q u i r e di nw i n dt u n n e lt e s t i n gt o
d e t e r m i n es e v e r a lc o r r e l a t i o np a r a m e t e r sw h i c hd e f i n et h en a t u r eo ft h ef l o w .
The d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f s t a t i c t e m p e r a t u r e i n
i n v o l v e sa ni n d i r e c t
measurement.
a gasstreamconventionally
Stagnationtemperature
i s a convenient
from t h es t a g n a t i o n
e s t a b l i s h e dp r o c e d u r e sf o rc o m p u t i n gs t a t i ct e m p e r a t u r e
value and f l o w Mach number.
F i g u r e 2.C.7
i l l u s t r a t e st h er e l a t i o no f
a p e r f e c t gas ( y = 1.4)
s t a g n a t i o n - t o - s t a t i ct e m p e r a t u r ef o r
i n an a d i a b a t i c
= 1
operateatmoderatepressures
a r en e g l i g i b l e .
I t can beseen
t i o n temperature, To,
34
t h a t an e r r o r i n t h e
measurement o f stagna-
isdirectlyreflectedinthestatic
temperature.
Mach Number
I I . C.
3 t,iach Number
s e t t l i n g chamber
( P i t o t ) s t a g n a t i o np r e s -
I nt h et r a n s o n i cr e g i o n ,
(2.C.25)
de r i v a t i v e o f t h e above e x p r e s s i o n w i t h
HS, i.e.,
(2. C .27)
T h i se x p r e s s i o n
may be n o n - d i m e n s i o n a l i t e d t o o b t a i n
7M
aM/(aHS/Hs) =
( -"45
(2.C.28)
pW
or
Similarly,thenon-dimensionalsensitivity
be
aH/(aPw/Pw)=
- 7M
( 1 + .2M )
(2.C.30)
which i 1 l u s t r a t e s t h a t
":$,;.
. . ..
aM/(aPw/Pw) =
aM/(aHS/Hs)
(2.C.31)
The r e l a t i o n o f s t a g n a t i o n p r e s s u r e b e h i n d
as aMach
a normalshock,
H2,
t o HS
number f u n c t i o n i s :
(2.C.32)
Thisrelation
will n o t y i e l d
therefore,thesensitivityof
numer i c a l ,f i n i t ei n t e r v a l
an e x p l i c i t e x p r e s s i o n f o r
Machnumber
approach.
Mach number,
t o H2 was evaluatedusing
A s p r e v i o u s l y shown
(2.C.33)
These s e n s i t i v i t i e s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n
Thisfigureconsistently
e r r o ri n
showsa
Fig.
l a r g e r Machnumber
Hs and H2 t h a np e rp e r c e n te r r o ri n
nominalvalues
o f HS, PW and H
magnitude o f Machnumber
thesuperiorityof
2.C.8.
H S and Pa
e r r o rp e rp e r c e n t
However, when
2 a r es u b s t i t u t e da p p r o p r i a t e l y ,t h er e l a t i v e
errorper
N/m2
errorinthe
measurement i l l u s t r a t e s
2.C.9).
37
2.4
2 .o
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
f o r M = f ( H S , P,)
Mach Number
Figure 2.C
E. l
-1600
-1300
"200
-1OOO
x
-800
-600
-400
-2oc
C
1
Mach Number
Figure 2 .c. 9
lo6
N/m2
I 1 .C.4
F l o wA n g u l a r i t y
and C u r v a t u r e
from n o z z l e c o n t o u r e r r o r s ,
ir r e g u l a r i t i e s o r d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s i n t h e i n t e r n a l s u r f a c e s o f
in-floworout-flow
upstream o f t h en o z z l eo rc o n t r a c t i o n .
pressure
t i o n si nf l o wp r o p e r t i e si n c l u d i n gs t a t i c
ancesby
2.C. 10).
Thus s t e p sa r e
means a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e p a r t i c u
p l a t e si nr e g i o n s
wherean
t a k e nt o
l a rt u n n e l
Machnumber
suchas
40
configuration.
These
of
shockdown would
4).
o f c e r t a i n model c o n f i g u r a t i o n s t o
l o c a lf l o wd i r e c t i o n
i s necessary t o d e f i n e v i a c a l i b r a t i o n
Section I I1.E.
dissipatethesedisturb-
u n c o n t r o l l e d ,h i g h - p r e s s u r e - r a t i o
Because o f t h e a c u t e s e n s i t i v i t y
i nt h et e s ts e c t i o n .
and t h e r e f o r e , Mach
f l o w , and more r e c e n t l y , p e r f o r a t e d
g e n e r a t ea d d i t i o n a lu n d e s i r a b l ep e r t u r b a t i o n s( R e f .
n o n - u n i f o r m i t yo ff l o w
in gradients or varia-
c o r r e c t i o n s ,i n s t a l l a t i o n
c o r r e c t i v ea c t i o n si n c l u d en o z z l ec o n t o u r
honeycombs i n r e g i o n s o f l o w
from
The r e s u l t i n gn o n - u n i f o r m i t yp r o -
duces l o c a lp e r t u r b a t i o n si nt h ef l o ww h i c hr e s u l t
number (seeFig.
a tunnel,
any flowanomaliesthat
may e x i s t
Probes f o r m e a s u r i n gf l o wa n g u l a r i t ya r ed i s c u s s e di n
0.6
0.5
cu
0,
2
Ed
0.2
0.1
&
Mach Number
41
I I .C.5
Reynolds Number
The r a t i o o f i n e r t i a l t o v i s c o u s f o r c e s i n t h e t e s t
o b t a i n e d from wind-tunnel
medium i s
measurements asadimensionalunitReynolds
number g i v e n by
PU
lJ
R/E =
Thiscan
(2.C.34)
be expressed i n u n i t s o f m-l
R/I1 =
P,,H
-( 1
2.29 x 10
To2
Since P,/Q
TZ ( 1
i s al i n e a rf u n c t i o n
parameters i s one-to-one;that
be r e f l e c t e di nt h e
range poo and H
.2M )
2, 2,
of
Pa
i s , ag i v e n
error i n e i t h e r o f , t h e s e
P,,
Thus e r r o r s i n
and Hs can be r e f l e c t e d i n
f o rs e l e c t e du n i t
stagnationtemperature
F i g u r e s 2.C.11
and 2.C.12
o f 311 OK (100
OF).
t o measurements o f stagnationtemperature
subsequentoperationwiththe
Machnumber
C 100 x 10 /meter)
The s e n s i t i v i t y
Df
a t anominal
.?eynolds number
i s shown i n F i g . 2.C.13.
andconsidered
same f a c i l i t y c o n f i g u r a t i o n s ,
due t o c a l i b r a t i o n or a d i s s i m i l a r c o n f i g u r a t i o n
R/Q
T h i se f f e c t
R/%
i l l u s t r a t e these s e n s i t i v i t i e s
t r i b u t et oe r r o r si n
42
will
However, i nt h et r a n s o n i c
R/R.
M.
errors in
(2.C.35)
and H S , t h es e n s i t i v i t yt ot h e s e
t h r o u g he r r o r si n
constantfor
I,
1,.:
.2H 2 ) 1.5
same p e r c e n te r r o ri n
theaboveexpressions.
Intunnels
M and Pm as f o l lows:
HSM
2 . 2 9 x 10
R/E =
i n terms o f To,
i s shown i nF i g .
2.C.14.
any
will con-
43
100
60
40
20
h c h ,Jwnber
44
To = 3UoK
-160
2-
\ \
\
-40
Mach Number
45
Mach Number
Figure 2 .C
46
Unsteadiness,Turbulence
ll.C.6.
and Noise
Large,continuousflowtunnelsoftenhavesmall-amplitude,low-frequency
o s c i l l a t i o n si nt h e
mean f l o wc o n d i t i o n s .F o r
example, the11-FtTransonic
thistypeofvariationshould
10 seconds.
be c a l i b r a t e d and used t o e s t a b l i s h
r o u t i n et e s t i n gp r o c e d u r e s .
AccordingtoJestley(Ref.
w i n dt u n n e l si n d i c a t et h e
areapproximately
maximum a x i a l and t r a n s v e r s et u r b u l e n c ei n t e n s i t i e s
Ref. 6 , i t i s notedthatwindtunnelturbulence
and ONERA (France) t o e x c i t e
hasbeen
model f l u t t e r modes.
c a u t i o n s ,t h a tt u r b u l e n c en o to n l y
11.2 o f
However, T i m e (Ref. 7 )
can mask t h e i n i t i a t i o n
I nP a r t
of f l u t t e r , b u t
modes.
may
A l s o ,T i m e
Mabey (RAE) f o u n dt h et r a n s o n i cb u f f e tb o u n d a r yt o
be v e r y sen-
s i t i v et of l o wu n s t e a d i n e s s ,I na d d i t i o n ,f r e e s t r e a mt u r b u l e n c ei n t r o d u c e s
e r r o r si ns t a t i cp r e s s u r e
1 I I . D ) and a f f e c t s bounda r y
measurements (seeSection
l a y e rt r a n s i t i o n ,s e p a r a t i o n
phenomena a tl e a d i n g
b o u n d a r yl a y e ri n t e r a c t i o n s .
The f o l l o w i n g a r e
known t o be sources o fn o i s ei nt r a n s o n
i cw i n dt u n n e l s :
i e s known as
edgetones and/ororgantones,
2. slottedwallswhichgeneratebroad-banddisturbances
s h e a r i n gi nt h es l o t s
between themovino
s e c t i o n and t h e a i r i n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g
due t o
airinthetest
plenum chamber,
*A
47
3.
r e v e r b e r a t i o n o f t u n n e lw a l l s ,
4.
5.
t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r s a l o n g t h e t u n n e l w a l l s ,
6.
d i f f u s e rf l o wi n s t a b i l i t y ,
7.
compressors i nc o n t i n u o u sw i n dt u n n e l s ,
8.
c o n t r o lv a l v e si n
9.
v i b r a t i o no ft u n n e ls i d e w a l l s ,
blowdown windtunnels,
10.
w o r k i n gs e c t i o nc u t o u t s ,
and
11.
,The n o i s es o u r c e s ,w h i c hu s u a l l yd o m i n a t ea tv a r i o u s
Mach numbers, a r e i n d i c a t e d
and 16.
i n Figs. 2.C.15
I t i s noted i nt h er e v i e w
5) t h a t CL
paper
by
b!estiey
(Ref.
max
buffet
and separati.on, sk n.
onset, t r a n s o n i cd r a gr i s e ,
b o u n d a r yl a y e rt r a n s i t i o n
t u n n e l -generatednoise.
knowledge does n o t a l l o w
i n caseswherethis,
i st r u e .
o f c u r r e n tr e s e a r c hi nt h i s a r e ai st oo b t a i n
(Ref. 5).
(1)decisionswhich
a
b e t t e ru n d e r .
paDer by Westley
m a i n l yc o n s i s to f :
need t o be made t os t a n d a r d i z ei n s t r u m e n t a t
and t e s tp r o c e d u r e s ,
(2)
The funda-
programwhichusesstandardized
P. l i s t o f 25 recommendationsconcludesthe
Theserecommendations
of
complex i n t e r a c t i o n s
and aerodynamic t e s t i n gi nw i n dt u n n e l s .
s t a n d i n g o f t h i s phenomena v i a a s y s t e m a t i c t e s t i n g
instrumentation.
Our p r e s e n ts t a t e
between t u r b u l e n c e ,n o i s e ,
m e n t a lo b j e c t i v e
will n o t be r e p r e s e n t a t ve
Hence, windtunneldata
of f r e e - f l i g h tc o n d i t i o n s
and
new experimental
programs.
ion
TRANSONIC
M,<
TUR.BULENCE
u
(valves. compressor 1
0.3
DIFFUSER
WALL HOLE
RESONANCE
1
Figure 2.C.15
JET No'SE
C Dominant
Souta
4-
IIC+
"
"
II
SUPERSONIC
M,.
M,
M,
I -3
- HYPERSONIC
= 3 IO
RADIATED NOISE
20 (cold flow)
> IO
.(
Usually
Dominant
c Usuolly
""Dominant
-
ENTROPY
Arc tunnels
Shock 9
MHD
Pigure 2.c.16
i!TQW
DISTURBANCES IN SUPERSOKIC
One o f t h e p r i m a r y
to
recamnondations i s thatstandardInstrtnnentation
measure free-streamdisturbances.This
transonictunnels
i s discussedInSection
beadopted
p r o b i m o f noise measurements i n
1II.F.
51
I I. C , 7
Humidity
The a c c e l e r a t i o n o f a i r f r o m r e s t i n v o l v e s t h e r e d u c t i o n o f s t a t i c
pressure and temperature.
i nt h er a p i da p p r o a c h
this condltion in
to water-vaporsaturation.Figure
speeds r e s u l t s
2.C.17
illustrates
terms o f t h e r a t i o o f t h e r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y o f t h e s t r e a m
tothatofairatrest
sationon
as i n a r e s e r v o i r .
aerodynamic t e s t d a t a ,
The e x t e n t o f t h e e f f e c t o f
and thusthe
amount ofcondensationwhich
8).
d i f f e r e n c ei nd a t ao b t a i n e d
Forexample,
(Ref. 9) i n d i c a t e sv e r y
by N o r t o n ,e ta l .
conden-
on t h e same model i n m o i s t a i r
the
little
ascompared
with
thatobtainedindryair.
Inthe
absence o f a w a t e r s u r f a c e o r
f o r e i g nn u c l e i ) ,
a precipitant(such
humid a i r can be c o o l e dw e l l
as a d r o p l e t o r
beyond t h et h e o r e t i c a ls a t u r a -
t i o np o i n tb e f o r ec o n d e n s a t i o no c c u r s .T h i si s
because theprocess
i st i m e
dependent and t h e r a t e o f e x p a n s i o n ( w h i c h d e f i n e s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e h i s t o r y o f
t h ef l o w
and i s u s u a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e t u n n e l s i z e ) d e f i n e s t h e
s u p e r c o o l i n gt h a t
can be a t t a i n e d .S u p e r c o o l i n go fa s
amount o f
much as 100
C hasbeen
0
e x p e r i m e n t a l l y measured usingsubstantialtemperaturegradients(100
e.g.,
Ref. 10;and
t h es a t u r a t i o n
hasbeen
t h e o r e t i c a l work hasbeen
vaporpressure
n e g l i g i b l el i k e l i h o o do fc o n d e n s a t i o n ,
tolerance,
of 2
OC
a c c o m p l i s h e dw h i c hi n d i c a t e st h a t
may beexceeded
demonstratedthatsupercooling
i t may be seen i n F i g u r e
4, Ref. 1 1 .
It
can be accomplished w i t h
However, even w i t ht h i s
thatfor
an a r b i t r a r y dew p o i n t
be r e q u i r e d t o a v o i d
condensat i o n
Therefore, i t i sg e n e r a l l yn o tp r a c t i c a l
(because o f a i r s t r e a m s t a g n a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e
t o employ r e s e r v o i rh e a t i n g
OC
Ref. 12.
extremereservoirtemperatureswould
by a f a c t o r o f
o f 30
2.C.18
C/cm),
1 i m i t s , suchasthose
o f Ref. 8)
as a means f o ra v o i d i n gc o n d e n s a t i o n .I np r a c t i c e ,
as lowas
practical ;
may be above t h es t r e a mt e m p e r a t u r e ,t h et o t a lw a t e rc o n t e n ti s
small, and c o n d e n s a t i o n e f f e c t s a r e n e g l i g i b l e .
As noted by Pope and Goin(Ref.12),theeffectwhichhumidity
tunnel Mach
number
depends onwhethertheflowissubsonicorsupersonic.In
t h e case o f subsonicflow,watervaportends
52
has on
toincreasethe
100
10
Mach Number
Figure 2 .C .17 THE RATIO OF RELATIVE H
U
M
D
IT
IY I N THE STREAM TO
RESERVDIR AS A FUNCTION OF MACH NUMBER
53
Assumptions:
Dew Point Temperature = 2 c
Allowable Supercooling = 30 C
Allowable Stream Temperature = -29
Mach Number
Figure
2 .c .l8
CONDEXSATION, Ref. IO
54
reduce s t a t i cp r e s s u r e ;
whereas, t h eo p p o s i t eo c c u r si ns u p e r s o n i cf l o w .T h i s
e f f e c t has a l s o been s u b s t a n t i a t e db ya n a l y s e sa t
a n e g a t i v e Machnumber
g r a d i e n to c c u r s
AEDC.*
These r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e
flow.
(i.e.,empty
The absence o f c o n d e n s a t i o n d u r i n g t u n n e l c a l i b r a t i o n
tunnel)
- d o e sn o tp r e c l u d et h ep o s s i b i l i t yo fl o c a lc o n d e n s a t i o ni np r o x i m i t yo fa
d u r i n gp r o d u c t i o nt e s t i n g .
s e n s i t i v e , and e x p e r i e n c ea t
bymoisture
seen (anominalwater-vaporcontent
However, t e s t si n v o l v i n gs u r f a c ep r e s s u r e
shouldbeconducted
model
o f 0.002
measurements a r e more
AEDC i n d i c a t e s t h i s t y p e o f t r a n s o n i c t e s t i n g
< 0.0015
-
w i t hh u m i d i t y
gm H20/gm a i r .
**
An a d d i t i o n a l
procedure f o r r e d u c i n g t h e e f f e c t o f h u m i d i t y i n t r a n s o n i c t u n n e l s i s t o a d j u s t
w a l la n g l ea c c o r d i n gt ot h et e s t
8.
I nt h es u p e r -
sonicregime,experience
a good r u l e - o f - t h u m bf o r
model t e s t sw i t h
0.0002 t o 0,001.
a f f e c tt h ea l l o w a b l em o i s t u r ec o n t e n t ,
whichcan
3.5.'
Forexample,
1% a t M = 3.0 when t h em o i s t u r e
Because o f t h e f a c i l i t y v a r i a b l e s w h i c h
it i s d e s i r a b l e t o e s t a b l i s h t h e l e v e l
be t o l e r a t e d i n a p a r t i c u l a r f a c l l i t y
by c o n d u c t i n g t e s t s
s e n t a t i v ec o n f i g u r a t i o n and v a r y i n go n l yh u m i d i t y .T h i st y p eo ft e s t
i nt h e
*
ff
'
mass f l o w
on areprewas included
8).
workreportedbyCorson,etal.(Ref.
J. D. Gray, AEDC.
Privatecommunication,
Mr.
Privatecommunication,
Privatecommunication,
Mr.
F. W.
S t e i n l e , NASA Ames.
55
I I .C.8
Test Mediums
Air i s a l m o s t , u n i v e r s a l l y usedas
thetest
medium i n t r a n s o n i c
and
s u p e r s o n i cw i n dt u n n e l s .A l t h o u g ht h e s ef a c i l i t i e sh a v ed i f f e r e n to p e r a t i n g
characteristicswiththeairbeingsubjectedtodifferentpressure
and tempera-
t u r el e v e l sd u r i n gt h ev a r i o u sc y c l e s ,
i t i sg e n e r a l l ya l l o w a b l et oc o n s i d e r
t h e gas t o beideal.Realgaseffects
may become r e l e v a n t a t
f a c i l i t y (Ref. 6).
such as i n a Ludwiegtube
e x t r e m ec o n d i t i o n s
Departures from t h ei d e a l
mediums a r e employed.However,
gas
i t has been
found t h a t t h e i d e a l r e l a t i o n s a r e s u i t a b l e f o r t h e v e r y l o w t e m p e r a t u r e
14).
n i t r o g e n used intheLangleyIO-MeterTransonicCryogentcTunnel(Ref.
R e c e n tt r a n s o n i cw i n dt u n n e lt e s t so fa i r f o i l s
varying y
, Refs.
15 and 16.
A l t h o u g hn oe f f e c t
f l o w s , a s y s t e m a t i cr e d u c t i o ni nl o c a l
s u p e r c r i t i c a lf l o w s .T u t l a ,e ta l .
w i t ht h ee f f e c t so f
s t a t i c - p r e s s u r ep r o b ei s
ona
empty,
16) suggest t h i st r e n di sa s s o c l a t e d
t r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s
As discussed i nS e c t i o n
lll.D.2,
56
i f a conventional,
a t r a n s o n i c shock alwaysforms
I f v a r i a t i o n si n
y can a f f e c t super-
may a l s o change t h e l o c a t i o n o n
a tw h i c hf r e e s t r e a mp r e s s u r ee x i s t s .R e s e a r c ho nt h i s
a t NASA Ames.
i n t e r a c t i o n s .T h i si s
conventionalstatic-pressureprobe.
. .cr,itical
was d e t e c t e d for s u b c r i t i c a l
y on transonic-shock/boundary-layer
relevanttothecalibrationof
t e s t gases,
have i n d i c a t e da ne f f e c to f
a probe
phenomena i sc o n t i n u i n g
1 I .C.
1.
H i 1 1, Jacques A. F. e t a l ,
Tunnels,"
References
"MachNumber
145,
MIT, NavalSupersonicLaboratoryTechnicalReport
Februaty 1956.
2.
"Noteson
Wind TunnelPressure
View,"
RAE TN Aero.2547,
February 1958.
3.
Raney, D. J.,
Her M a j e s t y ' s S t a t i o n e r y O f f i c e ,
4.
6.
W.,
London 1956.
"Flow q u a l i t y Improvements i n a Blowdown
MiniLaWsWorking
7.
T i m e , A.,
" E f f e c t so fT u r b u l e n c e
Norton,Harry
T. Jr.,
sonicPerformance
f o rC o r r e c t e d
IO.
1975.
Sept.
Apr i 1 1973.
Air Removal,"
Runckel,Jack
F.,
and Pendergraft,Odis
C.
Jr.,
"Tran-
o f Two Convergent-DivergentEjectorNozzlesDesigned
SecondaryFlows
Lundquist, G. A.,
AGARD-AR-83,
e ta l ." C a l i b r a t i o n so ft h eL a n g l e y1 6 - f o o tT r a n s o n i c
Tunnel w i t h T e s t S e c t i o n
9.
Research Aimed a t t h e
8.
A l A A Journal,
NASA TM X-909,
1964.
i n Compressible Flows,"GeophysicalResearchPaper
No.
57
14.
Adcock, J e r r y B . ,
asaTransonic
IS.
Gross, A.
Kilgore,Robert
Wind TunnelTest
R. and S t e i n l e ,
F.
W.:
A. an'd
Ray,
Gas,"
Edward J.,
"PressureDatafrom
16.
Tuzla,
,'I
Wai,
J.
C.;
Aerodynamics,"Proc.
17.
S p r a t l e y , A.
B.,
58
Heatsfrom
"y-Effectson2-DimensionalTransonic
A I M 9 t h Aerodynamic TestingConference,
Thompson, E.
1.67 t o
1975.
R.,
and N o z z l e A f t e r b o d y C o n f i g u r a t i o n E f f e c t s
A I A A Paper77-103,
January 1975.
a 64010 A i r f o i l a t
"CryogenicNitrogen
January 1977.
June 1976.
111.
A.
S e t t l i n g Chamber Pressure
variablewhichisusually
the re'servoi r t o t a l p r e s s u r e i s
11 .A.,
As discussed i n S e c t i o n
a fundamental
measured d i r e c t l y i n t h e s e t t l i n $ c h a m b e r s o f b o t h
t r a n s o n i c and supersonictunnels.
The Machnumber
s e t t l i n g chamber aredetermined
Ao/A
by t h e c o n t r a c t i o n r a t i o ,
chamber and A*
t h ec r o s ss e c t i o n a la r e aa tt h es e t t l i n g
c o r r e s p o n d i n gt ot h et e s ts e c t i o n
Mach number.
* , where
A.
i s t h e choked t h r o a t a r e a
Mach number n o r m a l l yo c c u r sa t
example, t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s t i l l i n g
number i s 0.058.
HS
"5
= 1
ps
HS
where (PS/Hs)
ratio of
i sd e f i n e d
s t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r e .
chamber dynamic p r e s s u r e i s
Thus,
t h ee r r o ri n
0.002.
Therefore,
used t o measure s e t t l i n g
must be e l i m i n a t e d v i a c a l i b r a t i o n w i t h P i t o t
be l o c a t e d downstream o f anyscreens,
crosssectlonshould
s i g n i f i c a n tp r e s s u r e
i s t o be used(as
t o Machnumber
error is to
be l e s st h a n
honeycombs, e t c . , s i n c e
losses, Ref. 1.
Also,the
t o t a lp r e s s u r e
must be lessthan
i s comnonlydone)and
0.001,
0.05 percent
probes.
a s e t t l i n g chamber,
chamber
If a single
be surveyed for v a r i a t i o n si nt o t a lp r e s s u r e .
v a l u eo ft o t a lp r e s s u r e
When u s i n g a P i t o t probe t o c a l i b r a t e t o t a l p r e s s u r e i n
theseitemscancause
inducedbyusing
0.235 percent.Thiswould
A t a contraction
0.235 p e r c e n t o f t h e
measured t o t a l head,
a P i t o t probe,wouldbe
c o n t r i b u t e a Mach number e r r o r o f
itscontribution
then 2a o f s p a t i a l v a r i a t i o n s i n
(EAM =
fortunately,thisisnotonlynearthestate-of-the-art
0.0005 a t M = 0 . 8 0 ) .
Un-
o f pressure measurement
it i s a l s o v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o a c h i e v e t h i s u n i f o r m i t y i n p r a c t i c e .
Thus, t h e d e c i s i o n a s t o
and t h e r a t i o o f
(-+,p S
by t h e s e t t l i n g
accuracy,
chamber Mach
10, t h e s t i l l i n g
theprobemust
At
frbm
dynamic t o s t a g n a t i o n p r e s s u r e d e t e r m i n e d
qS
is
The t e r m s " S e t t l i n g
chamber"and
l e f tt oi n d i v i d u a l
judgment.
in
T h i sd e c i s i o n
59
should be based on t h e p a r t i c u l a r f a c i l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s *
and t h e t y p e o f
t e s t sw h i c ha r ec o n d u c t e di nt h a tf a c i l i , t y .
Once t h e s p a t i a l v a r i a t i o n s i n s e t t l i n g
chamber p r e s s u r e a r e j u d g e d t o
acceptable, i t i s suggested t h a t an a p p r o p r i a t ea v e r a g e
measurements i nt h ec e n t r a lp o r t i o no ft h ef l o w .F o r
TransonicTunnelat
c e n t r a lp o r t i o no ft h ef l o wt od e f i n e
be d e f i n e d basedon
example,
NASA L a n g l e y ,f o u rP i t o tp r o b e s
i nt h e
have beenmounted
2).
anaverage(Ref.
be
16 f t .
inthe
I ng e n e r a l ,i n - i t i a l
c a l i b r a t i o n s r e q u i r e more measurements i n o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h
a s u i t a b l e average.
However, o n c et h ea v e r a g et o t a lp r e s s u r ei sd e t e r m i n e df o rt h er a n g eo fo p e r a t i n g
c o n d i t i o n s , a s i m p l ew a l l
torelateits
test,ingcan
measurements t o t h e
average.
can be c a l i b r a t e d
By f o l l o w i n gt h i sp r o c e d u r e ,r o u t i n e
be accomplishedwithoutanyunnecessaryobstructions
in the central
portionoftheflow.
Although a w i d e v a r i e t y o f P i t o t p r o b e
nosegeometrieshave
o
w
l
speed f l o w s ,s i m p l es t e e lt u b i n gw i t h
ratio
-B
chamber w i t hn e g l i g i b l ee r r o r .
unaffectedbyflowanglesof
**
been used i n
an i n t e r n a lt oe x t e r n a ld i a m e t e r
will measure t o t a l p r e s s u r e i n t h e s e t t l i n g
A P i t o t probe w i t ht h i sd i a m e t e rr a t i oi s
3.
Assumina t h a t
reasonablecareistakentoaligntheprobewiththeflow,thistypeofprobe
will provideadequateaccuracyeven
s e t t l i n g chamber.
i f c o n s i d e r a b l et u r b u l e n c ee x i s t si nt h e
T h i sc o n c l u s i o ni ss u b s t a n t i a t e d
b yt h ef o l l o w i n gd i s c u s s i o n .
( 1 ) spherical-nosed
a n a l y z e dd a t af o rf o u rd i f f e r e n tp r o b eg e o m e t r i e s :
probe(asphere
ona
square-nosedtube,
e x t e r i o ro f
a tube.
t u b u l a rs u p p o r t ) ,
and
(4)
(2) a hemispherical-nosedtube,
sharp-1ippedprobes
(3) a
made by c o n i c a l l y t a p e r i n g t h e
The r e s u l t so ft h e i rs e m i - e m p i r i c a la n a l y s i sf o rs q u a r e -
nosed p r o b e si n d i c a t e st h ef o l l o w i n g .I n
a turbulenceintensityof
an i s o t r o p i c ,t u r b u l e n tf l o ww i t h
percent, a square-nosedprobe
w i t h a diameterratio
*A
number o f s u p e r s o n i c t u n n e l s
have f i x e d - c o n t o u r , s l i d i n g b l o c k n o z z l e s w h i c h
a r er o u t i n e l yo p e r a t e do f fd e s i g n .
These n o z z l e sc a nh a v es i g n i f i c a n tt o t a l
pressurelosseswhichcanonly
be determined by P i t o t surveys w i t h i n t h e t e s t
section.
However, t h ea v e r a g et e s ts e c t i o nt o t a lp r e s s u r ec o u l d
be r e l a t e d
t o s t i l l i n g chamber p r e s s u r e v i a c a l i b r a t i o n t e s t s .
A*
60
-4
0.56 x 10 q.
of 0 . 5 will c a p t u r e t h e t o t a l p r e s s u r e w i t h a n e r r o r o f
For a
given amount o f t u r b u l e n c e , t h e e r r o r d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g d i a m e t e r r a t i o .
Thisaccuracy
a t AEDC i n t h e s e t t l i n g
chamber o ft h e
indicatethelongitudinal
o f one p e r c e nf o
t r
0.3
measurements
1.2.
Assuming i s o t r o p itcu r b u l e n c et ,h i s
1.73 percent.
t h et o t a lt u r b u l e n c ei n t e n s i t yi sa p p r o x i m a t e l y
suggestedsquare-nosedprobecan
5,
3.
of theorder,
component o f t h e t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t y i s
M
Ref.
means
Thus, t h e
dence.
The above d e s c r i b e d a c c u r a c y a n a l y s i s i g n o r e s
sources o fe r r o r .
I t i s assumed theprobenose
it from any e f f e c t s o f
a number o f o t h e r p o s s i b l e '
i sl o n g
downstreamgeometry.Becker
enough t oi s o l a t e
t h e nose l e n g t h be g r e a t e rt h a ns i xp r o b ed i a m e t e r s .A l s o ,t h ee f f e c to f
;i.
changes i nt h ei n t e r n a d
l i a m e t e ri si g n o r e d I. no r d e rt oe l i m i n a t ei n t e r n a l
geometry asa
s t a n tf o r
be con-
a d i s t a n c eo ft h r e ep r o b ed i a m e t e r s .I na d d i t i o n ,t h ep r o b es h o u l d
be l o c a t e d more t h a nt w od i a m e t e r sf r o mt h en e a r e s tw a l li no r d e rt oa v o i d
r e d u c t i o ni n
3 , p. 12).
Finally,theprobeshould
W i n t e r n i t z( R e f .
6) has presented a s i m p l i f i e dp r o c e d u r ef o rd e s i g n i n gc a n t i -
l e v e r e d ,c i r c u l a rc y l i n d e r st oa v o i do s c i l l a t i o n si n d u c e d
Ower and Pankhurst(Ref.
7, p. 54) o b s e r v et h a tf o r
o f 0 . 8 cm ( 9 1 6 i n . )t h ev o r t e xs h e d d i n gf r e q u e n c yi n
and 160 Hz a t 6 m/sec.
and t h en a t u r a lf r e q u e n c y
tions.
o f theprobe
chambers.
Thus,probes
f:
by vortexshedding.
a c y l i n d e rw i t h
a diameter
a i r i s 40 Hz a t 1.5 m/sec
Hence, theyconcluderesonancebetweenvortexfrequency
isunlikelyin
isticofstilling
most w i n dt u n n e la p p l i c a -
be a problem a t t h e
low speeds c h a r a c t e r -
f o r measurements i n t h e s t i l l i n g
phenomenon.
measured mean
3 , p.105.
1II.A.
1.
Loehrke, R.
Corson,
B.
W.,
"Experimentson
AGARD-R-598,
Free-StreamTurbulence,"
2.
References
Sept.
Management o f
1972.
B.
" C a l i b r a t i o n of
1974.
NASA TR-R-423,
Aug.
3.
Bryer, D. W.
and Pankhurst, R. C . :
WindSpeedand
Credle, 0. P.:
A.
P. G.:
F l u i d Mech.,
Her M a j e s t y ' s
"Response o f P i t o t Probes i nT u r b u l e n t
1974.
"An EvaluationoftheFluctuatingAirborneEnvironment
i n t h e AEDC-PWT
6.
f o rD e t e r m i n i n g
London, 1971.
Becker, H. A. and
Brown,
Strearns,l'Jour.
5.
Pressure-Probe
Methods
F l o wD i r e c t i o n ,N a t i o n a lP h y s i c a lL a b o r a t o r y ,
S t a t i o n e r yO f f i c e ,
4.
W i n t e r n i t z , F. A.
16-Ft TransonicTunnel
L.:
,I1
AEDC-TR-69-236,
" E f f e c t so fV i b r a t i o no nP i t o t
NOV. 1969.
Probe
Readings,"
6 A p r i l 1956,
pp. 228-290,London.
7.
62
C.:
III
. B.
TOTAL TEMPERATURE
The t o t a l t e m p e r a t u r e i s n o r m a l l y m o n i t o r e d . i n t h e s t i l l i n g
chamber d u r i n g
r o u t i n et u n n e lo p e r a t i o n .S i n c et h ed i f f e r e n c eb e t w e e nt o t a l
t u r e i s s m a l la t
low v e l o c i t i e s , a shielded,high-recoverythermocoupleprobe
i sn o tu s u a l l yn e c e s s a r y .I nf a c t ,d a t ao b t a i n e d
twotypes
1) f o rt h e s e
by Stickney(Ref.
("0.999)
o f probes show t h a tt h er e c o v e r yf a c t o r sa r en e a r l yi d e n t i c a l
and M < 0.2.
f o r temperaturesnearambient
thatin
and s t a t i c tempera-
many cases t h et o t a lt e m p e r a t u r e
w i t hs a t i s f a c t o r ya c c u r a c y ,
can bemeasured
Measurements
by
temperatureprobeshave
i s shown i n t h e
shorterresponsetime
s h i e l d e dp r o b e s .I nt h ec a s eo f
i f t e s t sa r e
numbers, t h et o t a lt e m p e r a t u r e
c o n t i n u o u s l y s o t h a tt o t a lp r e s s u r e
canbe
mustbe
0.53 mm (0.021")diameterwire
Whereas, f o r t h e
t h em a j o r it y
use thebare-wirethermocouple
E s t i m a t e da c c u r a c i e sv a r i e df r o m
t h er e l a t i o n sp r e s e n t e di nS e c t i o n
i n . )d i a m e t e rw i r e
of
33 m i l l i o n .F o r
same c o n d i t i o n s , a
4.
i ca ted
f o r t o t a l temperature measurements.
+0.56"C t o 2 1 . 1 " C
(21F t o2 2 F ) .
Based on
l l . C . 2 , an u n c e r t a i n t yi nt o t a lt e m p e r a t u r e
0.5 p e r c e n t a t
a Reynolds num-
f e wt u n n e l s( t r a n s o n i co rs u p e r s o n i c )a p p e a rt o
t u r eg r a d i e n t sw h i c h
o f t u n n e lo p e r a t o r si n d
has a
has a 1.0sectimeconstant,e.g.,Ref.
I n response t ot h eq u e s t i o n n a i r e
they do i n f a c t
Also,
0.1 sec. a r e
ambienttemperature
con-
monitored
c o n t r o l l e da u t o m a t i c a l l y .
s m a l lw i r et h e r m o c o u p l e sw i t ht i m ec o n s t a n t so ft h eo r d e ro f
a v e l o c i t yo f
upper p a r t o f
blowdown tunnelswheretotaltemperaturecan
ductedatconstantReynolds
*>*:
t i m ec o n s t a n ot 0f . 1s e c i.na i a
rt
compared t o more e l a b o r a t e ,
an essentialadvantage.Forexample,
t y p i c a l l yr e q u i r e d .F o r
chamber,
Stickney(Ref.1)indicatethatsuchunshielded
amuch
v a r yr a p i d l y ,t h i si s
in the stilling
by u s i n g a simplebare-wirethermocouplejunction.
A schematic o f t h i s t y p e o f t e m p e r a t u r e p r o b e
F i g u r e 3.8.1.
2) note
may e x i s t a c r o s s
havebeen
calibratedfor
However,
tempera-
and a l o n gt h ef l o w .
*A
c o m p r e h e n s i v ed i s c u s s i o no ft h e r m o c o u p l ep r i n c i p l e s ,c i r c u i t s ,e l e c t r o m o t i v e
f o r c et a b l e s ,s t a b i l i t y
and c o m p a t i b i l i t yd a t a ,i n s t a l l a t i o nt e c h n i q u e s ,e t c .
may be found i n Ref. 3.
I
A
r.
I
.
The timeconstant
i s h e r ed e f i n e d as t h et i m er e q u i r e dt or e a c h
instantaneoustemperature change.
63.2% of an
63
/Two-hole
ceramic
holder
A l l Dimensions In Centimeters
AEDC-IWT 1 6 ~
Probe (Ref. 5
Wall
1.12 R
-.+ 1.27
30.48
L 4equally
Vent holes(0.17)
spaced
.478 O.D.
x .081 W a l l
One o f t h e
i n a t r a n s o n i ct u n n e l
Ref. 5.
has beendone
i nt h e
special-purpose,cryogeniccoolingsystemwhichconsists
tem t o c h i l l t h e c o o l a n t
section.
i n t h et u n n e lc o o l e r
A rectangulararrayofshieldedtempera-
i n j e c t i o ni n t ot h et u n n e la i r s t r e a m .
tureprobes
was l o c a t e di nt h en o z z l ec o n t r a c t i o nr e g i o n
A schematic o f a t y p i c a lp r o b e
and i n t h e t e s t
i s shown i nF i g u r e
t h er e c o v e r yf a c t o ro fa l lt h e r m o c o u p l ep r o b e s
3.8.1.*Since
need t o be c a l i b r a t e d f o r
l ) , t h e raw temperaturedatawere
by Robson (Ref. 5 ) .
c o r r e c t e df o rt h e s ee f f e c t s
o f a l i q u i d n i t r o g e n sys-
first
Subsequently,thetemperature
o ft h ef l o wt h r o u g ht h ec e n t r a lp o r t i o no ft h en o z z l ee n t r a n c es e c t i o n
byanaverage
o ft h i r t e e nt e m p e r a t u r e s
r e c t a n g u l a rr e g i o n .
was d e f i n e d
The t e m p e r a t u r eo ft h et e s ts e c t i o nf l o w
an average o f 17 temperaturesobtainedover
thecore.
Mach
a2
was d e f i n e d by
x 2 m (6 x 6 f t ) p o r t i o n o f
The d i f f e r e n c e betweenthesetwotemperatures
was used t od e f i n e
a t e m p e r a t u r ec a l i b r a t i o np a r a m e t e rw h i c hr e l a t e st e m p e r a t u r ea tt h en o z z l e
e n t r a n c et ot e s ts e c t i o nt e m p e r a t u r e .I nt h i s
found t o be approximately 1 . 1 " C
was
(2F)lowerthanthenozzleflow.Deviations
of 28F wereobtainedacrossboththenozzle
number range0.2
case, t h et e s ts e c t i o nf l o w
and t h e t e s t s e c t i o n o v e r
a Mach
These d e t a i l e dt e m p e r a t u r e
by
,. temperaturegradientsusually
the
special
cooling
system.
Although
smaller
-1. .L
I\
e x i s ti nt u n n e l sw i t h o u ts p e c i a lc o o l i n g
o r heatingsystems,this
i l l u s t r a t e st h ep r o c e d u r er e q u i r e dt oa c c u r a t e l yc a l i b r a t ew i n dt u n n e l
tures.
For r o u t i n et e s t i n g ,
a singletemperatureprobecan
example
tempera-
be r e l a t e dt ot h e
average s t i l l i n g chamber t e m p e r a t u r e v i a c a l i b r a t i o n i n o r d e r t o e l i m i n a t e t h e
disturbingeffectsof
anunnecessarythermocouplegrid.
.L
Temperatures i n t h e 1/3-MeterTransonicCryogenicTunnel
a t NASA Langley
a g r i d o f thermocoupleprobes,Ref.
6.
havealso,beensurveyedusing
65
Additionalinformation
probescanbefound
problem o f e r r o r s i n
windtunnels
66
on thedesign
i n Refs.7-10.Also,Bate(Ref.
and c a l i b r a t i o no ft o t a lt e m p e r a t u r e
1 1 ) has reviewedthe
i n WestGermany.
e x p e r i e n c ei nt h e
DFVLR
I
I I I . 6.
1.
Stickney, T. M.:
References
ThermocoupleProbes
NACA TN 3455,
i n SubsonicandSupersonicFlow,"
J u l y 1955.
2.
Wind TunnelTesting,Wiley,
New York,
1965.
3.
onthe
Manual
1974.
5.
Committee E20:
T e c h n i c a lP u b l i c a t i o n
4.
and M a t e r i a l s (ASTM),
A m e r i c a nS o c i e t yf o rT e s t i n g
1975.
Robson, G.
"TestSectionTemperatureCalibratlonofthe
D.:
TransonicTunnel
a tS t a g n a t i o n
Temperaturesfrom-30
t o 3OoF,"
AEDC-TR-69-2,
Feb. 1969.
6.
Polhamus, E. C . ; K i l g o r e , R . A. ; Adcock,J.
HighReynolds
7.
Baker, H . D.;
V o l l u z , R. J.:
Dean, R. C.,
Bate, J.:
Temperature Measurement i n
1961.
"Handbook o f SupersonicAerodynamics,Section
and Design,"
Jr.:Aerodynamic
E n t e r p r i s e s , New York,
11.
1974.
TunnelInstrumentation
10.
A s t r o . 5 Aero.,Oct.
1969.
Ryder, E.A.;
Engineering,Vol.
9.
"The Langley
8.
6. ; and Ray, E. J. :
20, Wind
Measurements,
MIT
1961.
Eagle
1953.
RAE L i b T
. ransl.
No.
1974.
67
1II.C.
PITOT PRESSURES
Use o f P i t o t Pressures f o r C a l i b r a t i o n
As d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n
t e s ts e c t i o n
Mach number i s l e s s
i f t h ec a l c u l a t i o ni s
r a t h e rt h a nf r e e s t r e a ms t a t i cp r e s s u r e .
c a l i b r a t e dv i aP i t o tp r o b es u r v e y s
t h es t i l l i n g
e ta l .
chamber.
(Ref.2)have
Thus, mostsupersonictunnelshave
and assumingan
been
i s e n t r o p i ce x p a n s i o nf r o m
such as Hill (Ref.
I nt h ep a s t ,i n v e s t i g a t o r s
r e p o r t e dt h a t
based on P i t o t p r e s s u r e
1) and Hill,
measurements i ns m a l l ,s u p e r s o n i ct u n n e l s
0.998 + 0.003.
a range o f
leads t o t h e con-
elusion t h a t n o n i s e n t r o p i c e x p a n s i o n e f f e c t s a r e n e g l i g i b l e a t
temperatures and p r e s s u r e si n
i n whichthe
normaloperating
a properlydesignedsupersonictunnel,i.e.,
empty t u n n e li sf r e eo f
shocks.
one
However, l a r g ec o n t i n u o u st u n n e l s
a r eo f t e no p e r a t e da tr e l a t i v e l yh i g hh u m i d i t yl e v e l si no r d e rt oi n c r e a s et h e
For example,Maxwell
o p e r a t i n gt i m ep r i o rt od r y e rs a t u r a t i o n .
(Ref.
3)
H20/gm o f d r y a i r , t h e
average t o t a l p r e s s u r e o f t h e t e s t s e c t i o n
lowerthanthereservoirpressure.Thisloss
t u n n e lh u m i d i t yt o
0.001.
e f f e c t s cancause
Ref.
decreasing
and r e a l gas
causedbyincompletemixing
and smalltunnelscanhavelossescaused
4).
was 2 t o 6%
a l o s si nt o t a lp r e s s u r e .A l s o ,l a r g et u n n e l sc a n
u n i f o r m i t i e si nt o t a lp r e s s u r e
**
chamber,
was 0.002 gm
Inadditiontowatervaporcondensation,obliqueshocks
(e.g.,
and H a r t l e y
W i t ht h i s
number o fp o s s i b l e
it i s recommended t h a to p e r a t o r s
havenoninthestilling
by a x i a lv e l o c i t yg r a d i e n t s
causes o ft o t a lp r e s s u r ev a r i a t i o n ,
o f b o t ht r a n s o n i c
and supersonictunnels
make
c a l i b r a t i o n measurements t o v a l i d a t e t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f u n i f o r m t o t a l p r e s s u r e .
T h i s can be accomplished i n s u b s o n i cf l o wv i a
used d i r e c t l y t o
a P i t o t probe,since
compare t e s t s e c t i o n t o t a l p r e s s u r e w i t h r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e .
Insupersonicflow,anotherindependentpressure
?t
A*
Once a c h o i c ei s
an
These r e s u l t s w e r e o b t a i n e d w i t h
55 OC < To < 78 OC.
T h i s can be d e t e r m i n e d d u r i n g s e t t
68
cone o r wedge, or P i t o t p r e s s u r e b e h i n d
s t r e a ms t a t i c ,s u r f a c ep r e s s u r eo n , a
o b l i q u e shock.
it can be
3 .1 Wcm2 <
Hs < 9.1
l i n g chamber c a l i b r e t i o n ,S e c t i o n
N/cm
1II.A.
heatscanbeused
tocalculatethetest-section
Machnumber
and t o t a
pressure.
Barry(Ref.
Mach numberwhen
wedge probes.
and Holder(Ref.
5 ) has d i s c u s s e di nd e t a i lt h e
usingpressures
e r r o r s t h a to c c u ri n
6 ) , i s t h a tt h e
measured w i t h t o t a l , s t a t i c , c o n i c a
A s i g n i f i c a n tc o n c l u s i o n ,o b t a i n e d
5) and Thompson
by Barry(Ref.
i s l e s ss e n s i t i v et o
measurement
For t h i s reason,anisentropicstagnationpressureprobe
t h es u r f a c eo f
speedby
c u r v e dc y l i n d e r .
has been
The p r o b ec o n s i s t so f
a P i t o tt u b e
a c u r v e dc y l i n d e ro fc i r c u l a rc r o s ss e c t i o n .
P i t o t tubesensestheimpactpressureof
t os u b s o n i c
and
i n v o l v i n gt h ei s e n t r o p i cs t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r e
errors.
computed
a streamtubewhich
has beenslowed
isentropiccompressionalongtheleading
A s k e t c ho tf h ep r o b e
i s shown I nF i g u r e
The
edge o f t h e
3.C.l.
The independent
8) i n d i c a t et h a tt h i st y p eo fp r o b ep e r m i t s
measurements o f a b s o l u t e s t a g n a t i o n p r e s s u r e s w i t h a n a c c u r a c y o f
99.8 percent
e x p e r i m e n t a lr e s u l t so f
in a
Mach
number
recoverydecays
probe.
canbe
Couch (Ref.
Beyond
a
Mach
number
ceases t o o f f e r
any a d v a r , t q eo v e r
2.2
t h ep r e s s u r e
a conventional
thestagnationpressureprobe
measurement of t o t a lp r e s s u r el o s s .A l s o ,f o rt h e
o f e q u a lu n c e r t a i n t yi n
Barry(Ref.
o f 2.2,
5) i n d i c a t e st h e
M < 2.2,
most a c c u r a t e c a l i b r a t i o n o f
o b t a i n e d by u s i n gt h ei s e n t r o p i cp r o b ei nc o n j u n c t i o nw i t h
case
t h ea n a l y s i so f
probe.
I f a s u p e r s o n i ct u n n e le n g i n e e re l e c t sn o tt o
o f i t s l i m i t e d Mach number range,thenext
most a c c u r a t et u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n
procedure i s t o measure P i t o tp r e s s u r e si nt h ef r e e s t r e a m
Ref. 5.
Thisprocedure
has beenused
a t anumber
and on awedge,
offacilitieswith
success.
i s t oo p t i m i z et h e
u n c e r t a i n t yi ne f f e c t i v ea n g l e
I ne f f e c t ,t h i sf e a t u r ee l i m i n a t e s
o f Mach number.
A v a r i a b l ea n g l e
i s used i n t h e
p i t o t tubeneareachsurface
v a r i a b l ea n g l ef e a t u r e
3.
wedge w i t h a movable
16s f a c i l i t y .
The purpose o ft h e
Dimensions In Centimeters
Straight Section
Dia
probeslocatedoutboard
planview
edge o f t h e
wedge.
o f theseprobeshas
of 165.
and a l i g n e dw i t ht h el e a d i n g
been usedon
theprobewhich
t oc a l i b r a t e
3.C.2.
a r e t r a c t a b l ev e r s i o no f
When f u l l y
wedge c e n t e r 1 i n e i s
permitsroutine
expansionassumption.
One
empty t e s t s e c t i o n
i s mounted i n t h e c e i l i n g o f t h e t e s t s e c t i o n .
extended,the
The i n t e r e s t e dr e a d e r
may r e f e r t o
an i s e n t r o p i c
Reference
3 f o ra d d i -
t i o n a ld e t a i l s .
measures s t a t i c p r e s s u r e
onthesurface
of a r e t r a c t a b l e d i s k .
hasa
mounted belowthedisk.
s m a l lP i t o tp r o b e
shown onthe
edgeand
l e f ti nF i g u r e
i t may be c a l i b r a t e d by c o n v e n t i o n a l , s t i n g
3:
case o f i n t e r m i t t e n t t u n n e l s ,
o f Machnumber
probe i s r e q u i r e d
bilityofrapid
a Ludwieg Tube, a d i f f e r e n t t y p e
because o ft h es h o r tr u n - t i m e
frequency-responsepressuretransducersfor
i s tomonitortemporal
has p o i n t e do u tt ot h ep r e s e n ta u t h o r st h a t
pressurefluctuationswiththisprobe
thusshouldnot
shown i nF i g .
measurement o f b o t h P i t o t
Group,
3.C.3.
g ) , t h i sm i n i a t u r ep r o b eu t i l i z e sh i g h -
Dougherty (AEDC)
and t h ep o s s i -
which i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r s e l e c t i o n
As reportedby
e.g.,
changes i nt e s t - s e c t i o nf l o w .
Number TransonicWindtunnel
probe i s
A l t h o u g ht h i sp r o b ei ss u s c e p t i b l et ol e a d i n g
3.C.2.
angleofattackerrors,
A schematic o f t h i s
and s t a t i c
LEHRT f a c i l i t i e s .
and
be used t o c a l i b r a t e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
noiseand/orturbulence.
However, t h ef l u c t u a t i n gP i t o tp r e s s u r e s
f o rf u r t h e rd i s c u s s i o no f
can be used f o r
measurements o f un-
steady f 1 ow d is turbances.
P i t o t ProbesforFreestreamCalibration
Although a w i d e v a r i e t y
of P i t o t nosegeometrieshave
cylindricaltubewithsquare-cut
been used, t h e s i m p l e
nose i s adequate f o r f r e e s t r e a m c a l i b r a t i o n s .
For an i n t e r n a l t o e x t e r n a ld i a m e t e rr a t i o
of 0.125,
t h et e s t so f
Gracey(Ref.
IO)
Compared t o t h e o t h e r
two Machnumber probes, t h i s t y p e o f p r o b e
hasan a d d i t i o n a l
disadvantage.
Barrys
analysis
(Ref.
5) shows t h e u n c e r t a i n t y i n c a l c u l a t e d
Mach
number i s g r e a t e r when t h e r e i s equal u n c e r t a i n t y i n measured pressures.
71
Tunnel 16 S
Tunnel A
.051 o r i f i c e
7-A
10
'
II.'
P itot
31 75
1.
1.
Variableangle
(10'-26')
p i t o t wedge probe
mounted on c e i l i n g ; e x t e n d s c e n t e r
of wedge
C a l i b r a t e dw i t hi d e n t i c a l
tunnel G,
Dimensions In Centimeters
wedge located a t
Scale 4:l
.!,
d
r
Scale 1:l
-1
8 d
U
W
1-
f-
t?-"3
"
d e m o n s t r a t e dt h a tt o t a lp r e s s u r e
e r r o r by 0.01q'
a t anangle
measurements w i t h t h i s p r o b e
by i n c r e a s i n g t h e d i a m e t e r r a t i o t o
increasedeven
ratioto
moreby
near one.
seldomexceeds
2230 , M =
0;96.
The a n g l e o f a t t a c k r a n g e
was
usinginternal.bevellingtoincreasethediameter
However, s i n c ef l o wa n g u l a r i t yi n
1 or 2 degrees, a t u b e w i t h
empty t e s ts e c t i o n s
a s t r a i g h t impactopening
and a
diameterratioof
error.
of attack of
will be i n
E f f e c t so fV a r i o u sP a r a m e t e r s
i sf r e eo fb u r r s . )
on P i t o t Probes
Size:
E a r l ye x p e r i m e n t sw i t hP i t o tp r o b e s
independent o f probesize,
by the size of facility
e.g.,
Ref.
showed measuredpressures
11.
and Machnumber
pressurecorresponding
Thiseffect
a tt h e
opening,
a P i t o t probesenses
13) foundthat
isbestfor
made w i t h P i t o t
an impact
a c o n i c a l nose P i t o t , w i t h
a sharp edge
use i n a t r a n s v e r s ep r e s s u r eg r a d i e n ts i n c e
Butsinceconescannot
two dimensionalboundarylayer
e.g.,
Refs.
it
be used
measurements a r e u s u a l l y
probeshavingverysmall,flattened-ovalopenings
square-cutnose,
12.
and w i t h i n c r e a s i n a w a l l t h i c k n e s s .
e x h i b i t s a n e g l i g i b l ed i s p l a c e m e n te r r o r .
veryclosetowalls,
be used.
t o a displacementtowardsthehigherpressure,Ref.
decreases w i t h p r o b es i z e
However, Livesey(Ref.
Thus, s i z i n gi su s u a l l yg u i d e d
atwhichtheprobeisto
When t o t a lp r e s s u r eg r a d i e n t sa r ep r e s e n t ,
t o be
anda
1 1 and 12.
A n a l y s i so fd a t af o rt h es i m p l e ,c i r c u l a rP i t o tt u b ei n d i c a t e st h e
measured pressure i s independent o f Reynolds number (based on i n s i d e r a d ius
o f theopening)
when i t i s g r e a t e rt h a n
100, Ref.
12.
Mach number:
In dry air, the
Machnumber
Pitottube
and w i l 1 r e l i a b l yp r o v i d e t h e f r e e s t r e a m s t a g n a t i o n p r e s s u r e a t
subsonic speedsand
t h es t a g n a t i o n
pressurebehind
a normalshock
a t super-
son ic speeds.
Tu r b u 1ence :
The i n c o m p r e s s i b l ea n a l y s i so f
a circulartubePitotwithsquare-cut
lence.
74
14) i n d i c a t e st h a t
nose i s r e l a t i v e l y i n s e n s i t i v e t o t u r b u -
However, theseauthorssuggestthatthelengthoftheconstantdiameter
The i n t e n t i s t o e l i m i n a t e s u r g i n g o f t h e
opening be a tl e a s tt h r e ed i a m e t e r s .
flow, in
response t o t u r b u l e n c e ,
c o n d i t i o n sp r i o rt o
and t h u s a s s u r e t h e e x i s t e n c e
changes i n i n t e r n a l
geometry.
Brown a r e viewed i n l i g h t o f t h e d a t a o b t a i n e d
When. t h e r e s u l t s o f
Becker and
which demon-
probes w i t h i n c r e a s i n g
Mach
by o
w
l
P i t o t probesareunaffected
most empty t u n n e l s i s
l e v e l so ft u r b u l e n c e .S i n c et h et u r b u l e n c ei n t e n s i t yi n
two p e r c e n t ,t h e
lo),
byGracey(Ref.
lessthan
of stagnation
recommended P i t o t p r o b e s( i . e . ,c i r c u l a rt u b e sw i t h
i n t e r n a l j e x t e r n a ld i a m e t e rr a t i o s
t r a n s o n i c and supersonicwindtunnels.
Rakes, Arrays and Supports,:
Insubsonicflows,impactpressure
orificein
a c i r c u l a rc y l i n d e r
can be s u c c e s s f u l l y measured w i t h an
P i t o t p r o b e sa r eg e n e r a l l yc o n s i d e r e dt o
i n t e r a c t i o n sw o u l d
attransonic
shock.
Thus,
measuredbehindtheshock
from thenormalshockpressure.
speeds t h e nose o f t h e P i t o t
probeshouldextendfar
A t u b el e n g t ha tl e a s t
t oa v o i dt h i s
problem.
recommended.
A t subsonicspeeds,Dudtiniski
12.
The r e s u l t i n gp r e s s u r e
be expected t o d i f f e r
thattheeffectofproximityof
Ref.
be i n s e n s i t i v et os u p p o r ta r r a n g e m e n t s .
flow, e.g.,
mounted normal t o t h e
Thus,
enough forward
12 t i m e st h es u p p o r tt h i c k n e s si s
15) haveobserved
and Krause(Ref.
a transversecylindricalsupportingstrutis
two o r more s t r u t d i a m e t e r s
t u b et i p .F o rs u p e r s o n i ca p p l i c a t i o n s ,
downstream from t h e P i t o t
16, p. 353) n o t et h a t
I 5 t o 20 tubediameters.
thePitottubelengthisusually
When s e v e r a l P i t o t p r o b e s a r e
used i n a r a k e o r
an a r r a y , t h e
measured
a t H = 1.6
i n d i c a t et h e
gap
one d i a m e t e r w i t h o u t c a u s i n g s i g n i f i c a n t
error.
one, theseparationdistancemust
AsMach
increased.
number decreasestoward
be
I n s u b s o n i cf l o w ,t h es p a c i n go fP i t o tp r o b e si sg e n e r a l l yn o tc o n -
s i d e r e d t o be c r i t i c a l , e.g.,
Ref.
17.
75
I I .C.
1.
Hill, J. A.
Aero.
2.
Sci
F.:
"On t h e Cal
., Vol . 22,
F.;
Hill, J. A.
References
No. 6,
Schindel', L. H.:
Baron, J. R.
"Mach
Number
Measurements
3.
Maxwell,
1956 ( A l s o a v a i l a b l e
H.
and H a r t l e y , M.
as AGARDograph 22,Oct.
Tech. Rept.
1956).
S. : "Aerodynamic C a l i b r a t i o nR e s u l t sf o rt h e
AEDC-PWT 16-Ft.SupersonicTunnel
a t MachNumbers
,I'
4.
Murphy, J. S . :
"Evidences o f an I n h e r e n tE r r o ri n
5.
Barry, F. W.:
"Determination o f Mach
Number
Trans. ASME,
6.
Aero.Engr.
Measurement o f Total-Head
Rev.,Nov.
1953.
A p r i l 1956.
Measure-
View,"
2547,
R.A.E.
Tech. NoteAero.
Feb. 1958.
7.
Goodyer, M. J.:
8.
H.:
Couch,L.
Measurement o f Stagnation
R.A.E.
" E f f e c t so fG e o m e t r i cV a r i a b l e s
on thePerformance
9.
NASA TN 0-7887,
A c t i o n 61, June 2,
10.
Gracey, W.:
12.
Bryer,
I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f a Number o f T o t a l - P r e s s u r e Tubes
NACA Rept.
"Review o ft h eP i t o t
1303, Jan.
Tube,"
1956.
London, 1971.
1956.
Pressure-Probe Methods f o rD e t e r m i n i n g
and F l o wD i r e c t i o n ,N a t i o n a lP h y s i c a lL a b o r a t o r y ,
S t a t i o n e r yO f f i c e ,
76
AGARD TechnicalWorking
WindSpeed
1975.
"Wind-Tunnel
11.
i n Super-
May 1975.
of a
Her M a j e s t y ' s
13.
Livesey, J. L.:
TotalPressureProbes
Sci.,
14.
Vol.
Becker, H. A.
Streams,''
15.
23, p.
949,
i n TransverseTotalPressureGradients,"Jour.Aero.
Oct.
1956.
and Brown, A. P. G . :
Jour. F l u i d Mech.,
"Response o f P i t o t Probes i n T u r b u l e n t
Vol. 62, P a r t 1,
8 Jan.. 1974.
" E f f e c t o f I n l e t Geometry.onFlow-Angle
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f MiniatureTotal-Pressure
Tubes,"
NASA TN 0-6406,
July
1971.
16.
17.
Chew, W.
L . , Jr.:
" C a l i b r a t i o n of FiveTotalPressure
1965.
and Temperature
AEDC TN-59-37,
May 1959.
77
I I I.D.
TEST
SECTION
STATIC
PRESSURES
As discussed i n S e c t i o n I I . C . l , measurement o f s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i s
I t i sc u r r e n t l ys t a n d a r d
fundamental t ot r a n s o n i cw i n dt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n .
and t r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s
o fs t a t i cp r e s s u r ed a t a ,
measure t h i s r e f e r e n c e p r e s s u r e w i t h
permanently mounted i nt h et e s ts e c t i o n .
u s u a l l y measured e i t h e r i n t h e
The b e s t l o c a t i o n t o
plenum chamber or a t s i d e w a l l o r i f i c e s l o c a t e d
Machnumber
Once c a l i b r a t e d ,t h er e f e r e n c e
d u r i n gr o u t i n eo p e r a t i o n .
measure t h e r e f e r e n c e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e
t ot h eq u e s t i o n n a i r e ,u s e
s m a l l e rt u n n e l su s ee i t h e ru p s t r e a mo r i f i c e so r
A totalofthe
responsesindicated
appears t o
All o f t h el a r g e rt u n n e l s
be a m a t t e ro fo p i n i o n .
a probe
Thus, t h er e f e r e n c ep r e s s u r ei s
i nt h ef o r w a r dp o r t i o no ft h et e s ts e c t i o n .
used t o c o n t r o l
used t o c a l i b r a t e
it i s g e n e r a l l y
a r e f e r e n c ep r e s s u r e .i no r d e rt oa v o i di n t e r f e r e n c e ,
p r e s s u r ei s
T y p i c a l l y , anaverage
measured a l o n g t h e c e n t e r l i n e , i s
considered good p r a c t i c e n o t t o
s t a t i c to
s u r v e yi n d i c a t e d
a m a j o r i t yo fa p p r o x i m a t e l y
2:l p r e f e r r e d
(I)
plenum chamber d a t aa r e :
i n s e n s i t i v et ol o c a t i o na tw h i c ht h ep r e s s u r ei s
i t i sr e l a t i v e l y
h a v i n gt oc o n t e n dw i t he r o s i o na n d / o rc o n t a m i n a t i o no fo r i f i c e s .
e x p e r i e n c ew i t ht u n n e lw a l lp i e z o m e t e rr i n g si n
o r i f i c ed e t e r i o r a t i o ni sn o t
a number o ft u n n e l s
a s i g n i f i c a n t problem.
However,
has proven
78
number,becoming
increasingly
I nc o n t r a s t ,t e s t - s e c t i o n - w a l l
pressuresaregenerallyhigherthanfreestreamstaticpressureatsupersonic
numbers.
I nt h e
VoughtHigh
tunnel-wallpressureIsclosertofreestreamstaticthan
Mach
Thus, t h i st u n n e li sc a l i b r a t e du s i n gt u n n e l - w a l lp r e s s u r e s
because
from f r e e s t r e a m s t a t i c o f f e r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f g r e a t e r
smaller departures
accuracy I n Machnumber
t i o n may beexpected
c a l i b r a t ion.
In general,
a more a c c u r a t e t u n n e l c a l
ibra-
when t h e r e f e r e n c e p r e s s u r e i s c l o s e r t o f r e e s t r e a m s t a t i c
pressure.
I nt h ec a s eo fs u b s o n i c
s u r e sg e n e r a l l ya g r e ev e r yc l o s e l y .
c l u s i o ni st h a t
A p o s s i b l ee x c e p t i o nt ot h i sg e n e r a l
models, w i t hl a r g eb l o c k a g er a t i o s( i . e . ,
con-
plenum chamber p r e s s u r eb e l o wt h ec a l i b r a t e d ,e m p t y - t u n n e lv a l u e sa th i g h
subsonic Mach number, e.g.,
holes, suchasused
e x c e s s i v ei n f l o w
with slots or
Parker(Ref.
57).
from t h e plenum t o t h e t e s t s e c t i o n , b u t v e n t i l a t e d t u n n e l s
more v u l n e r a b l e t o t h i s t y p e o f d e p a r t u r e f r o m
e m p t y - t u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n .I na d d i t i o n ,t h e
f r e e s t r e a mp r e s s u r ed u r i n gr a p i d
III.D.l.
changes i n model o r i e n t a t i o n .
Transonic
Survey
Pipes
Responses t o t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e i n d i c a t e t h a t
31 o u t o f
t os u r v e yc e n t e r l i n es t a t i cp r e s s u r e .
centerlinestaticpressuresurveyareusuallyaveragedover
o ft h et e s ts e c t i o n
and used t o c a l i b r a t e
a p a r t i c u l a r model.
53 t r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s
The r e s u l t s o f t h e
one o r more l e n g t h s
a r e f e r e n c ep r e s s u r e .I nr o u t i n e
t e s t s , a c a l i b r a t e dl e n g t hi ss e l e c t e dw h i c h
and l e n g t h o f
known, i n c l i n e d
i n t h e AEDC t r a n s o n i c t u n n e l s , a r e d e s i g n e d t o i n h i b i t
normalholesare
haveusedlongpipes
As i sw e l l
most c l o s e l y matches t h e l o c a t i o n
An a l t e r n a t ep r o c e d u r ei st oc o n s t r u c t
number o f c a l i b r a t i o n c u r v e s t o r e l a t e t h e r e f e r e n c e p r e s s u r e t o s e v e r a l s t a t i o n sa l o n gt h ec e n t e r l i n e .
By l o c a t i n g t h e
aerodynamiccenter
o f a model a t
79
I 1 I
a station which has been calibrated, the local Mach number at that station
A
f*
In low supersonic
tests (M < l . 6 ) , the nose o f the model is usually located at one o f the
calibrated stations for more accurate wavedrag measurements.
In either case
a n averaae along
(i.e., calibrations of the reference static pressure with
The nose of the pipe shouldbe a sma.11 angle cone or ogive and
should be located well upstream in t,he subsonic portion of the
tunnel nozzle, e.g., in the 11-ft. Transonic Tunnel at NASA Ames
the nose o f the pipe extends into the settling chamberand is
supported under tension.
2.
.. Private
.L .
J
80
3.
I nt h ec a s eo fv e r yl o n gp i p e s ,t h r e eo rf o u rc a b l e ss h o u l db e
attachedtofurthercontrolpipe
4.
sagand
vibration.
A l l s u p p o r tc a b l e ss h o u l db ef r e eo fo b s t r u c t i o n s ,
and a l l t u r n -
buckles and c a b l ea t t a c h m e n tf i x t u r e ss h o u l db el o c a t e db e h i n dt h e
t u n n e lw a l l s .
5.
Cablesnearor
w i t h i nt h et e s ts e c t i o ns h o u l d
an angle of approximately
be sweptback
at
30 deg t o t h e c e n t e r l i n e .
Although a number o f t u n n e l c a l i b r a t i o n s
nose
ofthepipelocated,inthetestsectionnearthebeginningofuniformventila-
1 and 2 ) , t h ep r e f e r r e d
t i o n (e.g.,Refs.
arrangement i s w i t h t h e
t h a t no t r a n s o n i c shockpassesover
3.
Thisarrangement
theorifices.
A properly-designed,static-pressuresurveypiperequires
c a l i b r a t i o nc u r v e
nose w e l l
no t r a n s o n i c
and s u p p l i e ss i m u l t a n e o u sd a t at h r o u g h o u tt h el e n g t ho f
t h et e s ts e c t i o n .I nt r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s ,b o u n d a r yl a y e rg r o w t ho nt h ep i p e
does n o tu s u a l l yi n d u c e
**
t h ev e n t i l a t e dw a l l sf e a t u r e .I nc o n t r a s t ,t h ed i s a d v a n t a g e so ft h el o n g
pipe are:
1.
sag c a nc a u s et h ep i p et o
i n t u r n cancauseerroneous
2.
be i n c l i n e dt ot h ef l o ww h i c h
staticpressuredata,
v i b r a t i o n caninduceerrors,seeAppendix
Ill,
T h i sc o n c l u s i o ni so f t e ns u s t a i n e d
bydemonstrationthat
a plotofpipe
measured s t a t i c p r e s s u r e v e r s u s
plenum chamber pressure i s smooth through
t r a n s o n i c Mach numbers.
**However,
l e s st h a n
as a r u l e o f thumb, t h e b l o c k a g e r a t i o o f t h e p i p e s h o u l d
0 . 5 % , Ref. 6.
be kept
81
3.
disturbancesgeneratedbysupports
4.
i t sb u l k
Orificesare
l o n gf i x e dp i p e .
a source o f e r r o r , w h i c h i s o f t e n o v e r l o o k e d
5).
T h i st u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o np r o b ei s
shown i n
as 0.3% o f t h e
The f a c t t h a t t h e e r r o r s
wereindeed
dynamicpresorificeerrors
A repeatable
was ascertainedbymovingtheprobealongthetunnelcenterline.
3.D.2
and were
t o preventchamferoftheopening.
However, s t a t i c p r e s s u r e v a r i a t i o n s a s l a r g e
p a t t e r ni nt h ev a r i a t i o no f
hasbeen
when us i n g a
An example o fs i g n i f i c a n to r i f i c e - i n d u c e de r r o r
The o r i f i c e s havea
surewereobserved.
and
discussedbylsaacs(Ref.
Fig. 3.D.l.
may i n t r o d u c ee r r o r s ,
measured s t a t i cp r e s s u r e
shows a comparison o f d a t a o b t a i n e d a t
was observed.Figure
two d i f f e r e n t t u n n e l l o c a t i o n s
w i t h M = 0.74.
T h i s example i l l u s t r a t e s t h e
Pressuresurveypipe;particularly
s t a t i o ni so b t a i n e d
when t h e p r e s s u r e a t
w i t h o n l y one o r i f i c e .
o p e r a t o r s , who usesuch
p i p ef o ra tl e a s t
need f o r c a u t i o n when u s i n g a f i x e d , s t a t i c
a g i v e nt u n n e l
It i s suggested t h a tt u n n e l
p i p e s ,c h e c kt h eo r i f i c ep r o b l e mb yt r a n s l a t i n gt h e
one highsubsonic
andone
problem i s d e t e c t e d , t h i s s o u r c e o f e r r o r
o r more o r i f i c e s t o g e t h e r a t
may be reducedbymanifoldingfour
a g i v e ns t a t i o n .
totranslatethepipeeitherforward
If a
A second a l t e r n a t i v e i s
or rearward and t a k e s e v e r a l
measure-
ments a t a g i v e n s t a t i o n w i t h d i f f e r e n t o r i f i c e s . E i t h e r o f t h e s e p r o c e d u r e s
wouldimprovetheaccuracy
*A
o fs t a t i cp r e s s u r ec a l i b r a t i o n s .
A l s o , it i s
82
Dimensions In Centimeters
QUADRANT
S T I N GF A I R I N G
25 STATICPRESSURE
HOLES AT :Oa.'076'ID,
5.1 CM SPACING
STATICPRESSUREPROBE
MOUNTED
ON CALIBRATION GEAR S T I N G
(FAC I L I T Y FOR TRANSLATI ON ALONG
TUNNELCENTERLINEOVER
-229 CM)
Figure 3.D.1.
Q)
R.A.E.
SUBSONIC
STATIC-PRESSURE
PROBE
Hole No. 2
P-Pw
Hs-Pn
-0.005
Hole N o . 2
t
L
-0.010
-127
-102
-76
-51
-25
25
CM UPSTREAM OF TUNNELDATUM
(a) PROBEDATUM53
P -Pw
Hs-Pw
I
-0.010
-178
x
-152
-127
-102
-76
-51
-25
(b) PROBEDATUM
Figure 3.D.2.
T Y P I C A LP R E S S U R ED I S T R I B U T I O N S
ALONGPROBE
ON TUNNELCENTERLINE,
M = 0.74 (choked), R/R
A T TWO LOATIONS
los PERMETER
=19-7 x
g e n e r a l l yc o n s i d e r e d
w i t h each o t h e r , s i n c e
downstreamand
As notedby
good p r a c t i c e n o t t o p l a c e o r i f i c e s d i r e c t l y i n l i n e
a disturbance at an upstream orifice
induceerrorsat
adownstream
canpropagate
orifice.
6 ) , t h es t a t i cp i p ei s
seldom
used t oc a l i b r a t ec l o s e d - w a l ls u p e r s o n i ct u n n e l s .
The p i p en o to n l y
altersthe
ratiobutalsointer-
Machnumber
because o f t h e
reducedarea
fereswiththeexpansionpatternwhichisrequired
for u n i f o r m f l o w .
However,a
s t a t i c p i p e hasbeenused
quitesuccessfullyfor
Mach numbers up
t o two a t AEDC i nt h e Aerodynamic Wind Tunnel(4T),Ref.
7. Forexample, a t
M = 1.6 t h e 2 (I v a r i a t i o n i n measured c e n t e r l i n e Mach numbers was o n l y .007
and a t M = 1.99 was 0.008.
Thisapplicationof
a s t a t i c p i p e was made poss i b l eb yt h eu n i q u ef e a t u r e so ft h i st u n n e l ,v i z . ,a d j u s t a b l ep o r o s i t y
(0-10%),
w a l la n g l e ,
andplenumpumping.
85
lll.D.2.
I n caseswhere
T r a n s o n i cS t a t i cP r e s s u r eP r o b e s
v a r i a t i o n s o f Mach number t r a n s v e r s e t o t h e f l o w
c a l i b r a t e d ,r e s p o n d e n t st ot h eq u e s t i o n n a i r ei n d i c a t e dt h a t
hadbeen
such v a r i a t i o n s
a r eo f t e nl a r g e rt h a nl o n g i t u d i n a lv a r i a t i o n sa l o n gt h ec e n t e r l i n e .
These
data were o b t a i n e dw i t hc o n v e n t i o n a lp r o b e sw h i c h ,a sd i s c u s s e dl a t e r ,a r e
s u b j e c tt oa s y m m e t r i c a lw a l li n t e r f e r e n c e
M exceeds 0.85.
A l t h o u g ht h e s et r a n s v e r s ev a r i a t i o n s
may be p a r t l y t h e r e s u l t
oftransonicwall-probeinterference,thecalibrationof
o b v i o u s l yi m p o r t a n t ,p a r t i c u l a r l yf o rt e s t i n g
t r a n s o n i ct u n n e lo p e r a t o r s
gradients.
mentsas
i f (1) t h et u n n e l
Mach number v a r i a t i o n s a l o n g t h e c e n t e r l i n e
M < 1 1 , t h e nt h et r a n s v e r s ev a r i a t i o n si n
a r en e g l i g i b l e .T h i sc o n c l u s i o ni s
i ng e n e r a l ,
I nt h ep a s t ,
ofthecenterlinepressuresagreescloselywiththe
chamber p r e s s u r e( f o r
and,
wingedmodels.
have t r a d i t i o n a l l y concludedthat
w a l lp a r a m e t e r sa r es e tt om i n i m i z e
and ( 2 ) theaverage
such v a r i a t i o n s i s
basedon
plenam
Yach number
thecomparisonbetweentwoaverages,
does n o t j u s t i f y t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f n e g l i g i b l e t r a n s v e r s e
Thus, w i n dt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o ns h o u l di n c l u d eo f f - c e n t e r l i n e
measure-
a s t a n d a r dp a r to ft h ec a l i b r a t i o np r o c e d u r e .F o rt h i sr e a s o n ,
o f c o n v e n t i o n a ls t a t i cp r e s s u r ep r o b e s
theprimaryadvantages
one o f
i s m o b i l i t y as
c o n t r a s t e dt ot h el o n g , s t a t i cp r e s s u r e , s u r v e yp i p e .
Q u e s t i o n n a i r er e s u l t sa l s or e v e a lt h a tt h e
pressureprobe
i s a 10 deg a p e x - a n g l ec o n e - c y l i n d e rw i t ho r i f i c e sl o c a t e dt e n
o r more c y l i n d e rd i a m e t e r s( c a l i b r e s )
for orifice location
8).
These i n v e s t i g a t o r sc o n d u c t e d
o f nosegeometries
oftheeffects
a s y s t e m a t i ce
, xperi-
and o r i f i c e l o c a t i o n
on s t a t i c
A summary o ft h e s ed a t ai sp r e s e n t e di nF i g .
measured s t a t i c p r e s s u r e
> 10d.
0 -
36
downstream o ft h es h o u l d e r .T h i sc r i t e r i o n
appears t o have o r i g i n a t e d w i t h t h e t e s t s c o n d u c t e d b y
Holdere
,a
t l (. R e f .
mentalstudy
most p o p u l a r t r a n s o n i c s t a t i c
i s w i t h i n 0.5% o f t h e r e f e r -
A s n o t e di nt h ef i g u r e ,t h er e f e r e n c ep r e s s u r e ,
3.D.3.
External
Diameter d = O . Z O ~ C M
(b) Short
(c) Cone
(b) Hemisphere
Collar
Static
Soldered
Tuk
Oglve
(e) Square
General arrangement of the static tubes and the nose shapes tested.
P
p
po
1-
dl
by
'40 k
b
c
10
b*
Figure 3.D.3
I5
eo
which wasassumed
o g i v a ln o s e
t o be t r u e f r e e s t r e a m s t a t i c , was o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e l o n g
and o r i f i c e s l o c a t e d
Highsubsonic
40 c a l i b r e s downstream.
(H = 0 . 6 t o 0 . 9 ) d a t ai n d i c a t e p r o b e p r e s s u r e g e n e r a l l y
r e t u r n s t o f r e e s t r e a ml e v e l s( w i t h i n
9.
c a l i b r e s , Ref.
0.5% o f q) a t l o / d v a l u e s
The e x a c tl o c a t i o ni s
a nosecorresponding
For
dependentonnosegeometry.
example, t r a n s o n i cd a t ap r e s e n t e db yR i t c h i e
s u r ep r o b e ,w i t h
of 4 to 6
(Ref.
t ot h el o n go g i v e
i n d i c a t e n e g l i g i b l e measurement e r r o r when o r i f i c e s a r e l o c a t e d o n l y
two
c a l i b r e s downstream o f t h e n o s e - c y l i n d e r j u n c t u r e .
However, s i n c et h eo v e r e x p a n s i o na tt h es h o u l d e re x t e n d sf a r t h e r
downstream i nt h es u p e r s o n i c
case,Gracey
(kef.
9)
c o n c l u d e do r i f i c e s
l o c a t e d 10 or more diametersdownstreamwouldsensefreestreampressurewith
"small-error"
a t bothsubsonic
t r a n s o n i ct u n n e lo p e r a t o r s
seems t o a g r e e w i t h
of
Gracey.
1 1 1 , i nt h ep a s tt h ed a t ao b t a i n e d
used,almostuniversally,
as a s t a n d a r df o rt r a n s o n i ci n t e r f e r e n c e - f r e ed a t a .A l t h o u g ht h ep u r p o s eo f
these measurements was t o i n v e s t i g a t e
p e r t i n e n tt op r o b ed e s i g n
a 20
and performance.Estabrooksobtaineddataon
apex a n g l ec o n e - c y l i n d e ri nt h e
o f 0.008% and M = 0.7 t o 1.4.
orificeslocated
w a l l effects,theresultsarealso
AEDC-PWT
16T t u n n e l w i t h
a model blockage r a t i o
A c u r s o r ye x a m i n a t i o no ft h e s ed a t ai n d i c a t e s
will
seven c a l i b r e s downstream o f t h e c o n e - c y l i n d e r j u n c t u r e ,
a l l o w a c c u r a t e measurements o f f r e e s t r e a m s t a t i c p r e s s u r e t h r o u g h o u t t h e
t r a n s o n i c speed regime.
number permeter
The datawereunaffectedbyvaryingfreestreamReynolds
The f a c t t h a t f r e e s t r e a m s t a t i c p r e s s u r e c a n n o t
bemeasured
as M + 1.0, will b e e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n .
88
a t anyone
106 ).
location,
I nt h e
Machnumber
c o n c l u d e dt h ed o m i n a n tw a l li n t e r f e r e n c ee f f e c t
sonicexpansion
waves ( o r i g i n a t i n g a t t h e s h o u l d e r )
back t o t h e model as
In o r d e r t o e x p l a i n t h i s
g i v e nc o n c e r n i n gt o o
o
w
l a resistancetoinflowfromthe
testsecti,on.Unfortunately,Estrabrooksappeared
transonicshockwhichformsneartheshoulder
moves.rearward w i t hi n c r e a s i n g
(generatedbyinflow)
phenomena, a d i s c u s s i o n was
plenum t o t h e
t o be unaware o f t h e
of this type of
Mach number.
body and
Althoughcompression
waves
shock
f o r passage o f a transonic
shockonthe
when 0.90
1.05.
measured p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s
i n t e r p r e t e d as s o l e l yw a l li n t e r f e r e n c e .F o r
shockimnediately
Estabrboks
was r e f l e c t i o n s o f s u p e r -
compression waves.
must
account
1T
tunnel,blockage
was observed.
AEDC-PWT
weremis-
example, t h ee x i s t e n c eo f
a f to ft h es h o u l d e ri sc l e a r l yi n d i c a t e d( F i g .
t h e 20 deg c o n e - c y l i n d e ra t
0.95.
M = 0.975 a r e l e s s d e f i n i t i v e p o s s i b l y
Thus,
3.D.4)
for
Data f o r t h i s c o n f i g u r a t i o n a t
because o f a b i f u r c a t e d shock o r
boundarylayerseparation,eitherofwhichreducesthepressuregradient
f:
produced by t h e shock.
*AlthoughtheReynolds
number based o n w e t t e d l e n g t h i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y
2.55 x
6
10 nearx/d
= 4, it i sn o tc l e a rt h a tt h e
boundary l a y e r i s t u r b u l e n t
because o f t h e s h o u l d e r e x p a n s i o n w h i c h t h i n s
and s t a b i l i z e s t h e boundary
layer.
However, even i f theboundarylayer
i st u r b u l e n t ,t h et r a n s o n i c
F
shockcancauseseparation
i f t h e l o c a l Mach number exceeds 1.3 (e.g.,
The measured p r e s s u r er a t i oa tt h es h o u l d e r
doesindeed
Refs. 13 and 14).
i n d i c a t e a l o c a l Machnumber
near 1.3.
It i s a l s or e l e v a n tt oh e r en o t e
15) foundthe.laminarboundaryona.hemisphere-cylinder
thatHsieh(Ref.
separatednear M = 0.80.
89
H,
0.950
- 0.0
0.975
1 .ooo
- 0.0
0.0
.I
.2
*3
.4
.5
.6
x/d,
Figure 3.0.4
90
10
a blockage rat lo
shock will
A r a t h e rg e n e r a lc o n c l u s i o ni st h a tt h et r a n s o n i c
o f 0.005%.
move o f f a c y l i n d r i c a l probeas
p o r t shocks,providedthere
M +l,and merge w i t h t h e s t i n g
i s no w a l li n t e r f e r e n c e .
Movement o f a transonicshockonaxisymmetrlcbodiescan
c u l a t e dv i at h e
computerprogram
a solutiontothecompletepotentialequatlons
t r a n s o n l cf l o w .
Thus,
i no r d e r
now be c a l -
programprovides
r e a lb o d i e st h e r e
and/orsup-
f o r t h e s es o l u t i o n s
t o be a p p l i c a b l e to
must be noboundarylayerseparation
for steady
(e.g.,
Ref.
15).
body must be f r e e o f w a l l
interference.
The e x i s t e n c e o f b o u n d a r yl a y e rs e p a r a t i o no nc o n e - c y l i n d e r si n
transonicflow
Cone-cylinder mode 1s w i t h a b l o c k a g e r a t i o o f
w i t h M = 0 . 5 t o 1. 17 i nt h e
AEDC-PWT
1T tunnel.
These i n v e s t i g a t o r s
foundthattheboundarylayerseparatedatthecone-cy1inderjuncture
t h e cone apex angle was 40 deg or more and tl < 0.85.
apex angleincreased,the
I ng e n e r a l ,a s
w i t h i nl e s st h a nf o u rc a l i b r e s .T h i s
models w i t h apex angles ranging from
The p r i m a r ye x c e p t i o n
shock locatesnear
cone
measured a d i s t a n c e o f f o u r c a l i b r e s
downstream o f t h e s h o u l d e r , t h e f r e e s t r e a m s t a t i c p r e s s u r e
both sizes of
when
mostcases
18).
and Chevalier(Ref.
20 t o 60 deg.
t o t h i so b s e r v a t i o no c c u r s
an o r i f i c e .
was a t t a i n e d i n
when
a transonic
I f t h e shock i s f o r w a r d o f t h e o r i f i c e ,
91
t h e measured s t a t i cp r e s s u r e
exact amountdepends
will t e n dt o
on s t r e n g t h o f t h e
be higherthanfreestream.
The
Correspondingly,thepressure
moves rearward w i t h
downstream o f ,t h eo r i f i c e .S i n c et h et r a n s o n i cs h o c k
i n c r e a s i n g Mach number, a l l s t a t i o n s a l o n g
a probe's stem a r e a f f e c t e d .
by RobertsonandChevalier
show thetra'nsonicshock
M = 0.8,
near t h es h o u l d e ra t
as Machnumber
bymodel
ona20deg
increases.
and i n c r e a s e s i n s t r e n g t h
The r a t e o f
blockage and t h e e x t e n t o f t h e s u p e r s o n i c
The e f f e c t o f windtunnelblockage
may be seen i n t h e
4%,
moved forwardfromx/d
T h i se f f e c to fb l o c k a g e
o f Page (Ref.
zone ona
g i v e n model.
may a l s o beseen
d a t ao f
Furtherevidence
case,the
on t h e same
10.5 a t M = 1.025.
i n d i c a t e dt h e
92
1.10.
20).
0.198%.
For
andhada
A sample o ft h i sd a t ai sr e p r o d u c e di nF i g .
move fromx/d
3.0.5.
Measurements a tt h en e x th i g h e r
Mach number, M
1.04,
*R e f l e c t i o n o f t h e
2
of 0.25%
b l o c k a g er a t i oo f
at
t h es u r f a c ep r e s s u r ed a t a
i l l u s t r a t i o no ft r a n s o n i c
i nt h es c h l i e r e np i c t u r e s
example,
from 0.5%
= 5 t ol e s st h a n
model i n two d i f f e r e n t s l o t t e d - w a l l t u n n e l s w i t h b l o c k a g e r a t i o s
and 0.005%.
shock
By v a r y i n gt h e
models t o o b t a i n w i n d t u n n e l b l o c k a g e r a t i o s
thetransonicshock
M =i 1.
shock i s a f f e c t e d
on movement o f t h e t r a n s o n i c
M = 1 dataofEstabrooks(Ref.12).
sizeofcone-cylinder
to
movement o f t h i s
bow shockbackontothecylinder
was notobserved
until
M = 0.90
M = 0.95 0
M = 1.00 0
M = 1.0250
x/d
Figure 3.0.5
TRANSONICPRESSUREDISTRIBUTIONS
CONE-CYLINDER,
REF.
20.
ON A 20 DEG
93
...
S i m i l a r measurements f o r a 40 degcone-cy1inder,
showed theshock
was a t x/d
atthecone-cylinderjuncture
sonicflowresultedin
10.5 when M
=I
with the
1 .Ob.
Thus,
t h el a r g e re x p a n s i o n
i n c r e a s i n g Mach number.
even smallersizeswould
0.01% o ft h et u n n e la r e a
movement o f a t r a n s o n i c s h o c k w i t h
T h i sc o n c l u s i o ni s
When theprobe
a 20 degapexcone-
i t appearsthat
inordertoavoidretardingtherearward
i s moved o f fc e n t e r l i n e ,c l o s e rt o
be necessary t oa v o i dw a l li n t e r f e r e n c e .A l s o ,
menttechnique,such
same blockage,
a r e t a r d e d movement ofthetransonicshock.
c y l i n d e r must have a c r o s s - s e c t i o n a la r e al e s st h a n
asymmetry o f t h e
asa
Thus,a
Recently,Neman
and Klunker(Ref.
a wall,
some
n o n - p e r t u r b i n gf l o w
laserDopplervelocimeter,appearsto
measure-
be v e r y
d e s i r a b l ef o rt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n si nt h er a n g e
h a v ep e r f o r m e dc a l c u l a t i o n sf o rt r a n s o n i cf l o w sa b o u ta i r f o i l s
and axisym-
m e t r i cb o d i e sw h i c hi n c l u d ew i n dt u n n e lw a l l si nt h eb o u n d a r yc o n d i t i o n s .
c a l c u l a t i o n s show theshock
isapplied,i.e.,
Pw
tothefree-airsolution,
Poo
These
Similarly,the
when t h e s o l i d w a l l
boundary c o n d i t i o n i s a p p l i e d .
I nl i g h to ft h ef o r e g o i n gd i s c u s s i o n ,t h i si m p l i e st h a te i t h e rs l o t t e do r
p e r f o r a t e dw a l l sa c t
increased.This
more l i k e o p e n - j e t s
phenomenon i sa p p a r e n t l y
as t h e s i z e o f t r a n s o n i c
more a i r fromtheplenum
models i s
a r e s u l to fl a r g e rp o c k e t so fs u p e r -
s o n i cf l o ww h i c hi m p r e s sl o w e rp r e s s u r e sa tt h ew a l l s .T h i si nt u r n
chamber and a p p a r e n t l y s h i f t s t h e
draws i n
model f l o w p a t t e r n
towardtheopen-jetboundarycondition.
T h i s may p a r t i a l l y e x p l a i n t h e t r a n s v e r s e
some o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n t s .
94
and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y l a r g e r p o c k e t o f s u p e r -
Based o n t h e s e v a r i o u s r e s u l t s ,
t u n n e lc e n t e r l i n e s .
. .. .
...." ..
.. ... .
Mach number g r a d i e n t s r e p o r t e d
by
A s r e g a r d ss t a t i cp r e s s u r ep r o b ed e s i g n ,s m a l la n g l e
t om i n i m i z es t r e n g t ho ft h et r a n s o n i c
pansionangle
shock.
conescan
be used
I na d d i t i o n ,t h es m a l l e re x -
will g e n e r a t e l e s s w a l l i n t e r f e r e n c e f o r
a givenprobediameter
A separatedboundarylayer
i su n d e s i r a b l e
whichareconvecteddownstream
a-nd cancause
p. 9 8 ) .
because it i n t r o d u c e sd i s t u r b a n c e s
additionalerrorsinstaticpresThus,
i nt h ep a s tt h e
IO deg apex
a convenientcompromisebetweenoptimum
probes, may be a v o i d e d b y l o c a t i n g o r i f i c e s
t h et r a n s o n i cs u r f a c ep r e s s u r e s
3.D.6.
caused bypassage
AM = 0.02)
range(e.g.,
at
0.021% tunnelblockage.
These probes a r e
shown i n F i g . 3.D.7.
i t isrelevanttonotethattransonic
c y l i n d e rp r o b e
The correspond i n g s u r f a c e p r e s s u r e s a r e
c y l i n d e rs u r f a c ep r e s s u r e ,i s
Machnumber
on v e r y
t i o n a l IO deg c o n e - c y l i n d e rh a v i n g
shown i nF i g .
i s character-
o ft h et r a n s o n i c
However ,
shock.
shock e f f e c t s can be c o n f i n e d t o
when u s i n g a c a r e f u l l yd e s i g n e d
a srna 1 1
10 deg cone-
3 deg cone p r o v i d e s
t u n n e lc e n t e r l i n e .I nc o n t r a s t ,t h e
a m o n o t o n i c a l l yi n c r e a s i n gp r e s s u r e
on t h e
transonicrange.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y ,t h e
9) t o be
cone apex a n g l e o f
11.3 c a l i b r e s down95
d = 0.305
(a)
CONE-CYLINDER
STATIC
3"
T I P DIAMETER
HEAD
1.3'
0g015
DIMENSIONS
ARE tN (XN'TmERS
(b)
Figure 3.0.6.
DIMENSIONS OF THER.A.E.STATIC
PRESSURE
PROBES
+o .02 AM
'
0'.90 0.b2
0-
= M -M
0.44
'01
155 cm FROM
I
0.96
STATIC HEAD
CONE-CYLINDER
0.98 1.00
MH
I
1.02
An
= fl -M
H C
R e = 10.6 x 10
-0.02
(b)
Figure 3.D.7.
per meter
I
3"
CONE S T A T I C HEAD
TRANSONICCHARACTERISTICS
= MACH NUMBER
DEDUCED FROM
PLENUM CHAMBER
STAT I C PRESSURE
THROAT.
''
per meter
I
(a)
+o .02
MR
"
0.'98 1.60
1.b2
R e = 15.7 x 10
-0.02
0.96
OF
THE
TWO R.A.E.
PROBES
= MACHNUMBER
DEDUCED FROM
S T A T I C HEAD
PRESSURE
measurementson
v a r i a t i o n so fa p p r o x i m a t e l y
8 - f t . TransonicTunnelindicate
deg cone I n t h e L a n g l e y
Thus,a
0.02 qinear
M = 1.
i n . )o r i f i c el o c a t e de i t h e r
small-angle conecan
12.7 o r
17.8 cm (5 o r 7 in.)
be used t o c a l i b r a t e w i n d t u n n e l s
near M = 1 , b u t i t s s e n s i t i v i t y t o f l o w a n g u l a r i t y
t o r e s o l v e Mach number v a r i a t i o n s a s s m a l l a s
can make i t d i f f i c u l t
0.001.n
Size:
As foundby
0.03% canhave
tunnelcalibrationsalongthecenterline
f r e ep e r f o r m a n c eo f
computerprogram(Ref.
17).
c e n t e r l i n eb l o c k a g ee f f e c t s
Refs. 21,22
and 26.
T h e r e f o r e ,f o ra c c u r a t e
and near M = 1, s t a t i c p r e s s u r e p r o b e s
recommended.
be c a l u c l a t e d u s i n g t h e S o u t h
from t h e nose.
by having
6) suggestmovingthe
a s c h l i e r e n system.
o f t h en o s e - c y l i n d e rj u n c t u r e .F i n a l l y ,e r r o r si n d u c e d
w i th a
IO o r more c a l i b r e s downstream
by o r i f i c e s i z e a r e
lll.D.4.
A d d i t i o n a l t r a n s o n i c measurements o f f l o w a n g u l a r i t y w i t h
probearereported
by W r i g h t ,e ta l .( R e f .
25).
98
e.g.,
W a l lr e f l e c t e dd i s t u r b a n c e sc a na l s ob ed e t e c t e d
Once t h e p r o b e d i a m e t e r i s s e l e c t e d , a t l e a s t f o u r o r i f i c e s
and Jameson
can be estimated by t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s i s ,
model o f f c e n t e r l i n e and/orusing
discussed i nS e c t i o n
The w a l l - i n t e r f e r e n c e -
I f f o r some reason a l a r g e rp r o b ei sr e q u i r e d ,
o r i f i c e s a t more t h a n o n e s t a t i o n
i n c r e a s i n gd i s t a n c e
M = 1.
0.01% a r en o t
suchprobescan
a tunnel
cylindersurfacepressureswhichdepart
s i g n i f i c a n t l yf r o mf r e e s t r e a ms t a t i cn e a r
w i t h b l o c k a g er a t i o sl a r g e rt h a n
2 0 ) , cone-cy1inderbodieswith
3 deg c o n i c a l
Reynolds .Number:
Re/m >
by t h i s v a r i a b l e ,
p r o v i d e dt h ep r o b eb o u n d a r yl a y e ri sa t t a c h e d .
:
Tu r b u 1 ence
In contrast to the Pitot
a f f e c t e db yt u r b u l e n c e .
c i a t e dw i t ht h e
probe, s t a t i c p r e s s u r e
The d e s i r e dq u a n t i t y
mean f l o w .B r y e r
turbulencescaleislarge,
and Pankhurst(Ref.
measured s t a t i cp r e s s u r e
Pm
If t h e o r i f i c e s a r e l o c a t e d
e r r o r s ,t h e n
A = 0.
Eq. (3.0.1)
may
be
Pm
The f o l l o w i n ge q u a t i o n
measured,mean
a turbulentflow.
(ut)')+
(3.D. 1)
so t h e r e a r e no noseand/or
B i s ameasure
supportstem-induced
o ft h ec r o s s f l o w - i n d u c e de r r o ri n
measured
an angle a i n a steadyflow,
w r i t t e n as
Pt = 2q(Acos
Thistypeof
t o t h e dynamic
will be high.
When a probe i s i n c l i n e d a t
s t a t i cp r e s s u r e .
measured
I f t h et u r b u l e n c es c a l ei s
dynamic pressuregeneratedby
Pt = A p ( U
when t h e
an o r i f i c e .
28) t o r e l a t e t h e e r r o r i n
27) n o t et h a t
be low and i s p r o p o r t i o n a l
p r e s s u r eo ft h et u r b u l e n c en o r m a lt o
be
1s t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e a s s o -
compared t o t h e p r o b e d i m e n s i o n s , t h e
s t a t i c p r e s s u r e will t e n d t o
s m a l l ,t h e
probedatacan
a + B s i n a)
a standard,classicalprobe.
a diameter o f 0.305 cm (0.12
(1) a ne l l i p s o i d a l
and (3) s i x o r i f i c e s l o c a t e d
nose,
(2)
8 1/2diam-
99
A specialprobe,designedto
s t a t i cp r e s s u r e ,
measure unsteadycrossflow
was a l s ot e s t e db y
Siddon.
f e r e n t i a l s l i t forsensingstaticpressure,
-0.23.
i n c l f n e dn o z z l e ,
T h i s probe,which
arrangement.Additional
-0.46
t o -0.35.
inducederrorsvarieswithprobedesign
Bryer and Pankhurst(Ref.
anda
27, p.
43)
anareawhich
causedby
measurements i n a r o t a t i n g r o u n dt u r b u l e n tj e ti n d i c a t e d
Thus, t h em a g n i t u d eo fc r o s s f l o w and t u r b u l e n c e s c a l e
suggestthatprobes
and i n t e n s i t y .
be c a l i b r a t e d i n
will beused.
flowswithturbulencecloselymatchingthoseinwhichtheprobe
Thisisobviously
circum-
B v a l u eo f
B values i s p r i m a r i l y
a t u r b u l e n tc h a n n e lf l o w ,
variedovertherange
hada
A c c o r d i n gt oS i d d o n ,t h ed i f f e r e n c ei n
t h ed i f f e r e n c ei no r i f i c e
and f l u c t u a t i n g
needs f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h .
Yaw:
When s e v e r a l o r i f i c e s
(4 o r
more) arelocatedaroundtheprobeclrcum-
Appendix I I I ) .
below.
This
a circularcylinder
27)
notethattheyaw-inducedstaticpressureerrorofthistypeofprobeis
t y p i c a l l y 0.01 PaDwhenyawed
dependentonnosegeometryand
deg.
The e r r o r , i n
o r i f i c el o c a t i o n .R i t c h i e( k e f .
yaw-induced e r r o r sg e n e r a l l yi n c r e a s ew i t h
allowederrorin
a p a r t i c u l a r case,
Mach number.Thus,
91,
R i t c h i e (Ref.
f o r a given
two orificeslocated
from thewindward-meridian.Althoughtheseprobes
t r a n s o n i c speedsand
yaw angles up t o
s t r e a md i r e c t i o n .S i n c et h i si sn o tu s u a l l y
t i o n s ,t h i st y p eo fp r o b ec a n n o t
100
10) r e p o r t e d
measured s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , t h e p e r m i s s i b l e v a r i a t i o n i n f l o w
misalignmentdecreases.Gracey(Ref.
sensitivity.
is
28
t o minimize yaw
30 to 40 degrees
h a v es m a l le r r o r sa t
deg, t h e y r e q u i r e
knowledge o f t h e
known d u r i n gw i n dt u n n e lc a l i b r a -
be recommended.
Hence, theconventional
probe with four or more orificesis preferred. Particularly since the flow
angularity in the central core ofmany contemporary transonic and supersonic
tunnels is less than one degree, the conventional probe will usually have
negligible error due to yaw.* For
degree angle o f attack caused less than 0.2% error in measured static pressure
through-out the transonic Mach number range.
Based on
orifices will have negligible effect on the flow at the orifices throughout
the transonic speed regime. The required distance for no interference deand increasing Mach number.
creases with smaller flare angles
speeds
* It
Perhaps t h e most s t r i n g e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r d i s t a n c e
anda
32).
staticpressureprobe
mountedon
These d a t aa r e
33)
31).
adjacentprobes
sureprobe
The o b j e c t i v e is
oftheorifices.
inter-
measured a t t h e o r i f i c e s . S i n c e t h e
c r i t e r i o n becomes i m p r a c t i c a l when M
2, Gray reconmends t h ef l o wd e f l e c t i o n
3 deg a t i t s i n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h t h e
shock be k e p tl e s st h a n
caused by shock-wave/laminar-boundary-layer
a c t i o nf r o ma f f e c t i n gt h ep r e s s u r e
a c r o s st h eP i t o t
i s based o nt h ed a t ao f
bow shock i n t e r s e c t s a s t a t i c p r e s -
15 probediametersdownstream
t op r e v e n td i s t u r b a n c e s
strutdlameters
The s e p a r a t i o nc r i t e r i o nf o r
Insupersonicflows,
so t h a t t h e n e i g h b o r i n g
32
3.0.8.
and p i t o t probes i n s u b s o n i c f l o w
of a
3.D.9.
and a r ep r e s e n t e di nF i g .
a d j a c e n ts t a t i c
belocated
shown i nF i g .
General c r i t e r i a f o r p r o b e s u r v e y r a k e s
(Ref.
Forthecase
a double wedge s t r u t s u p p o r t , t h e t r a n s o n i c
measurements o f N i c h o l s i n d i c a t e o r i f i c e s s h o u l d
ahead o f t h e s t r u t .
between o r i f l c e s
be spaced so t h e l n t e r -
5 o r more s t a t i c probediametersdownstream
of the orifices.
il
For Mach numbers between 0.9 and 1.2,
because o fi n c r e a s e db l o c k a g e
rakesmust
and near-normalshock
be used w i t h c a u t i o n
waves.
Also,rakesare
notoriousforinducingcrossflowintheplaneoftherakeathighsubsonic
Mach numbers, see Section I I 1 . E .
a l t e r n a t i v ei s
recommended:
(x
5 deg)nose
suggestedby
.L
a s l e n d e ro g i v a l
anda
Mach number r a n g et h ef o l l o w i n g
employ a s i n g l e ,s t a t i cp r e s s u r ep r o b e( o r
c o m b i n a t i o nP i t o t - s t a t i cp r o b e *
assumption)with
I nt h i s
f o r v a l i d a t i n gt h ei s e n t r o p i ce x p a n s i o n
(L
= ad) or v e r ys m a l la n g l ec o n i c a l
stingtypesupportwhichsatisfiesthecriteria
Gray.
Here i t i s r e l e v a n t t o n o t e B r y e r
and Pankhurst (Ref. 27, p. 41) a r e o f t h e
o p i n i o nt h a tc o m b i n a t i o np r o b e sa r ei ng e n e r a ll e s sa c c u r a t et h a ns i n g l e purposeinstruments.
102
0.4
0.3
-P
w -
H
0- m
a - 0.90
0.2
1.00
0.1
-0.1
12
16
20
24
28
0
W
Figure 3.D.8
EFFECT OF ORIFICELOCATION U T Z I Z I U G
DOUBLE- WEDGE SUPFORT STRUT, REF. 32
32
36
.. ,. ..-
I
.
.
.
_
.
.
.
.
_,, , ,
. . .
.
I
lo
.I,.
11
16 d for
for M > l1.6
e6
Cylindrical
support
M> 1.2:
Determined by the
intersection of bow
wave with static probe
Figure 3. D. 9
104
SURVEY
lll.D.3.
AlthoughBarry
t i o n s basedon
SupersonicStaticPressureProbes
(Ref.34)
has shown t h a ts u p e r s o n i c
Mach number c a l c u l a -
P i t o t and f r e e s t r e a m s t a t i c p r e s s u r e a r e n o t
t h e Mach probesdescribed
i nS e c t i o n
because of i t s f a m i l i a r
In addition,
I I I . C , t h i s approach i s o f t e n used
i t does p r o v i d e amethod
on theassumption
as accurateas
for calculating
o f an i s e n t r o p i c e x p a n s i o n
H wh i c h does n o t depend
from s t i l l i n g chamber t o t e s t
section.
Walter and Redman (Ref. 35) measured p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s
Mach numbers 1.55 and 2.87."
includedanglecone-cy1inderat
on a
deg
These data
indicatethesurfacepressureonthecylinderreturnstofreestreamstatic
beyond IO c a l i b r e sf r o mt h es h o u l d e r .I ng e n e r a l ,
theoverexpansionincreases
q u i r e d .I n c r e a s i n g
and longerdistancesfromtheshoulderarere-
Pressuredistributiondata
speeds up t o
s i m i l a re f f e c t .
on c o n e - c y l i n d e r - f l a r e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a t
Data o b t a i n e d on a b l u n t nosed,
10.3 deg c o n e - c y l i n d e r a t
yaw i n d i c a t e t h e s u r f a c e p r e s s u r e r e t u r n s t o w i t h i n
static at nine calibres
Inthecaseof
averagedpressure
sensitivity.
downstream o f t h e s h o u l d e r .
yaw, t h e d a t a o f
Reference 36 show t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l l y
i s b e l o wf r e e s t r e a ms t a t i c .F o r
averagepressuredecreasesfurther
increasingthe
M =
as Machnumber
a g i v e n yaw a n g l e ,t h e
i n c r e a s e s .I ng e n e r a l ,
T h i sd a t ai sa l s op r e s e n t e di nR e f e r e n c e
6.
105
240
from t h e windwardlocation,provides
s t a t i c for M lessthan
4.0.
deg c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l l y
a c l o s ea p p r o x i m a t f o nt of r e e s t r e a m
Thus, t h i s t y p e o f p r o b e
to e l i m i n a t e
canbeused
yaw-induced e r r o r s i n s t a t i c p r e s s u r e .
As discussedpreviously,sincemosttunnelshavesmallflowangularity
inthe
empty t e s t s e c t i o n ,
significant.
it isunlikelythat
accurate measurement.
t ol o c a t et h e
may be important.Inwhichcase,
70
a static
80 deg a p a r t canprovide
Thiscanbeaccomplishedbyrotatingtheprobe
windwardgenerator(highestpressure)andthenrotatingthe
probe u n t i l t h e
two o r i f i c e s agree."
37)
Inordertoavoidsupport-interference,Gray(Ref.
cylinderdiameter
orifices.
0.1% i s d e s i r e d ,
accuracyof
probe w i t h two o r i f i c e s l o c a t e d c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l l y
amore
I f s t a t i cp r e s s u r e
be c o n s t a n t f o r a t l e a s t
Any subsequentenlargement
recomendsthe
8 diametersdownstream
i nd i a m e t e rs h o u l d
of the
be r e s t r i c t e d t o
i nF i g .
I nt h ep a s t ,P i t o tp r e s s u r e s
3.D.9.
and surfacepressures
Refs.
38 and 39.
106
Mach number,
A l s o , an e x t r e m e l ya c c u r a t ec o n i c a ls t a t i cp r e s s u r e
"T h i s
on conicalprobes
assumes no o r i f i c e - i n d u c e d e r r o r s .
6).
Thisprobedesign
by a long(16.26
cm) 1 deg
1 deg cone a t t h r e el o c a t i o n s .
The e r r o r i n
measured s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i s r e p o r t e d t o
o ft r u ef r e e s t r e a mp r e s s u r e
when
M = 1.8 t o 3.5.
some o f t h e m o s t a c c u r a t e s t a t i c - p r e s s u r e
However,Gray
(Ref.
37)
o fs u p e r s o n i cs t a t i c - p r e s s u r e
probeswereconsidered.
be o f t h e o r d e r o f
0.1%
Thus, thesedatarepresent
has r e c e n t l yr e v i e w e dt h em e r i t s
probes.Cone-cy1
inder,sharp
and l i m i t a t i o n s
cone,and
planar
of Mach number, a n g l e o f a t t a c k ,
Based on t h e e f f e c t s
enough f o rv i s c o u sc o r r e c t i o n st o
be n e g l i g i b l e .T h i se f f e c t
e s t i m a t e db yc a l c u l a t i n gt h ee q u i v a l e n ti n v i s c i dp r e s s u r e
suggestedbyGray(Ref.
lessthan
indersprobes
canbe
from anexpression
i n flowswith
Mach number
5.
(wmeas
0.25
(3.0.3)
(w) i n v i s c i d
where
-x
E M
3
/ (Rel /C) 1 /2
0
C Z ( p /p ) (T /T ) , Chapman-Rubesin v i s c o s i t yp a r a m e t e r .
w e w
For a g i v e n c o n f i g u r a t i o n , t h e v i s c o u s i n t e r a c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t d e c r e a s e s w i t h
i n c r e a s i n g Mach number.
*
andGeorge(Ref.
40) i n d i c a t e a c o e f f i c i e n t o f
*These
o f Peterson
0.08 i sa p p r o p r i a t ef o r
i n v e s t i g a t o r s , among o t h e r s , ,havenotedthatstatic-pressureprobes
s h o u l dn o t beused
inflowswithlargeaxial
or transversepressuregradients.
I no r d e r
t o s i m u l t a n e o u s l ym i n i m i z et h ee f f e c t so fv i s c o u si n t e r a c t i o n
and noseoverexpansion
a t supersonic speeds,
it i s recommended t h a t o r i f i c e s
16 c a l i b r e s downstream o f theshoulder.Incases
be l o c a t e da tl e a s t
c o r r e c t i o n i s judged t o be n e c e s s a r y , t h e i n t e r e s t e d r e a d e r
G r a y ' s d i s c u s s i on(Ref.
where
may r e f e r , t o
measured
p r e s s u r e f o r v i scous i n t e r a c t i o n and o b t a i n i n g a b e t t e r e s t i m a t e o f t h e
i n v i s c i d ,s t a t i
c pressure.
S i n c ec o n e - c y l i n d e rp r o b e sa r er e l a t i v e l yl o n g ,t h e yn o to n l y
r i g i d i t yb u ta l s o
a r es e n s i t i v e
cannotbeused
t o yaw.
i np r e s s u r eg r a d i e n t s .I na d d i t i o n ,t h e y
F o rt h i sr e a s o n ,s h o r t e rs u p e r s o n i cs t a t i cp r e s s u r e
probeshavebeeninvestigated,
e.g.,
focused on t h e i d e a o f d e s i g n i n g
a probe t o have a t l e a s t
t h ec i r c u m f e r e n t i a l l ya v e r a g e ds u r f a c ep r e s s u r er e m a i n s
of freestreamstaticregardlessof
Machnumber
The probesdesignedbyDonaldson
(Ref.
+6
s e p a r a t i o n becomes
a
deg.Beyond
one s t a t i o n where
or a n g l e o f i n c i d e n c e .
whereas theprobesofSmith
Measurements a t M = 0.2
and 3auer a r e c o m p l e t e l y i n s e n s i t i v e
ranqe,boundary
f a c t o r , a n de r r o r si n c r e a s er a p i d l y .S i n c et h e
tivityofconventional,circularprobesincreasewith
may or may n o t o f f e r
anadvantage
reportsfreestreamstaticpressure
yaw sensi-
c a nb ed e t e r m i n e dw i t hh i sc a l i b r a t e dp r o b e
27 deg
108
layer
f o rs u p e r s o n i ca p p l i c a t i o n s .P i n c k n e y
t o w i t h i n 2 p e r c e n tf o ri n c i d e n c ea n g l e so f
has
a constantfraction
43) have n o n c i r c u l a rc r o s s - s e c t i o n s .
i n d i c a t et h en o n c i r c u l a rp r o b e so fS m i t h
to flow angles of
Thiswork
and Richardson(Ref.
42) a r ec o n v e n t i o n a , lb o d i e so fr e v o l u t i o n ,
andBauer(Ref.
havesmall
w' 4 t h 24 or i f i c e s l o c a t e d
Better
a 50 deg i n -
0.88 diameters
downstream o f theshoulder,theseinvestigatorsfoundtheprobe
0.793 POD,and t h e f r e e s t r e a m s t a t i c p r e s s u r e c o u l d
1.2 p e r c e n to v e rt h e
Machnumber
By
o b t a i n e d f o r z e r o yaw.
measured
be determined to w i t h i n
range 1 . 1 t o 2.5.
These r e s u l t s were
0.763, f r e e -
a d j u s t i n gt h e i rc a l i b r a t i o nf a c t o rt o
be c a l c u l a t e d t o w i t h i n 3 p e r c e n t f o r incidenceangles
s t r e a ms t a t i cc o u l d
up t o 18 deg i n anyplane.Thisrepresentsthesmallest
a n ys u p e r s o n i cs t a t i cp r e s s u r ep r o b e
yaw s e n s i t i v i t y o f
known t o t h e a u t h o r s . *
As i s w e l l known, t h e o r e t i c a ls o l u t i o n sf o rs u r f a c ep r e s s u r ed i s t r i b u t o measure f r e e s t r e a m
tionsonprobescanassisttheplacementoforifices
s t a t i cp r e s s u r e .
pressureson
Based oncomparisons
o f measuredand
a hemisphere-cylinderprobe,Hsieh(Ref.
canbe
p r e d i c t e ds u r f a c e
44)
concludedthe
used s u c c e s s f u l l y up t o M = 1.3.
A r a t h e rl a r g e
available.
t h ei n t e r e s t e dr e a d e r
byHsieh(Ref.
For examples,
44).
number o f suchprograms
Fornon-axisymmetricprobes,
recommended
a r ec u r r e n t l y
may r e f e rt ot h ep a p e r
a
number
offinitedif-
f e r e n c es o l u t i o n sf o rt h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l ,s u p e r s o n i c ,i n v i s c i df l o w sa r e
a v a i l a b l e , e.g.,
Marconi,
F i n a l l y ,t h e
e ta l .
(Ref. 4 5 ) .
use o fm u l t i p l ep r o b e si nr a k e
s u p e r s o n i ct u n n e l si sw e l l
c a l i b r a t es u p e r s o n i ct u n n e l s
known.
Rakes
arrangements f o rs u r v e y i n g
can be s u c c e s s f u l l y employed
by a p p l y i n g t h e d e s i g n c r i t e r i a o f
to
Gray, F i g .
DonaldsonandRichardsonalsofound
a c o n v e n t i o n a l ,s i n g l eb o r e ,i n t e r n a l
plenum p r o v i d e d less yaw s e n s i t i v i t y t h a n an a n n u l a r plenum.
109
lll.D.4.
O r i f i c e - I n d u c e dS t a t i cP r e s s u r eE r r o r s
E r r o r si ns t a t i cp r e s s u r e
geometry,have
measurements,causedby
been i n v e s t i g a t e di n
(4)
hole,
Refs. 46-52.
a number o fs t u d i e s ,
(1)
r e l e v a n tg e o m e t r i cv a r i a b l e sa r e :
t od i a m e t e r ,
variationsinorifice
The
(2) r a t i oo fh o l ed e p t h
h o l ed i a m e t e r ,
(3) therelativesizeofthecavityortubeconnectingtothe
(5) t h e
i n c l i n a t i o no fh o l ea x i sr e l a t i v et ot h es u r f a c en o r m a l ,
conditionoftheholeentry,
i.e.,whethertheedgesaresquare,rounded,
chamfered, o r have b u r r s .
I d e a l l y ,t h em e a s u r i n gh o l es h o u l d
be i n f i n i t e s i m a l l y s m a l l
so as t o
n o td i s t u r bt h ea d j a c e n tf l o w .
caused by f i n i t e - s i z e do r i f i c e sc o n s i s t e do ft h r e ec o n t r i b u t i o n s .F i r s t l y ,
dippingofthestreamlinesintotheorifice
l i n e sw h i c hr e s u l t si n
eddy (orsystem
a higherpressureinsubsonicflow.Secondly,an
o fe d d i e s )i sg e n e r a t e dw i t h i nt h eh o l e .
a n a l y s i s by N e s t l e r( R e f .
51)has
downstream edge o ft h eh o l e .
0.038 cm (.015in.)are
such aneddy
And f i n a l l y , a P i t o te f f e c to c c u r sa tt h e
These t h r e e phenomena causethe
be t o oh i g h .A l t h o u g ht h es e v e r i t yo ft h e s e
h o l es i z e ,R a i n b i r d( R e f .
(An approximate
shown how t h e t u r n i n g o f
cangenerateincreasedpressures.)
s u r et o
causes a d i v e r g e n c e o f s t r e a m -
measured pres-
phenomena decrease w i t h
49) o b s e r v e dt h a th o l e sw i t hd i a m e t e r sl e s st h a n
difficult to
negligible
b u r r s .A l s oi ns h o r td u r a t i o nt u n n e l s ,t h et i m er e q u i r e df o rp r e s s u r e
e q u i l i z a t i o ni nt y p i c a l
Based ona
s t u d yo fo r i f i c ee r r o r si nt u r b u l e n tp i p ef l o w ,
110
50) have v e r i f i e d t h a t t h e e f f e c t o f h o l e s i z e
shear s t r e s s ( T ~ )and f l u i d d e n s i t y
(p)
and v i s -
- 'true
'meas
do
,?w
)
(3.0.4)
T
W
In add i t i o n , t h e a c t u a l m a g n i t u d e o f e r r o r s a r e
otherparameters.
a f u n c t i o n o f anumber
f o u n dt h er e l a t i v ed e p t ho ft h e ,h o l et oa l s o
general,the
be a s i g n i f i c a n tp a r a m e t e r .I n
t o diameterdecreases.
However, as holelength/diameter
decreasesbelow
2 , L i v e s e y ,e ta l .n o t e d
b e h i n dt h eh o l e
caused a n e g a t i v ee r r o ri n
t r a s t ,R a i n b i r d
(Ref.
d i a m e t e ro fo n l y
2d0.
W i t ht h i sa r r a n g e m e n t ,
statlcpressureerror
**
0 . 5 do.
Shaw
measured s t a t i cp r e s s u r e .
Rayle(Ref.
Shawls d a t ai n d i c a t e
of do/127cancause
t h e oncoming f l o wi n c r e a s e st h e
downstream, a reducedpressure
and d i s as o c c u r
3.0.10.
i n c l i n i n gt h ea x l so fh o l e st o w a r d
measured pressure.
i s measured.
By i n c l i n i n gt h eh o l e
R a y l ea l s os t u d i e dt h ee f f e c t s
edges r e s u l t e d
whereas,chamferingproducedsmallnegativeerrors.
observedbyBenedict(Ref.
53),
i m e d l a t e l ys e p a r a t eb u ti n s t e a d
t h ef l o wo v e r
countersunkhole,theflow
I nt h ec a s e
R a i n b i r d used a f i x e d r a t i o o f h o l e l e n g t h
not
a resulting
o f a chamfered or
will separateattheupstreamsharp
S i m i l a r l y ,L i v e s e y ,e ta l .a l s on o t et h a t
(e do) will cause a higherpressure.
As
a roundededgedoes
i s g u i d e di n t ot h eh o l ew i t h
recovery o f p a r t o f t h e dynamicpressure.
a decreasing
errorsaslarge
o f v a r y i n g edges o f an o r i f i c e .I ng e n e r a l ,r o u n d i n go ft h e
i nh i g h e rp r e s s u r e ;
I n con-
from 1 . 5 do t o
smooth h o l es i z e ,i . e . ,t h es o l i dc u r v ei nF i g .
46) found,asexpected,
a c a v i t yb e h i n dt h eh o l ew i t h
a l s os y s t e m a t i c a l l ys t u d i e dt h ee f f e c t so fb u r r s
w i t hv a r i a t l o n si n
(14 do)
a relativelylargeCavity
as t h e l e n g t h o f t h e h o l e d e c r e a s e s
coveredthatburrsoftheorder
**
48)
(Ref.
measured p r e s s u r e d e c r e a s e s t o w a r d s t h e t r u e v a l u e a s t h e r a t i o
o f h o l el e n g t h
of
edge, b u t
a c o n t r a c t i o ni nt u b i n gd i a m e t e r
to o r i f i c e d i a m e t e r
o f 3.
111
it a l s o a c c e l e r a t e s a l o n g t h e s l o p i n g
reduced pressure.Rayleconcluded
(0.015
va 1ue.
in.)deep
downstreamedge
cm (0.030
a0.076
c o u n t e r s i n ks h o u l dp r o v i d e
range o f 0 t o 0.8.
errorsincreasewith
Machnumber.
i s p r e s e n t e di nF i g .
3.0.10.
on a 25'
displacementthickness.
o f holediameter
theeffects
byCassanto(Ref.52).
(60) o r i f ices on
of square-edgedandchamfered
v a r i e d , r e s p e c t i v e l y ,f r o m
0.25
of hole
w ind tunneldatadiscussed
0 . 6 3 5 cm (0.06
( d e c r e a s i n gs l i g h t l y
51)
be c o r r e l a t e d by t h e r a t i o
momentum t h i c k n e s s .
case,thediameters
= 6.37),the
and Wallace
any e f f e c to ft h i sr a t i o .F u r t h e r m o r e ,N e s t l e r( R e f .
f u r t h e r by thehypersonic
('local
t o boundary l a y e r
However, t h es u b s o n i cd a t ao fF r a n k l i n
diametertoboundarylayer
49)
apex-angleconebyRainbird(Ref.
d e m o n s t r a t e do r i f i c e - i n d u c e de r r o r sc o u l dn o t
and 0.152
50)
and Wa lace(Ref.
R a i n b i r d s u g g e s t e dt h es c a t t e ri nh i sd a t ac o u l d
an 18 degconewere
o r i f ce-induced
Thisdatademonstrates
and thesupersonicdataobtained
Inthis
h o l e w i t h a 0.038 cm
in.)
and a i r f l o w s c o v e r e d
f a i l e dt oi n d i c a t e
a staticpressurenearthetrue
Finally,Rayle'sexperiments.withwater
Machnumber
whichresultsin
i n . )F
. or
0.076
0.635 crn ( 0 . 0 3
a freestream
Mach
number
0.25 in.)
of 8
measured p r e s s u r e was i n s e n s i t i v e t o o r i f i c e d i a m e t e r
lessthan
o f Machnumber
3 percent
w i t hi n c r e a s i n gd i a m e t e r ) .
Thus,
on o r i f i c e - i n d u c e d e r r o r s i n s t a t i c p r e s s u r e
needs
a d d i t i o n arl e s e a r c h .
Q u e s t i o n n a i r er e s u l t si n d i c a t es t a t i co r i f i c ed i a m e t e r st y p i c a l l yr a n g e
in.)
onsmall-anglecones
t u n n e lw a l l s .I no r d e rt om i n i m i z es t a t i ch o l ee r r o r s * ,
t
O f course, a flush-mountedpressuretransducer
112
t o 0.228 cm (0.09
in.)onwind
i t i s recommended
i s p r e f e r a b l e whenever p o s s i b l e .
0
I
0. 0
0
0
Franklin : M < @ 5
8s
Wallace
W / V
S inceRainbird(Ref.
asanindustrystandard.
o f o r i f i c e canbeused
t h i nw a l lo r i f i c e sa r ef r a g i l e
theorderof
thissize
tunnel,
it
I d e a l l y ,t h el e n g t ho ft h eh o l es h o u l d
and, t h u s ,s u b j e c tt o
recomnends t h e h o l e l e n g t h
The diameterof
ablow-down
Ref. 47.
/2 o f an o r i f i c ed i a m e t e r ,
33)
hasdemonstrated
with s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s i n
(Ref.
49)
in.)beadopted
damage.
However, such
Hence, Gray
be g r e a t e r t h a n t w o o r i f i c e d i a m e t e r s .
a c o n n e c t i n gl i n e ,b e h i n dt h eh o l e ,s h o u l d
two o r i f i c e d i a m e t e r s ,
be
be r e s t r i c t e d t o
33.
O f c o u r s e ,t h e s el a s tt w oc r i t e r i ap r e s u p p o s ea ni n s t a l l a t i o nw h i c hi s
a c c e s s i b l e from thebackside,
e.g.,
a t u n n e lw a i l .I nt h ec a s eo f
swaged or
staticpressuresurveypipe,tubingoftheappropriatesizeis
sweat s o l d e r e d i n
a r e c e i v i n gh o l e
w i t ht h eo u t s i d es u r f a c eo ft h ep i p e .
0.051 cm (0.020
in.)can
a long,
or machined down f l u s h
and thenground
Hereagainan
orificediameterof
be used, and l a r g e rd i a m e t e rc o n n e c t i n gl i n e s
may
be used to reduceresponsetime.
Inthecaseof
a conventionalstatic-pressureprobe,
d e p t ht oo r i f i c ed i a m e t e ro fl e s st h a n
t h e case.
one i s n o t o n l y p o s s i b l e b u t
For example, a p r o b ew a l lt h i c k n e s so f
f o r 0.318 cm (1/8
in.)
a ratio of hole
0.033 cm (0.013
OD s t a i n l e s ss t e e lt u b i n g .T h e r e f o r e ,t h e
o r i f i c e s i z e wouldprovide
staticpressureerrorsofprobes
may be reducedbydesigning
i n . )i st y p i c a l
recommended
0.65.
a h o l el e n g t ht od i a m e t e rr a t i oo f
i s frequently
Also,
them t o have
laminarflowattheorifices.Althoughtheexistingcorrelationsoforifice
errorsare
f o r t u r b u l e n tf l o w s ,
i t appearsprobablethat
O f course, a flush-mountedpressuretransducer
sible.
a l a m i n a rf l o w
will
i s p r e f e r a b l e whenever pos-
be obtained by properly sizing the probeand polishing the external surface to 0.25 microns (1011 in.).
diameter
drill bits several sizes smaller than the desired final hole size and
progressively increasing the hole size. Also, short flute drill bits should
be used to minimize flexing and a drill guide (of the same metal) clamped
over the orifice location can be of considerable help.
of dri 1 1 feed will produce smaller burrs,and pressurizing the hole, during
Finishing
The finished orifice should be inspected for burrs with a microscope, and
when possible, measured objectively,e.g., a Talysurf instrument.
Consideration should be given to the possibility using
of
an electrical
discharge machine or a laser to manufacture smooth orifices. To the authors'
for production of
knowledge, no comparative study of different processes
orifices has been made.
115
lll.D.5.
A GeneralPurpose
As d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n
III.D.l,
w i t h nose l o c a t e d i n t h e s e t t l i n g
S t a t i cP r e s s u r eP r o b e
thelong,staticpressuresurveypipe,
chamber, i s p r e f e r r e d
for c e n t e r l i n e c a l i b r a -
t i o n so ft r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s .T h i sa r r a n g e m e n tn o to n l yp r o v i d e sal a r g e
o f simultaneousdatabutalsopreventsthe
t h eo r i f i c e s .
amount
passage o f a t r a n s o n i c
shock over
However, t h eq u e s t i o n n a i r er e s u l t si n d i c a t eal a r g e
number o f
t r a n s o n i ct u n n e lo p e r a t o r s( p r i m a r i l ys m a l l e rf a c i l i t i e s )c o n t i n u et o
conventionalprobes.
As m e n t i o n e dp r e v i o u s l yi nS e c t i o n
o f i n e x p e n s i v e ,c l a s s i c a lp r o b e si st h e i rm o b i l i t y
o f performingflowsurveys
o f f centerline.
use
111.0.2,an
advantage
and theconsequentease
For t h eb e n e f i to ft u n n e lo p e r a t o r s
who w i s h t o c o n t i n u e u s i n g t h i s t y p e o f p r o b e , t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o b e d e s i g n i s
suggested for c a l i b r a t i n g t r a n s o n i c and supersonictunnels.
The basicprobedesign
i s presented i nF i g .
a ne f f e c t i v ef i n e n e s sr a t i oo f
expansion a t t h e
nose i s m i n i m a l
i n t e r f e r e n c e , (2) a ts u p e r s o n i c
(e.g.,Ref.
An o g i v e nose w i t h
12 i s suggested f o r tworeasons:(1)over(e.g.,see
Fig. 3.0.3)
theextentofthesupersonicpocketatsupercritical
noseshape
3.0.11.
w h i c ha l s om i n i m i z e s
speedsand
t h u sw a l l
ogive
1 9 ) ;t h u s ,t h i sd e s i g na l s or e d u c e sw a l li n t e r f e r e n c ea t
supersonic speeds.
It s h o u l d a l s o
be n o t e d t h a t t h e
roughness f o r b o u n d a r yl a y e rt r i p p i n g .
n o s ed e s i g ns p e c i f i e sad i s t r i b u t e d
The o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s f e a t u r e i s t o
preventshock-induced,boundarylayerseparation
b e n e f i ti sr e d u c e ds e n s i t i v i t yt oR e y n o l d s
t r a n s i t i o n s t r i p on t h i s t y p e o f p r o b e
(Ref.
10).
116
number.Examples
An a d d i t i o n a l
o f aboundarylayer
may be found i n t h e r e p o r t
by R i t c h i e
The s i ze o f g r i t and l e n g t h o f s t r i p r e q u i r e d f o r a p a r t i c u l a r
a p p l i c a t i o n canbe
and
a t a l l speeds.
designed v i a t h e c r i t e r
Braslow, e t a 1.
(Ref.
56).
55)
RECOPAENOEO O R I F I C ES I Z E
LC/+
PATTER&WE3VIWUEDBACKTO
30d
FROM OGIVE-CYLINDERJUNCTURE
A
3
0
'
30'
VIEW VIEW
8-14
B-B
O R I FSI6CI NEOGRLI E
FICES
60'
APART
F i g u r e 3.0.11
VIEW
C-C
O R I F6
SI C
IN
OEG
R LI FEI C E S
ROTATED 3
0
' FROM VIEWA-A
VIEW 0-0
ROTATED 30'
FROM VIEW 8-8
sure ports along the cylinder.* The probe is designed to obtain primary static
pressure data at stations having six orificesin order to average out the
effects of any probe asymmetries,orifice errors, and small flow inclinations.
The purpose of the single orifices is to assist in locating the position of
either a transonic shock and/or the reflection
of a bow shock (or any other
disturbances) back onto the probe. The additional data will aid determination
of where surface pressure equals freestream static. This feature will allow
the probe to be used off centerline where wall interference increases.
Finally, the flare angle should be 10 deg or less in order to minimize
interference near Mach one. The effectsof this flare, as we11 as the wallinterference-free transonic performance of this probe, can be calculated
via the South-Jameson computer code (Ref.17).
in order to
I f the
In the case o f
the criteria of Gray (Fig.3 . 0 . 3 ) and avoid wall reflections o f bow shocks.
The interference-free performance canbe computed w i t h a number of existing
asisymmetric method
of characteristics codes.
ij
1II.D.
1.
Dlck, R . 5 . :
References
"The I n f l u e n c e o f SeveralCable-TypeSupports
PressuresAlongtheCenterline
Upon t h eS t a t i c
Feb. 1955.
2.
Jackson,
F. M . :
3.
Jacocks, J.
L.
," AEDC-TR-70-163,Aug.
and H a r t l e y , M. 5 . :
Jackson, F. M.:
Isaacs. 0.:
June 1969.
AEDC-PIJT 16-FtTransonicTunnel
" C a l i b r a t i o no ft h e
a t Subsonic Speeds,
AEDC-PWT 4-Ft.
AEDC-TR-69-134,
" C a l i b r a t i o no ft h e
TestSectionUallPorositiesof
5.
1970.
" C a l i b r a t i o no ft h e
TransonicTunnelwithModifiedWails,"
4.
AEDC P r o p u l s i o n
"Supplemental C a l i b r a t i o nR e s u l t sf o rt h e
6.
Pope, A.
7.
Sept.
8.
1976.
I n c l u d i n g a D i s c u s s i o n of t h e C o r r e c t i o n s A p p l i e d
E f f e c t s Due t o t h e C a l i b r a t i o n
Tunnel(4T)
Jan.
t h e Measured P r e s s u r e D i s t r i b u t i o n t o A l l o w f o r t h e D i r e c t
and Goin,
at
K. L . :
MachNumbers
to
andBlockage
Probe Shape."
1965.
AEDC-TR-72-Ii1,
1972.
North, R . J.;
Holder, 0. W . ;
A.:
andChinneck,
Tubes i n a SupersonicAirstream,Parts
"Experiments w i t hS t a t i c
R. t
M.
No. 2782,
J u l y 1950.
9.
Gracey, W . :
Nov.
10.
"Measurement o f S t a t i cP r e s s u r e
on A i r c r a f t , "
R i t c h i e , V.
5.:
P r e s s u r eS e n s i n gE r r o r sf o rA i r c r a f ta tS u b s o n i c ,N e a r - S o n i c
Supersonic Speeds,"
11.
Davis, J . W.
2
0
'
12.
NACA TN 4184,
NASA TR R-18,
and Graham,
Cone-Cylinders,"
Estabrooks. B. B.:
R. F.:
and Low
Feb. 1959.
"blind-Tunnel b l a l i I n t e r f e r e n c eE f f e c t s
A l A A Jour.Spacecraft
" W a l l - I n t e r f e r e n c eE f f e c t s
and Rockets,Oct.
1973.
on AxisymmetricBodies
for
in
AEDC-TR-59-12,
June 1959.
1I9
W.;
and Nason, B . 5 . :
W. A . :
"Characteristics of Steady-State
M.,
Jr.:
"Determination of Boundary-Reflected-
21. Nebman, P. A. and Klunker. E. E.: "Numerical Modelina of Tunnel-\.la11 and BodyShape Effects on Transonic Flow Over Finite Lifting Wings," Aerodynamic
Analyses Requiring Advanced Computers, Part1 1 , NASA SP-347, Mar. 1975.
22.
23.
Sieverdling, C.;
Maretto, L.;
and
120
I
24.
Sutton, E. P.:
R.
25.
E;
28.
Siddon, T. E . :
Unsteady Flow," UTIAS Report No. 136 (AD-682 2961, Jan. 1969.
29.
Rittenhouse, L. E.:
Chevalier, H. L.:
Aug. 1960.
31.
in Ducts
Supports, Duct Walls and Jet Boundaries on Pressure Measurements
I . S.A.
Nichols, J. H . :
Jour., Vol
. 9, Sept.
1953.
33.
Gray, J. D.:
34. Barry, F.
ASME
35. Walter,
W.:
Trans., A p r i i 1956.
L. W. and Redman, E. J.:
36.
D.
Washington, W.
Cone-Cy1 i n d e r F l a r e C o n f i g u r a t i o n s a t S u p e r s o n i c
D.:
Gray, J.
Oct.
1969.
"Eva1uation.of Probes f o r M e a s u r i n gS t a t i c . P r e s s u r ei n
38.
D.:
N o r r i s , J.
Speeds,"RD-TM-69-11
AEDC-TR-71-265,
Jan.
" C a l f b r a t i o no fC o n i c a P
l ressure
a t MachNumbers
1972.
Probes f o rD e t e r m i n a t i o n
Nov. 1965.
39.
A. and Weirich, R. L . :
Vahl, W.
" C a l i b r a t i o no f
forDeterminingLocalFlowConditions
NASA TN 0-4679,
3.51.,"
40.
Peterson, C . W.
Included-Angle Cone
of 1.51 t o
i n MachNumberRange
1968.
0 . L.:
and
George,
Calibrations for
"Wind
Tunnel
Pressure
Probes:
New
A I A A Jour.,
Vol.
41.
Aug.
30
"A S h o r tS t a t i cP r o b ew i t h
1.
Donaldson,
I n c i d e n c eC h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
A.R.C.
a t Supersonic Speed,''
Good
Current Paper
Pinckney,
Flow,"
43.
S. Z.:
NASA TU
0-7978, J u l y
1975.
D.:
"Static-Pressure
TheoreticallyInsensitivetoPitch,
Mech.,
44.
Vol. 44, P a r t
Hsieh, T.:
for Supersonic
"A ShortStatic-PressureProbeDesign
3,
Probes t h a ta r e
pp. 513-528,
"Hemisphere-Cy1 i n d e ri n
J o u r .F l u i d
1970.
A l A A Jour.,
Dec. 1975.
45.
Marconi, F.;
Speed I n v i s c i d FlowsAboutReal
46.
Rayle, R.
ments,"
47.
Shaw,
R.:
ments,"
122
E.:
"The I n f l u e n c eo fH o l e
Jour.
Configurations,"
" I n f l u e n c eo fO r i f i c e
F l u i d Hech.,
Vol.
"Computation o f High-
NASA SP-347,Mar.1975.
Geometry on S t a t i cP r e s s u r e
Dec.
Measure-
1959.
Dimensionson
S t a t i cP r e s s u r e
7, P t . 4, A p r i l 1960.
Measure-
48.
Jackson, J. D.;
Livesey, J. L.;
E r r o r Problem:
49.
Rainbird, W.
andDepths,''
" E r r o r si n
J.:
A i r c r a f t Engr.,
, Nat ' 1 .
50
, F r a n k l i n , R.
Holes
Yo1 34, Feb. 1962.
Measurement o f Mean S t a t i c P r e s s u r e o f
Res.Counc.Canada,
DME/NAE Q u a r t e r l y B u l l e t l n
"The S t a t i cH o l e
o f E r r o r sf o r
An E x p e r i m e n t a lI n v e s t l g a t i o n
o f VaryingDiameters
J.:
and Southern, C.
Oct.
1967.
Error UsingFlushTransducers,"Jour.Fluid
Mech.,
Vol 42, P t .
1,
June 1970.
N e s t l e r , D. E.:
Flow,"
" S t a t i cP r e s s u r eP o r tE r r o r si nH y p e r s o n f cT u r b u l e n t
Cassanto, J. M . :
Paper No. 75-150,
Benedict, R. P . :
Measurements,
Benek, J. A.
Mar.1971.
Jan.
1975.
Fundamentals o f Temperature,Pressure,
Wiley, New York,
"A Method F o rt h eP r e d i c t i o no ft h eE f f e c t s
and High, M. D . :
Braslow, A .
L.;
1425,Oct.
T r a n s i t i o n,I' AEDC-TR-73-158,
1974.
"Simp1 i f i e d Method f o rD e t e r m i n a t i o no f
o f D i s t r i b u t e d Roughness P a r t i c l e s f o r
T r a n s i t i o n a t MachNumbers
56.
P.
and Flow
1969.
55.
AlAA
from 0 t o 5,"
Boundary-Layer
NACA TN 4363,
Boundary-Layer-Trans it i o n T r i p s on Wind-Tunnel
Jr.:
1958.
"Use ofGrit-Type
1966.
57
Parker, R. L.,
Jr.:
funnelTestSection
l t F l 0 w GeneratipnPropertiesofFiveTransonic
Wind
Aug- 1975.
I l l . E.
MEASUREMENT OF FLOW
ANGULARITY
A w i d ev a r i e t yo f
two o rt h r e ed i m e n s i o n a lf l o w s .
yawmetershavebeenused
o v e rt h ey e a r sf o rd i f f e r e n ta p p l i c a t i o n s .
r'
whishhavebeenused
i nt r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s
The ones
may be d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e g e n e r a l
(2) h o tw i r eo r
types:(1)pressureprobes,
measure
film probes,(3)force
models
i n s t r u m e n t e dw i t h
A d i s c u s s i o no fp r e s s u r e
a v e r ys e n s i t i v ef o r c eb a l a n c e . "
probes i s g i v e n f i r s t
and i s f o l l o w e d b y
of thelattertypesof
a brief description of
yawmeter.
A r e c e n tr e v i e wo ft h ev a r i o u st y p e so fp r e s s u r ep r o b e s
o ft h ep r o s
andcons
o f each a r eg i v e n
a u t h o r sc l a s s i f yp r e s s u r ep r o b e
c o n s i s t i n go f
F o rf l o wd i r e c t i o n
D i f f e r e n t i aP
l ressure
Yawmeters: 2-D
measurements i n oneplane,threetypesof
o r a c i r c u l a rc y l i n d e r
twopressuretapsonthesurfacesofeither
and twotubes
yawmeters a r en o t
B o t ht h ec y l i n d e r
i n thepresence
and
wedge
of velocitygradients
Machnumber
wedge-shapedyawmeter
range 0.8
m e t e r ,g e n e r a l l yr e f e r r e d
t o 2.2.
124
because o f t h e
3 ) havefound
In c o n t r a s t ,t h et w o - t u b et y p eo f
provides:
d i s t u r b a n c e ,( 2 )a d e q u a t es e n s i t i v i t yw h i c hi sr e l a t i v e l yf r e e
togetherfornearlypoint
have,greater
to as a Conradprobe,
and
5).
because
and c o n s i d e r a b l e
l a r g e rs e p a r a t i o no fo r i f i c e s .A l s o ,S i e v e r d i n g ,e ta l .( R e f .
( t o t a la n g l e )
The
recommended f o r t r a n s o n i c f l o w s
susceptibilitytoerror
i nt h e
A large
w i t hs l a n t e di n l e t s .
o ft h e i rc o m p a r a t i v e l yl a r g ei n t e r f e r e n c ew i t ht h ef l o w
t h a t a 30
yawmeter
suchprobesareavailablefromcommercialmanufacturers.
s e n s i t i v i t yt o
a body
most common, v i z . ,
circularcylinder
These
III.E.l.
v a r i e t yo f
2).
t o measure f l o wa n g l e si n
awedge
and a d i s c u s s i o n
w i t hp r e s s u r es e n s i n go r i f i c e s .
geometriesare
twoexamples
and
yaw-
( 1 ) minimum f l o w
o f Machnumber
( 3 ) o r i f i c e sw h i c ha r ec l o s e
measurement o f f l o w a n g u l a r i t y .
References
3 and 5 c o n t a i n c a l i b r a t i o n r e s u l t s f o r s m a l l t u b e t y p e
yawmeterswhichweredesigned
The o b j e c t i v e o f S i e v e r d i n g , e t a l .
k.
3) was t oi n v e s t i g a t es e v e r a lp r o b eg e o m e t r i e s
couldbe
used t o s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
pressures.
measure t o t a l , s t a t i c ,
t o t a l apex-angleconeprobe
was a l s o mountedon
22 mm ahead of therake.
ment,were
2.2.
t o f l o w and 6.0 m
The probes, w i t ht h i sa r r a n g e -
calibratedinthe
yawmeter i s presented i n F i g .
The r e s u l t i n g s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e
0.8
..
was mounted on a r a k e
therake.
measure f l o w a n g u l a r i t y
A smalldiameter
normal t ot h ep l a n eo ft h er a k e .
and d i r e c t i o n a l
3.E.1,
shown i nF i g .
(2.3 mn thicknessnormal
ofrectangularcrosssection
p a r a 1l e 1t of l o w ) .
and arrangementswhich
3.E.l.
"
A combinationPitotprobe
andyawmeter
s i m i l a r arrangement,buttwodifferent
one case,thecompanionprobe
measuring s t a t i c p r e s s u r e ,
probe (1.5
mm OD).
was a l s o c a l i b r a t e d w i t h
companion probeswere
0
was a 15
coneneedleprobe(1.5
and t h e secondcompanion
shown i nF i g .
sensitivityofthetwo-tube
3.E.1.
yawmeterand
cone
was found t o be
yaw (%loo).
l i n e a ro v e rt h el a r g e s tr a n g eo fa n g l e so f
In
mm OD) f o r
The s e n s i t i v i t yo ft h en e e d l ep r o b e
s e n s i t i v i t yd a t aa r ea l s o
used.
The corresponding
The d i f f e r e n c ei nt h ea n g l e
thecombinationprobe
may be
a t t r i b u t e dt ot h ed i f f e r e n c ei nt h ei n l e ta n g l e .
S i e v e r d l n g ,e ta l .( R e f .3 )a l s ot e s t e dt h ey a m e t e r
c o m b i n a t i o ni nt h es m a l l
Staticpressure
measurements a l o n g t h e w a l l
o u tt h ep r o b e s ,i n d i c a t e ds i g n i f i c a n tb l o c k a g e
whereas,a
s i n g l e AGARD needleprobe
elbowtypesupport
n e g l i g i b l eb l o c k a g e .
o t h e rp r o b e s )a r et o
and needleprobe
(12.3O
of t h i s f a c i l i t y , w i t h
whenMachnumber
and w i t h -
exceeded 0.30;
(3 mn OD) l o c a t e d 48 probediametersdownstream
Hence, theseauthorsconclude:
i f yawmeter
a
be used i nt r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s ,t h ep r o b e s
showed
(and/or
and support
A l t h o u g ht h e s ea u t h o r sd i dn o ts t a t et h ei n s i d ed i a m e t e r
o f t h et u b i n g ,. t h e
0.6 i n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e
r a t i o o f I . D . t o 0 . 0 . should be keptgreaterthan
loss o r change o f s e n s i t i v i t y w i t h i n c r e a s i n g f l o w a n g u l a r i t y ,
e.g.,
p. 19
o f Ref. 2.
125
0.06
0.05
1J
0.04
1-
Probe,Ref.3
Combination
S :t
Y
.
a
,
.
\
J
0.03
3 Tubes 0.8
mm OD
0.02
\
0.01
- Tubing
Lp=j
6 = 80"
2 Tubes 1 .O mm OD
I
0
0.8
0.6
0.4
1 .o
1.2
1.4
1.6
M
Figure
3 . E. 1
1.8
2.0
2.2
mechanism_sh.oy.jd
.~ .
... .
.be.c,a!ib_r_ated i n a t u n n e l o f s i z e s i m i l a r t o w h i c h i t i s
to
be used.
And most i m p o r t a n t l yf o rt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n s ,e x t r e m ec a r e
mustbe
taken
.
. ...~
, i n d e s i g n i n g ya.wmeter s u p p o r t s i n o r d e r t o a v o i d i n d u c i n g e x t r a n e o u s
"
flowangularity.
The f l o wa n g l es e n s i t i v i t yd a t ao fB u z z e l l( R e f .
n a t i o nP i t o tp r o b e
and 0.8.
tion
These d a t aw e r eo b t a i n e dw i t h
a c o b r a - s t y l e dr a k ew i t ht h r e e
cornbina-
*
p r o b e sa l t e r n a t i n gw i t hf o u rs i n g l eP i t o t u b e s .A g a i n ,t h i si n v e s t i g a t o r
f o l l o w e dt h ea c c e p t e dp r a c t i c eo fl o c a t i n gt h ep r o b et o
t h ep l a n eo ft h er a k e .
i n yawmeter s e n s i t i v i t y f o r 0 . 4 1
5 M 5 0.81.
rakesweretested
a t a mean
Mach
number of0.6.
a r e shown i nF i g .
3.E.1.
V i d a l ,e ta l .
measure anglesnormal
Afterthis
o b j e c t i v eo ft h e s et e s t s
asmal
change
was a s c e r t a i n e d ,e i g h t
The r e s u l t i n gs p r e a di nd a t a
(Ref.6)haverecentlyreportedusing
t o measure f l o wa n g u l a r i t yi n
to
a two-tube yawmeter
1 (30.5 cm) t r a n s o n i cw i n dt u n n e l .
The
i s t o compare measurements o f f l o w a n g u l a r i t y
and
s t a t i cp r e s s u r ew i t hc a l c u l a t e di n t e r f e r e n c e - f r e et r a n s o n i cf l o ws o l u t i o n sf o r
givenmodel,
and t h e r e b yp r o v i d e
a c r i t e r i o nf o ra d j u s t i n gt u n n e lw a l lp o r o s i t y
A p l a n a r yawmeter was usedbecause
t oa t t a i nw a l l - i n t e r f e r e n c e - f r e ef l o w .
a i r f o i l , which spans t h et u n n e l ,
yawmeter i s s i m i l a rt ot h e
was c o n s t r u c t e do f
a t 45".
an
The
one shown i nt h el o w e rr i g h tp o r t i o no fF i g .3 . E . l . a n d
0.0635 cm (0.025 i n . ) O D t u b i n gw i t h
each i n l e t chamfered
These a u t h o r sc l a i mt h a tt h e i rf l o wa n g l es e n s i t i v i t y
a p r e s s u r er e s o l u t i o no f
r e s o l v ea n g l e st ow i t h i n0 . 0 3 "i nt h e
i s such t h a t w i t h
yawmeter s e n s i t i v i t y i n
*+
low
S"
Y
a(AP/q)/a$
(3.E.1)
where AP i st h ep r e s s u r ed i f f e r e n c ea c r o s st h e
+These rakesweredesigned
s t a t o rd i s c h a r g ep l a n eo f
**S i n c e t h e o r i g i n a l w r i t i n g
yawmeter.
toplacesixof
a compressor.
However, these
them C i r C U m f e r e n t i a l l Yi nt h e
127
a u t h o r sn o t et h a t ,f o rc o m p r e s s i b l ef l o w s ,l e s sv a r i a t i o ni ns e n s i t i v i t yw i t h
Mach number i s o b t a i n e db yu s i n gt h ef o l l o w i n gd e f i n i t i o n .
i nt h e
paper by Spaid, e t a l .
a m i n i a t u r e ( 1 mm t o t a l span)combination
Eq.
and yawmeter, s e n s i t i v i t y , as d e f i n e d i n
1.0 and -30" 5
3,
(3.E.21,
Mach
number
when
yawmeter s e n s i t i v i t y , Eq.
7).
In
P i t o t probe
0.8 5 M s
d i dn o tv a r yw i t h
3.E.1
I na d d i t i o n ,t h es u p e r s o n i cd a t ai nF i g .
5 30".
much l e s sv a r i a t i o nw i t h
d e f i n i t i o no f
(Ref.
show
i s used.
Thus,
thecompressible
Y
i s p r e f e r r e df o rt r a n s o n i c
and
(3.E.2),
S
supersonicapplications.
!ll..2.
D i f f e r e n t i aPl r e s s u r e
Forthegeneralcase
of f l o w a n g u l a r i t y c a l i b r a t i o n i n
The pyramidgeometry
~ i r s t l ~ ,
i s l e s ss e n s i t i v et op o s i t i o n i n go ft h eo r i f i c e s .
i t i s r e l a t i v e l yf r e eo fi n t e r f e r e n c e
and yaw.
t u n n e l( t r a n -
thepyramidprobeperformance
ments o f p i t c h
anempty
sonicand/orsupersonic),
Secondly,
3-D
Yawmeters:
betweensimultaneousmeasure-
I na d d i t i o n ,t h ei n c o m p r e s s i b l ef l o w
measurements o f
d.
B r y e r ,e ta l .
sitiveto
1 ence.
A typicap
l yramid
yawmeter i s shown i nF i g .
diametertoprobestemdiameter
t h i sr a t i o
be keptlessthan
t h a tt h ed i a m e t e ro ft h eo r i f i c e s
i s 0.16.
0.20.
3.E.2.Here,
I ng e n e r a l
t h er a t i oo fo r i f i c e
i t i s recommended t h a t
An a d d i t i o n a l ,s u g g e s t e dc o n s t r a i n t
be no smallerthan
is
0.508-mm ( 0 . 0 2i n . )i n
.9-
o r d e rt oa v o i dc l o g g i n g
and excessivetimelagproblems.
o fB r y e r
bemade.
f o rt r a n s o n i c
andPankhurst(Ref.
designed s o t h a t t h e
o ra t t a c h e dt h r o u g h o u tt h er a n g eo f
measurements a r e t o
detachedshock
a yawmeterbe
Thus, an apexangle
2).
Mach numbers w i t h i n w h i c h
o f 66" will m a i n t a i n a
* S m a l l e ro r i f i c e s
(0.25 mm) have been used a t low speeds (Ref. 9) andsuperHowever, no s i g n i f i c a n t improvement i np e r f o r s o n i c speeds (Ref. 2, P. 57).
mance i s gained, and c l o g g i n g and decreasedresponsetime
can make theprobe
more e x p e n s i v et o use.
128
D = 0.3175crn
0.16 D
,/
330
&
/
/
Figure 3.E.2.
"
P Y R A M I D YAWMETER
I s chosenbecause
t h i sr e p r e s e n t st h eu p p e r
o ft r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s . )
and theprobecan
limit o f o p e r a t i o n f o r t h e m a J o r l t y
be used i ns u p e r s o n i cf l o w s .
f e a t u r ei st oa v o i dt h e
The p u r p o s eo ft h i sd e s i g n
o f sharp-nosedprobesneartheshockattachment
maximum s e n s i t i v i t y o f
F l n a l l y ,f o ru s ei nt r a n s o n i cf l o w st h ep r o b e
most p o i n t e d
a IO
be enlargedby
ableprobesupport.Provided
stemshouldextend
16 diameters.
a d i s t a n c eo fa tl e a s t
down-
Downstream of t h i s s t a t i o n ,
c o n i c a lf l a r et o
mate w i t h t h e a v a i l -
i s n o t used,
a massive,transverseprobesupport
wlll a v o i di n t e r f e r e n c e
t h i sd e s i g n
Furthermore,
thestemcansafely
i nt h ep r e s s u r er e s p o n s e
Mach number.
streamfor
betweenprobe
and support a t t r a n s o n i c
speeds.
The o
f
l w a n g l es e n s i t i v i t y ,
probeshave
0.025 a t M
a(AP/HS)/aY,
been found t o i n c r e a s e w i t h
1.5 (e.9..Ref.
and hemispherical-nose
IO andRef.
r e s u l ti nd e c r e a s i n gs e n s l t i v i t y .F o r
o fc o n i c a l
2 ) .F u r t h e ri n c r e a s e si n
Mach number
a hemispherical yaw-
example, d a t af o r
a 50% loss i n s e n s i t i v i t y
meter w i t h o r i f i c e s l o c a t e d
45'
from thenoseindicate
a t H = 2.7,
2.
S i m i l a r l y ,t h e o r e t i c a lc a l c u l a t i o n sf o r
Fig. 35 o f Ref.
c o n i c a ly a m e t e ri n d i c a t e
s i m i l a rb e h a v i o r
for thepyramidprobe
F i g . 3.E.3.
a 6
0'
I f we assume
and a maximum s e n s i t i v i t y o f
0.025,
s m a l l e s t change inflowanglewhichcan
be detected by a pressuremeasuring
system w i t h a r e s o l u t i o n
of
N/cmZ
I nt h e
3.45 x
case o f a t r a n s o n i ct u n n e lw i t h
= 1.0,
t h es e t t l i n g
t h i sv a l u ef o r
(0.005 p s i ) i s
6,
H S i n Eq.
(3). we f i n d t h a t
the
and
(20 p s i a ) .S u b s t i t u t i n g
a f l o wa n g l eo f
0.01 degreecan
t h e o r e t i c a l l y be r e s o l v e d .I np r a c t i c e ,t h ee f f e c t so fp r o b ea n d f o rs u p p o r t
d e f l e c t i o n s ,n o n i d e n t i c a li n t e r n a l
* For
geometry o f t h e t u b i n g
and passageswhich
t h i s reason,Barry(Ref.
11) and Zumwalt (Ref. 12) exploredtheuseof
P i t o t probeslocatednearthesurfaceof
wedges and cones t op r o v i d ei n c r e a s e d
s e n s i t i v i t ya th i g hs u p e r s o n i c
Mach numbers.However,
f o r most a p p l i c a t i o n s ,
t h ec o n v e n t i o n a ls u r f a c ep r e s s u r ey a m e t e r sp r o v i d ea d e q u a t es e n s i t i v i t y
up t o
H = 3.5.
I30
.030
.025
/
,020
-I
EXPERIMENTALDATA
(Ref. 25
- CURVE FROM R e f . 10
-I
.005
0
0
I .o
2.0
3.0
4.0
MACH
NUMBER
Figure
3.E.3.
S E N S I T I V I T Y OF 60" CONICAL
YAWMETER
5.0
connect two o r i f i c e s t o a d i f f e r e n t i a lp r e s s u r et r a n s d u c e r ,v i b r a t i o n ,t u r b u l e n c e ,
etc.,
may p r e v e n tt h ea t t a i n m e n t
o f suchaccuracy.
However, thepyramidprobe
can p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e a n y l e r e s o l u t i o n f o r c a l i b r a t i o n
of mostwindtunnels.
E s p e c i a l l yi nl i g h to ft h ef a c tt h a tt h em a j o r i t yo ft u n n e lo p e r a t o r sa r e
s a t i s f i e d with a c a l i b r a t i o n o f ( t u n n e l - e m p t y ) f l o w a n g l e s a c c u r a t e t o w i t h i n
0.1
degree.
If l e s s - a c c u r a t e , f l o w a n g u l a r i t y
measurements a r e s a t i s f a c t o r y
nose o f the
simultaneous measurement o f P i t o tp r e s s u r ei sd e s i r e d ,t h e
9.
e.g.,Ref.
convenientcheck
1 4 and 15.
Mach
number
t o be determinedsimultaneously,e.g.,Refs.
Mach number a tw h i c hf l o wa n g l e sa r e
I.
measured.
a probewhich:
has a flow a n g l es e n s i t i v i t yw h i c hi sr e l a t i v e l yi n s e n s i t l v et o
extraneous flow v a r i a b l e ss u c h
2.
also eliminates
I n summary, thesuggesteddimensional
s h o u l dr e s u l ti n
I n the case o fs u p e r s o n i c
Such a p r o b en o to n l ym i n i m i z e sc a l i b r a t i o nt i m eb u t
any u n c e r t a i n t y i n l o c a l
of the
I nt h ec a s eo fs u b s o n i ct u n n e l s ,t h i sw o u l dp r o v i d e
on the u n i f o r m i t yo ft o t a lp r e s s u r e .
t u n n e l s ,t h i sp e r m i t s
and a
most t u n n e l sw i t hh i g h
3.
4.
has
adequate
5.
can be used t o c a l i b r a t eb o t ht r a n s o n i c
s t r u c t u r a sl t i f f n e s s ,
for m o s t a p p l i c a t i o n s ,
and
and supersonictunnels.
* I t i s recommended t h a tt h el i pt h i c k n e s s
be k e p tt h i n
( 0.005 cm) andthe
1 5 " or more i n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e s e n s i t i v i t y
o r i f i c e be beveled a t an angleof
of t h e P i t o t probe t o f l o w a n g u l a r i t y .
;::In
&3 f t ) where h i g hr e s o l u t i o n o f t h e f l o w a n g u l a r i t y f i e l d
l a r g et u n n e l s
i sn o tr e q u i r e d ,t h e
recommended pyramidprobe may be scaled up t o l a r g e r
0.1 p e r c e n tf o r
s i z e s .I n
any event,probeblockageshould
be lessthan
g e n e r a lc a l i b r a t i o n so ft r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s .
However, near M = I values an
orderofmagnitudesmaller
may be necessary i n o r d e r t o a v o i dp r o b e - w a l l
i n t e r f e r e n c e , seeRef.
13.
YaKmgJer
C a l i b r a t i o n , Rake
Interfer-ence, and Blockage
. .
.
.
"
"
"
As notedby
asymmetriesand
AP a t $ = 0 .
10, P.
134), a1 1 r e a l yawmetershave
cause t h ep r o b et oi n d i c a t e
Thus, a yawmeter s h o u l da l w a y sb ec a l i b r a t e di n
s i m i l a rt ot h o s ei nw h i c h
d i f f e r e n t i a lp r e s s u r e
not berepeatedhere.
it is to
be used.
flow c o n d i t i o n s
The c a l i b r a t i o np r o c e d u r ef o r
10, 14, and 15 and will
yawmeters i s d e s c r i b e di nR e f s .
However,
a nonzero
i t i sr e l e v a n t
t o sound a n o t e o f c a u t i o nh e r e .
When c a l i b r a t i n g a yawmeter, t h e c e n t e r o f r o t a t i o n s h o u l d b e a t t h e n o s e t i p .
A l s o ,c a r e f u l
measurements o ft h ea n g l e sb e t
a r ee s s e n t i a ls i n c et h e s em u s t
theprobe
W eenyawmeter
a x i s and t u n n e la x i s
be s u b t r a c t e d f r o m t h e f l o w a n g l e s r e l a t i v e t o
i no r d e rt od e t e r m i n ef l o wa n g u l a r
i t yw i t hr e s p e c tt ot h et u n n e l
center1 ine.
t I me, most o p e r a t o r sp r e f e rt o
I no r d e rt or e d u c et u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n
useprobes
i n rakes o ra r r a y s .
A E D C 16T Tunnel w i t h f i v e
c o n d u c t e dt e s t si nt h e
c o n s i s t e do f
a 22" ( t o t a l - a n g l e )
7.62 cm (3 i n . )d i a m e t e r
a 2.44 m . ( 8 f t ) widerake.
hemispherical yawmetersmountedon
a s t i n gs u p p o r t .
(2 f t ) a p a r t w i t h t h e
nose locatedapproximatelyfourdiameters
approximately 1%.
wedge.
The rake
wedge w i t h a 7.62 cm ( 3 i n . )w i d e
was c e n t e r mountedon
l e a d i n g edge o f t h e
16)
base and
The yawmetersweremounted0.61
ahead o f t h e
The t o t a lw i n d - t u n n e lb l o c k a g eo ft h er a k e
was
These i n v e s t i g a t o r sf o u n dt h a t h er a k ei n d u c e ds i g n i f i c a n t
o u t f l o wt o w a r dt h et i p so ft h er a k e .
The i n d u c e df l o wa n g u l a r i t y ,a tt h et i p s
0 . 5 " a t M = 0.6 t o over 1 " a t M = 1 . 1 .
o ft h er a k e ,i n c r e a s e df r o ma b o u t
As
A w a l l - m o u n t e ds t r u ts u p p o r t ,w i t ht h e
same wedge a n g l e o f
In bothcases,thesupport-inducedflowangularity
a d i a m e t e ro f
diameters.
a l o n gs t i n g .
5.715 cm (2.25in.)
5 1.5.
22", was a l s o t e s t e d
w a l l t o w a r dt h et i p .
mounting a s i n g l ep r o b eo n
1.2 5 M
was ascertainedby
The f i r s t s e c t i o n o f t h e s t i n g
and a l e n g t ho fa p p r o x i m a t e l y
had
16 probe
and a l e n g t h o f o v e r
20 probediameterswhichsubsequentlyjoined
f l a r e and t h e r e s t o f t h e s t
i n gs u p p o r t
mechanism.
The s t i n gs u p p o r ts y s t e m
e n a b l e dv e r t i c a lt r a v e r s e s
w i t h t h es t i n ga tz e r oa n g l e
t h eb l o c k a g e
o f t h es i n g l e
a conical
of a t t a c k .I na d d i t i o n ,
Thus, t h e arrangementassured
133
as near-interference-free,flow
a n g u l a r i t y measurementsascan
be expected i n
a windtunnel.
An a d d i t i o n a lc o n c l u s i o nr e a c h e db yH a r t l e y
t h er a k e
(;.e.,
had n e g l i g i b l e e f f e c t
on flowanglesnormal
withtherakevertical,the
wereVal
results,
useyawmeters
i t i s p o s s i b l et o
totheplaneoftherake
i d and w i t h t h e r a k e
yaw datawereVal
h o r i z o n t a l ,t h ep i t c hd a t a
id).
Thus,basedontheseandothersimilar
i n a c a r e f u l l yd e s i g n e dr a k ea r r a n g e -
measurements."However,
f o rg r e a t e s ta c c u r a c y ,
w i t h a supportwhichissymmetricalabout
a l o n gs t i n g
i s recommended.""
F i n a l l y ,w i t hr e g a r dt ow i n dt u n n e lb l o c k a g ea t
t h ed a t ao f
13) i n d i c a t et h a t
smallvalues
f o r anysudden
and l o n gs t i n g s ,
Two h o t - w i r e s i n c l i n e d a t
mean f l o w havelong
Thus,
be d e s i g n e dw i t ht h eu t m o s tc a r e ,
and t h er e s u l t i n gd a t as h o u l d
be s c r u t i n i z e d
M = 1.0.
o r unexpectedvariationsaround
III.E.3.
even w i t he x t r e m e l y
w a l il n t e r f e r e n c eo c c u r s .
16) i s t h a t
and N i c h o l s (Ref.
Hot-Wire/Film
Yameters
a na n g l ew i t hr e s p e c tt oe a c ho t h e r
and t h e
(Ref.17).Three-wireprobeshavealsobeenusedextensively
measure p i t c h and yaw i nt h r e ed i m e n s i o n a lf l o w s .I nt h ep a s t ,h o t - w i r e s
n o t been used i nt r a n s o n i cf l o w s
becausetheyare
have
so e a s i l yb r o k e n .
However,
tungstenwireprobes
can be used i nt r a n s o n i cf l o w sw i t h o u t
p r o h i b i t i v e breakageproblem.Alsorecently,
r e p o r t e du s i n g
an X - a r r a yh o t - w i r et o
Johnson
and
measureReynolds
a supersonic
i n t e r a c t i o n (Ref.
20).
two o r more w i r e s f o r a c c u r a t e
4 ) p o i n to u tt h a t
a r a k ew i t hc i r c u l a r
arms i s
;bDudzinskiand
Krause(Ref.
u n a f f e c t e d by a n g l e so fa t t a c k .
Whereas
when
nonzero yaw a n g l e se x i s ti n
s u b s o n i ca n d / o rt r a n s o n i cf l o w s ,n o n c i r c u l a r
arms c a ni n d u c el a r g e rf l o w
angularityatthe
nose o f t h e yawmeter and a l s o c r e a t e u n d e s i r a b l e s i d e
f o r c e s on therake.
**Another a l t e r n a t i v e wouldbe
Ref. 16.
t o c a l i b r a t e a rakefollowingthe
procedure of
a problem,
thereappears
t o be no p r o h i b i t i v e
be used asyawmeters.
o f matching sensitivities of
s u c c e s s f u l l y used a s i n g l e w i r e p r o b e
mounted i n a r o t a t a b l e h o l d e r .
By r o t a t l n g an i n c l i n e d - w i r e a b o u t t h e a x i s o f t h e p r o b e s
a t two d i s t i n c t o r i e n t a t i o n s , t h e t h r e e
canbe
I no r d e r
stem and t a k i n g d a t a
determined a t a p o i n t i n a generalthree-dimensionalflow.
In a studyoftheeffectsofcontouringslottedwallstoreducetransonica h o t - f il m p r o b e f o r a c c u r a t e
w a l l - I n t e r f e r e n c e , Weeks (Ref.23)hasused
surement o f f l o w a n g u l a r i t y . T h i s w o r k i n v o l v e d t h e u s e o f a i r f o i l
spanned t h e t e s t s e c t i o n o f t h e
required planar
modelswhich
AFFDL T r i s o n i c Gasdynamics F a c i l i t y .
measurements o f f l o w a n g u l a r i t y
wereobtainedwlth
o f a q u a r t zr o d
therodextendsforward
in.)from
on each s i d e o f t h e
apex o f t h e
wedge.
anemometer b r i d g e c i r c u i t s .
of this probe is
shown i n F i g . 3.E.4
a0.3175
primarylimitationisstatedto
be p r o b ev i b r a t i o nw h i c h
(1)
in.)diameter
in.)long,aredeposited
used t o complete
Weeks c l a i m s t h a t
The
was d e t e r m i n e de x p e r i -
and
( 3 ) canhave
yawmeters a r es u p e r i o rt oh o t - w i r e
be considered a d i s a d v a n t a g eb yp o t e n t i a lu s e r s .
Weeks, h o t - f i l m yawmetersappear
corrosion
yawmeters.Both
equipmentwhich
However,based
may
on t h e r e s u l t s
yawmeters.
The uses o f h o t - w i r e s
3.E.4,
h o t - w i r e s and h o t - f i l m s r e q u i r e s p e c i a l i z e d d a t a p r o c e s s i n g
d i f f e r e n t i a lp r e s s u r e
cm (0.125
42 minutes o f a r c (0.03O).
t i b l e t o contamination because o f t h e i r l a r g e r s i z e ,
obtained by
i n . )i n
I n summary, s i n c eh o t - f i l mp r o b e sa r e
r e s i s t a n tc o a t i n g s ,h o t - f i l m
Inc.,according
The c a l i b r a t e d yaw s e n s i t i v i t y
t h i s probe will r e s o l v ef l o wa n g l e st ow i t h i n
mentally to induce errors
a split-film,
0.152 cm (0.06
Four g o l d - f i l m l e a d s a r e
t h e twoseparate
The
As i n d i c a t e di nF i g .
A p a i r o f p l a t i n u m f i l m s , 0.102 cm (0.04
supporttube.
mea-
and h o t - f i l m s a r e d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r i n
Appendix 1 .
Reference 21 a l s o d i s c u s s e s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c a l i b r a t i o n
of a h o t - w i r e i s
s u s c e p t i b l e t o change w i t h t i m e because o f c o n t a m i n a t i o n and c o r r o s i o n . T h i s
may r e q u i r e f r e q u e n t c a l i b r a t i o n
checks.
** A l t h o u g h t h e a u t h o r s a r e n o t
w i t h a h o t - w i r e / f i l m ,t h e r ei sn oi n h e r e n tr e a s o n
135
Figure 3 . E . 4S. P L I T
136
To Separate Anemometer
Bridge C i r c u i t s
ForceBalanceYaweters
The basicprocedure
o fr u n n i n g
a windtunnelforce
model u p r i g h t and
invertedtodeterminetheaveragepitchangleiswell
p r a c t i c ei np r o f e s s i o n a lw i n dt u n n e lt e s t i n g .
wedge mounted on a s e n s i t i v e f o r c e b a l a n c e t o o b t a i n
f l o wa n g l e si s
new.
Maxwe1.1
a 20'
a measure o f tunnel-empty
and Luchuk(Ref.25)have
r e s u l t s o f t r a n s o n i ct e s t sw i t ht h i st y p eo f
r e c e n t l yr e p o r t e dt h e
yawmeter.The
specially-designed,
t h i n ,s t r a i n - g a u g e ds e c t i o n sf o r
The probe was t e s t e d i n t h e
Machnumber
based on v a r i a t i o n s o f
p r o b ec o n s i s t so f
span,mounted
3.E.5.
on a
The f o r c e
f o r c e and p i t c h i n g moment w i t h v e r y
maximum s e n s i t i v i t y .
AEDC Aerodynamic Wind Tunnel (4T) o v e rt h e
Althoughthe
in.)
two-component forcebalance,Fig.
o f a small
The c a l i b r a t e d f l o w a n g l e s e n s i t i v i t i e s ,
3.E.6.
yaw s e n s i t i v i t y o f thepitching-moment
t h a tf l o wa n g l e
mode i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50%
T h i sp e r m i t t e dt h ep r o b et o
movements.
be moved c o n t i n u o u s l y w i t h a v a r i e t y o f
Maxwell and L u c h u kc o n c l u d et h a tf l o wd i r e c t i o nd a t ac a n
o b t a i n e d" w i t h
obtainedwiththeprobeatrest
based oncomparisons
and i n m o t i o n , r e l i a b l e
can be made w i t h t h e p r o b e m o v i n g c o n t i n u o u s l y w i t h
motion.
from theaccuracy
an a b s o l u t e a c c u r a c y t h a t i s l i t t l e d i f f e r e n t
w i t hw h i c ht h ep r o b ei sa l i g n e d . "F u r t h e r m o r e ,
0.023O a t a l l measured p o i n t s .
+O.O8O
However,
and +0.25',
be
and r a p i d measurements
combined l i n e a r and r o l l i n g
a mean v a l u e o f
2
4
'
o fd a t a
flow a n g l e was
respectively.
and yaw r a t e s w h i c h v a r i e d , r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
137
t
L
DIMENSIONSINCENTIMETERS
\I'
14.73
1.67 D i a .
7
I
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
-L
"_
- "
""_
2-COMPONENTBALANCEINSTALLEDHERE
I
I
20
Figure 3 . E . 5 .
GEOMETRY OF AEDC
FORCE
BALANCE
YAWMETER
"_
\J
0.5
0.14
I
CJ
W
n
-0.12
zU
V
.
I
irr
n.
0.3
i0:lO
LL
LL
CNa
~0.08
V
rr
0
LL
z- 0.1
I
0
0.04
L 5
0.6
0.7
0.8
FREESTREAM
Figure 3 . E . 6 .
0.9
1 .o
MACH NUMBER,
1,1
S E N S I T I V I T Y OF THE AEDC
FORCE
BALANCE
YAmETER
1.2
1.3
Unfortunately,theReynolds
investigated.
number dependence o f t h i s
wedge shapedyawmeter
use.
number.Hence,
wedge f o r c eb a l a n c e
initialcosts
f o r c eb a l a n c e
canbe
t e d i o u st o
However, a
modeland
a d i s t i n c t advantageover
and h o t - w i r e / f i l m yawmeters.
balanceyawmeter'sadvantageofrapid,continuous
Machnumber
yawmeter i s h i g h e r
separately.**
c a l i b r a t e dt or e l a t ea n g u l a rd e f l e c t i o no f
changes i nl o a d i n g .T h i sp r o v i d e s
d i f f e r e n t i a lp r e s s u r e
T h i si m p l i e s
be c a l i b r a t e d as a f u n c t i o n o f
t h i st y p eo f
A d d i t i o n a ld i s a d v a n t a g e so ft h e
s u p p o r tt o
3 ) a l s or e p o r t e dt h e i r
e x h i b i t e d a Reynolds numberdependence.*
t h a t wedge shapedyawmetersshould
A t t h i sp o i n t ,
Reynolds number.
may r e c a l lt h a tS i e v e r d i n g ,e ta l .( R e f .
andReynolds
M = 0.6 i n d i c a t e d
However,.some v a r i a t i o no ft o t a lp r e s s u r ea t
a d e c r e a s i n gs e n s i t i v i t yw i t hi n c r e a s i n gu n i t
there'ader
yawmeter was n o t
I nc o n c l u s i o n ,t h ef o r c e
measurements o f f l o w a n g u l a r i t y
appears tooutweighthedisadvantages.
**A
d o u b l e ,i n t e r s e c t i n g
wedge probe w i t h four component f o r c eb a l a n c e has
more r e c e n t l y been c o n s t r u c t e d and t e s t e da t AEDC (Summers, Ref. 26). T h i s
y a m e t e re n a b l e sp i t c h
and yaw d a t a t o be o b t a i n e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n
even
less time. An improveddesign,which
i sl e s ss e n s i t i v e
t o unsteadytransonic
f l o w , s p e c i f i e s a small,symmetricalcenterbodywith
f l a t p l a t e wingsattached
yawmeter
i no r t h o g o n a lp l a n e s ,
Ref. 27. R e c e n te x p e r i e n c ew i t ht h i st y p eo f
i n t h e AEDC 4T Tunnel indicatessimultaneous measurements o f p i t c h and yaw
225 p o i n t s i n l e s s t h a n s i x m i n u t e s
and w i t h anaccuracy
c a nb eo b t a i n e da t
of 0.01 degree.
140
I l l . E.
1.
Lennert, A.
References
E.;
V e l o c i m e t e r sf o r
Flow Measurements,"
" A p p l i c a t i o n o f Laser
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o nf o r
A i r b r e a t h i n gP r o p u l s i o n ,P r o g r e s si nA s t r o n a u t i c s
and Aeronautics,
and Pankhurst, R.
Bryer, D. W.
Pressure-Probes Methods f o rD e t e r m i n i n g
C.:
3.
Sieverding, C.;
Maretto,L;Lehthaus,
Calibrationfor
FourProbes
f o r Use i n t h e T r a n s o n i c T u r b i n e
4.
N.:
F i x e d - P o s i t i o n Probes,"
5.
B u z z e l l , W. A . :
"Design and
May 1974.
" F l o w - D i r e c t i o n Measurement w i t h
NASA TM X-1904,
Oct. 1969.
" C a l i b r a t i o nR e s u l t sf o S
r t a t i o n a r yP r e s s u r e
Rakes Sensing
ARL TR 75-0104,
A p r i 1 1975.
6.
V i d a l , R. J.;
Erickson, J. C . and C a t l i n , P . A . :
"Experiments w i t h a S e l f -
AGARD-CP-
7.
Spaid, F. W.;
H.:
" M i n i a t u r eP r o b ef o r
Measurements," A l A A Jour.Vol.
T r a n s o n i cF l o wD i r e c t i o n
13, No. 2,
8.
Bryer, D. W . ;
Walshe, D . E . ;
and Garner, H. C . :
f o r Three-DimensionalFlow
9.
Schulze, W.
M.;
Ashby, J r . ,
G.
Measurement,"
C.;
Probes f o r S u r v e y i n g S t a t i c
"Pressure
Probes
Selected
R.&M.
and Erwin, J. R . :
"Several
Combination
and T o t a lP r e s s u r e
and F l o wD i r e c t i o n , "
10. Pope,
11.
A.;
and Goin, K. L:
Barry, F. W.:
High-speed
Wind Tunnel Testing, Wiley,
."
"
"Comparison o F
f low-Direction
J. Aero. S c i . ,
Sept.
1965.
1961, P. 750-752.
141
12.
Zumwalt, G. W.:
"ConicalProbes
f o rD e t e r m i n a t i o n
and Flow D i r e c t i o n i n S u p e r s o n i c
SandlaCorp.,
14.
Vahl, W.
Wing Tunnels,"
A. and Weirich, R.
1.51 t o 3.51,"
N o r r i s J, .
SCTM 355-60(71),
Nov. 1960.
L . :" C a l i b r a t i o no f
30"Included-Angle
f o rD e t e r m i n i n gL o c a lF l o wC o n d i t i o n sI n
15.
of Local Mach
Numbers
NASA TN
MachNumberRange
Cone
of
" C a l i b r a t i o noC
f o n i c aP
l r e s s u r eP r o b e sf o D
r etermlnation
D.:
o f LocalFlow
Cond i t i o n s a t
MachNumbers
from 3 t o 6,"
NASA TN
D-3076,
Nov. 1965.
16.
H a r t l e y , M.
and N i c h o l s , J. H.:
S.;
" E f f e c t so f
A n g u l a r i t y Measurements a t T r a n s o n i c
Rake BlockageonFlow
MachNumbers
i n t h e AEDC-PWT
16-FootTransonicTunnel,"Twenty-FifthSupersonicTunnel
Assoc.
19.
C.:
"LaserVelocimeter
Comparison I n a SupersonicBoundaryLayer,"
Vol.
20.
Rose, W.
C.
and Johnson, D. A . :
HotWire-HotFilm-Ion
inc.,
22.
"Turbulence
Rosenberg, R.
Weeks, T. M.:
Boundary-Layer
CAT/FORM 6560375,
Thermo-Systems
1975.
E.:
"A Three
DimensionalHot-wire
Probe,"
Anemometry Technique
ARL 71-0039,
March 1971.
"Reduction o T
f r a n s o n i cS l o t t e dW a l il n t e r f e r e n c e
o f S l a tC o n t o u r i n g , "
142
i n Shock-Wave
a
Anemometer Systems,
Employing a S i n g l eW i r e
23.
A i A A Jour.(Tech.Notes),
I n t e r a c t i o n , " A i A A Jour.,Vol.
21.
AFFDL-TR-74-139,
March 1975.
by Means
24.
Maxwell, H. andLuchuk,
as aFlowAngle
25.
Raney,
D. J . :
Summers, W.
27.
Luchuk, W.:
28.
Probe,"
AEDC-TR-74-110,Feb.
Lond.
1975.
E.; personalcomnunication,
AEDC,
1956.
Feb. 1976.
Force Model,"
N.M.,
Aero. Res.
Coun.
26.
W.:
presented at 45th
A p r i l 1976 ( r e f e r e n c e dw i t ha u t h o r ' sp e r m i s s i o n ) .
Lind, I . A. : "A S e n s i t i v eF l o wT r a n s i t i o n
TRITA-FPT-019,
J u l y 1975.
Probe,"
l n s t i t u t l o n e nf o rF l y g t e k n i k
FI 175,
Stockholm, Sweden,
1II.F.
Theneed
S e c t i o n ll.C.6.
o f a windtunnel
The p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v e o f n o i s e c a l i b r a t i o n
i s t o o b t a i n a measure o f t h e f l u c t u a t i o n s
laritythatexistinthe
Here a r e v i e w will be g i v e n
empty t e s ts e c t i o n .
o ft h ei n s t r u m e n t a t i o nt h a t
to obtainthistypeofdata.
hasbeenused
ever,beforediscussingsensors,
is germain t on o t et h ea m p l i t u d e s
it
Howand
frequencies o f unsteadystaticpressurewhichcharacterizetransonictunnels.
Inthecenteroftransonictestsectionsthefluctuatingpressurecoeff i c i e n t ,d e f i n e d
AC
as
- <PI>
= - x 100
percent,
Dougherty, e t a l .
(Ref.
1) havenoted
Mach number,
a v a l u e o f 0.45%
AC
0.5% a t Re
see F i g . 3.F. I .
a c t u a l l yd e c r e a s e sw i t hi n c r e a s i n gR e y n o l d s
= 5.7 x IO
t o anestimated
(Ref.
numberand
3) havereviewednoise
and s l o t t e dt e s ts e c t i o n s .
8
1.7 x IO ,
measurements
These a u t h o r sn o t et h a ti n
measurements o f AC
p e r f o r a t e d - w a l lt u n n e l sc e n t e r 1i n e
t h a nw a l l
McCanless and
Boone
made i nb o t hp e r f o r a t e d
(Ref. 2)
However, H a r t z u i k e r ,e ta l .
measurements;whereas,
t h eo p p o s i t et r e n d
nels.Generally,theedgetonesgeneratedbyperforated-walltunnelstendto
these
tunnels
n o i s i etrh a n
s l o t t e d - w a ltlu n n e l sF. o r
from 1% t o 7.4%;
twelveperforated-walltunnelsrange
s l o t t e d - w a l lt u n n e l s
show
a
u s u a l l y measuredbetween
tunnels.
= 0.70and
f o rn i n ed i f f e r e n t ,c o n t i n u o u st u n n e l s ,
o fs o l i d ,p e r f o r a t e d ,
*Recentresearchindicatesthereare
noiseqeneratedbyedgetones,Refs.
1 44
= 0.80
Ref:2.
and s l o t t e d - w a l lt u n n e l s
Mabey spectrumparameterwhich
example, AC
d a t af o r
P
whereas, d a t a f o r f i v e
3.
A peak i n AC
0.80 f o rb o t hp e r f o r a t e d
The f r e q u e n c ys p e c t r ao fn o i s ea t
make
is
P
and s l o t t e d - w a l l
i s presented i nF i g .
3.F.2
These d a t aa r er e p r e s e n t a t i v e
and arepresentedinterms
i s discussednext.
anumber
o f ways t o r e d u c et h el e v e lo f
1 and 4..
of t h e
6
.OM
.m
F i g . 3.F.1
FREQUENCY
SPECTRA
BOUNDARYLAYER
OF N O I S E FROM
TURBULENT
A
ON A S O L I DW A L L R
, ef.
2
,014
,010
.w1
.ffl
F i g . 3.F.2
NOISE
FREQUENCY
SPECTRA
FOR
CONTINUOUSWINDTUNNELSAT
SOME E X I S T I N G
HaD= 0.80, R e f . 2
As n o t e d b y H a r t t u i k e r , e t a l .
r e s u l t s o f t e s t s on:
(3)
b u f f e t , and
(1)dynamic
*, flowqual
stability,
it y can a f . f e c t t h e
(2) s t a t i cf o r c e s
and moments,
I n t h eo r d e rl i s t e d .A p p a r e n t l y ,l i t t l e
t o measure f l u c t u a t i o n s i n f l o w a n g u l a r i t y
t h e s ew i t hp r e s s u r ef l u c t u a t i o n s .
etal.
2)
(4) f l u t t e r .T e s t so ft h e s eq u a n t i t i e sg e n e r a l l yi n v o l v e
i n c r e a s i n g l yh i g h e rf r e q u e n c i e s
work hasbeendone
(Ref.
(Ref.2)havefoundthe
e f f e c t so n
incidencefluctuationscan
and c o r r e l a t e
5-7) and H a r t t u i k e r ,
model t e s t so fb o t hp r e s s u r e
and
be c o r r e l a t e d by u s i n g a s p e c t r u m f u n c t i o n d e f i n e d
as f o l l o w s :
i s t h e mean-squared v a l u e o f t h e f l u c t u a t i n g s t a t l c p r e s s u r e c o e f 2
f i c i e n t , and F(n) i s t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o
AC p e ru n i tb a n d w i d t ha tt h er e d u c e d
Here AC2
frequency n.
Mabey
canbeused
hassuggested
i s chosen t o c o r r e s p o n d t o
wingbending
i f t h e reducedfrequency
t o measure windtunnelflowunsteadiness
a naturalfrequencyofthe
model, e.g.,
A varietyoftests
canbe
have shown t h e t
Thus, c r i t e r i a for
g r e a t e r model e x c i t a t i o nf o l l o w si n c r e a s e si nn F ( n ) .
acceptableflowquality
fundamental
establishedforvarioustypesoftests
c e s s i v e l yr e d u c i n gn F ( n )u n t i lt h er e s u l t sa p p r o a c h
bysuc-
v a r ys i g n i f i c a n t l yw i t ht u n n e lf l o wq u a l i t y .F o r
example, a n a l y s e so fb u f f e t
measurements on a i r c r a f t models w i t h d i f f e r e n t n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s l e d
(Ref.
7) t o c o n c l u d et h a t
e 0.002.
a preciseboundarycannot
t e s t s , e.g.,
bedrawn
T e s taostt h ef a
r cilities
Mabey'sspectrumparameter
H a r t z u i k e r ,e ta l .
toseparateacceptable
l e v e l so ff l o wu n s t e a d i n e s s .R a t h e r ,t h e r ei s
qualitiesthatareeitheracceptableornotfor
*Reference 2
for correlating a
(Ref. 2 ) .
Unfortunately,
from unacceptable
a " g r a yr e g i o n "s e p a r a t i n gf l o w
a giventypeoftest.
i s mainlyconcernedwithestimatingtheflowqualitythat
necessary t o make t h e LEHRT c o s t - e f f e c t i v e i n l i g h t o f t h e p l a n n e d
t ime.
146
Mabey
an a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l o f f l o w u n s t e a d i n e s s f o r t h e
v a r i e t y o f dynamicmodel
to
anasymptoteandcease
will be
10 sec r u n
However,
on frequency beyond
since there i s presently no criterion for an upper limit
which boundary layer transition is unaffected, Westley (Ref. 9) recommends
that the frequency range
of noise measurements extendat least up to 30 KHz.
Thus, acoustic calibration of transonic tunnels requires instrumentation
that can measure dynamic pressures with these ranges of amplitudes and frequencies.
III.F.1.
piezoelectric dynamic pressure transducers have been employed for noise measurements in stilling and plenum chambers, dlffusers, and on test section walls, and
models and probes located on the centerline, Refs. 10-15.
In addition, hot-wire
(LDV) are being used to measure turbulence by an ever increasing number of tunnel
operators, Ref. 9.
Unfortunately, this lack of standardization makesit difficult to compare
measured levels of flow disturbances. For example, Lewis andDods (Ref. 18)
noted significant variations in the frequency responseof 12 different microphones and dynamic pressure transducers. In general, Lewis and Dods found
In
1 47
an LDV, the
a d d i t i o n , when measuring v o r t i c i t y w i t h h o t - w i r e s , h o t - f i l m s , o r
data may a l s o v a r y
because o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n f r e q u e n c y
The comparisonproblem
mounting.
i s compounded f u r t h e r b y t h e c h o i c e o f s e n s o r
Ideally,acousticpressuresshould
be measured w i t h no r e l a t i v e
medium, Ref.
n e i t h e rp r a c t i c a ln o rr e l e v a n tt o
tivelocation
windtunnel
19.
is
However, s i n c et h i s
model or t u n n e lw a l l
on aprobe,
response.
must be selected.
The f i r s t measurements o f w a l l p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s b e n e a t h t u r b u l e n t
boundary l a y e r s i n
awindtunnel
W i l l m a r t h (Ref.21)
were reported by W i l l m a r t hi n
has recentlyreviewedtheproblemsof
measurements a t t u n n e l w a l l s
and n o t e s t h a t
dynamic pressure
most o f t h e s e
measurementshave
has r e c e n t l ys t u d i e d
2.0,
and 2.5.
1956 (Ref.20).
measurements a t
measurements a r e
extremelysensitivetoflushnesswithprotrusioncausinggreatererrorthan
submergence.
Hanlyconcludesthat
more repeatabledata
canbe
o b t a i n e dw i t h
it
is r e c m e n d e dt h a ta c o u s t i c
orifice.
measurements a tt u n n e lw a l l sc o n f o r mt o
this criterion.
Also,
canbeused
e x i s ti n
(Ref.
it i s r e l e v a n t t o n o t e h e r e t h a t
t od e t e r m i n eu s e f u lc o r r e l a t i o n s
atunnel,
e.g.,
Refs.
1 1 and 25.
1 I ) have n o t e d t h a t w a l l d a t a
between disturbanceswhich
I na d d i t i o n ,
canbeused
measurements o b t a i n e d a t t h e c e n t e r l i n e w i t h
subjecttooscillating
one.
shocksand/or
However, experience(Ref.
indicates ( 1 )
thisisnot
sensor i s t h a t
usedasapermanent
Boone andMcCanless
t oe x t r a p o l a t e ,t h r o u g h
probes o r modelswhich
M = 1,
may be
othermodel-inducedunsteadinessnear
8 ) w i t h microphone measurementson
aproblem
may
and ( 2 )t h er e a la d v a n t a g eo f
i t can be c a l i b r a t e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o c e n t e r l i n e
m o n i t o rf o ra s s e s s i n g
anysubsequent
Mach
a 10 degcone
awall-mounted
measurementsand
changes i n t u n n e lf l o w
unsteadiness.
Concerninginstallationof
(Ref.24)
o f anareawhich
148
sensors i n p e r f o r a t e d w a l l s , C r e d l e
i n . )p i e z o e l e c t r i c
was f i l l e d andsandedsmooth.The
and Shadow
microphone i n t h e c e n t e r
r a d i u so ft h ea r e a
was
approximately 40 microphonediameters.
These i n v e s t i g a t o r ss t a t e d :
"Thisinstallationtechniqueprecludedthe
measurement o f p u r e l y n e a r field influence of the
mostadjacentupstreamholes
and a l l o w e d f o r t h e
measurement o f what m i g h t be c o n s i d e r e d a s t h e r a d i a l l y i n t e g r a t e d
averagevalue o f p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s a t t h e w a l l s u r f a c e . "
Credle and Shadow a l s o i n s t a l l e d
an i d e n t i c a l ,b u ts h i e l d e d ,m i c r o p h o n ei nt h e
w a l li no r d e rt om o n i t o rm i c r o p h o n er e s p o n s et ow a l lv i b r a t i o n .I ng e n e r a l ,
it i s c o n s i d e r e d good t e s t i n g p r a c t l c e t o a s c e r t a i n t h e
phone'soutputwhich
component o f a m i c r o -
i s due t ov i b r a t i o n .F i n a l l y ,q u e s t i o n n a i r er e s u l t s
i n d i c a t e dt h a ts t r a i n - g a g et r a n s d u c e r sa r e
most o f t e n used f o r a c o u s t i c
ments a t w i n dt u n n e lw a l l s .P r e s u m a b l y ,t h i si s
r e q u i r e dt op r o c e s st h es i g n a lf r o m
measure-
because t h ei n s t r u m e n t a t i o n
a s t r a i n gage i s r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e a t
most
wind tunnel s.
I na d d i t i o nt ot u n n e lw a l l
measurements, t u n n e ln o i s ec a l i b r a t i o n sr e q u i r e
dynamic p r e s s u r ed a t an e a rt h ec e n t e ro ft h et e s ts e c t i o n .
Some o f t h e f i r s t
I nt h e s ei n i t i a lt e s t s ,
wedge, a wingprobe,
by C h e v a l i e r and Todd
dynamic pressuretransducers
and an o g i v e - c y l i n d e r .L a t e ra c o u s t i c
were mounted
measurements
w i t h condensermicrophones
an o g i v e - c y l i n d e r anda
tunnels,Ref.
23.
flat plate
A 10 deg cone-cylinderprobe
10.
26.
hasbeen
As p a r t o f
NASA Ames
used i nt h e
8 x 6-ft.
a r e v i e wo fp r o b e s
hemispheres, and s h a r p - t i p p e d ,f l o w - t h r u ,c i r c u l a rc y l i n -
t u n n e la c o u s t i c
1.
measurements because:
cones a r e n o t
as s e n s i t i v e t o t i p f l o w
as wedges and f l a t
plates,
2.
t h et r a n s o n i c
occur,
Machnumber
i ss m a l l e rf o rs l e n d e r
range,whereunstableshock
waves
cones t h a n f o r f l a t p l a t e s , f l o w -
3.
a s l e n d e rc o n ei n t r o d u c e sm i n i m a ld i s t u r b a n c et ot h ef l o w .
cone i s aboutthe
24), a s m a l l e ra n g l e
cone i s p r e f e r r e d ,
instrumentationunder
portedthat
a laminarboundarylayer.These
by 1970 t h e
same a u t h o r sa l s or e -
AEDC f o r
c a l i b r a t i n gw i n dt u n n e lf l o wd i s t u r b a n c e s .
Up t o t h i s t i m e t h e
AEDC a c o u s t i c c a l i b r a t i o n
180 deg a p a r t ,f o rf l u s hm o u n t i n go fs e n s o r s .
indicatedsatisfactorynoise
symmetricalcone
27.
Thissubsequently
3 microns
anda
cone f o r boundarylayer
became
known
asthe
AEDC t r a n s i -
f l o w qua 1 it y i n over I8
31) have e s t a b li s h e d
and b o u n d a r yl a y e rt r a n s i t i o n .I na d d i t i o n
P
a common measure o f dynamic f l o w q u a l i t y , Treon, e t a l .
(Ref.32)
a d i r e c tr e l a t i o n s h i p
between AC
AEDC t r a n s i t i o n coneenabledbetteragreement
reporteddatafromthe
o b t a i n e di n
be made w i t h a c o m p l e t e l y
domestic and f o r e i g nt u n n e l s ,
toproviding
an rms f i n i s h o f
cone
in.)condensermicrophones.Furthermore,
t r a n s i t i o ns t u d i e s ,R e f .
t i o n cone andhas
(1/4
cone was p o l i s h e dt o
traversingPitotprobe
By 1970 e x p e r i e n c ew i t ht h i s
t h es u r f a c eo ft h e
on a t r a n s p o r t a i r c r a f t
a s e r i e so ft e s t s
AEDC-PWT
model.
8 - f t . TransonicTunnel,
number e f f e c t s
hasbeen
c a l i b r a t i o n ,t h i sd e v i c e
and Ames
b o u n d a r y - l a y e r - t r a n s i t i o nl e n g t h .
c a l i b r a t i o nd e v i c e
be l e s s when a
An e f f e c t i v e Reynolds number f o rt h eC a l s p a n
tunnels,relativetothe
Transonic
and d i f f e r e n c e s i n d r a g
was used t o a c c o u n tf o rr e l a t i v eR e y n o l d s
between f a c i l i t i e s .
I nt h e s et e s t s ,
c o e f f i c i e n t s , measured atzero-normal-force,werefoundto
correctionfactor
t o be
Thus, t h e u t i l i t y o f
demonstrated.Subsequent
a common,
a standardacoustic
t o a planned f l i g h t
will a l s o be u s e f u l i n c o r r e l a t i n g t u n n e l
and f r e e - f l i g h t
conditions.
Because ofthedemonstrated
pastuse
utility of the
i n a number o fm a j o rf a c i l i t i e s ,W e s t l e y( R e f .
t u r b u l e n c el e v e l si nt r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s
bemeasured
9) recommends n o i s e and
w i t h two 10 deg cones f i t t e d ,
r e s p e c t i v e l y ,w i t h :
*A p p a r e n t l y ,t h es u r f a c ef i n i s h
I50
8.
1.
s k i n - f r i c t i o n gages t od e t e r m i n et r a n s i t i o nR e y n o l d s
and flush-mountedmicrophones
numbers
t o measure n o i s e l e v e l s
onthe
2.
a c r o s s e dh o t - w i r e
design)
anemometer mountedon
The p r o p o s a l t o e l i m i n a t e t h e t r a v e r s i n g p r o b e
inducednoise
n o ts p e c i f i c ,
and windtunnelblockage.AlthoughWestley'srecommendation
it i s assumed t h a t he i s n o t
couples for t r a n s i t i o nd e t e c t i o n ,
h o t - w i r e measurements,Westleyexpresses
34
1.
AlternateAcousticCalibration
Probes
=
-.
it a r e s u s c e p t i b l e t o
161, t h e ya r e
24)
a number o f probe-inducederrors.
o b s e r v e dt h a tp r e s s u r eg r a d i e n t se x i s to n
A laminarboundarylayer
e r r o r si n
passthrough
measurements o f AC
may
i t t o an underlyingsensor,
9. Also,Siddon(Ref.
a cone
a c o u s t i c measurements a r e i n f l u -
and t o t a lp r e s s u r eg r a d i e n t s .
modulateacousticdisturbanceswhich
t i o n s cancause
Because
n o i s e measurementson
enced b yb o t hs t a t i c
W i t hr e g a r dt o
has demonstratedhot-wires
some t r a n s o n i ct e s ts e c t i o n s( R e f .
discussedseparatelyinAppendix
Not o n l y w o u l d t h e
and 35.
a w i n dt u n n e lt e s ts e c t i o n .
importance and t h e f a c t t h a t r e c e n t r e s e a r c h
can be used e f f e c t i v e l y i n
t h i n - f i l m s or thermo-
a concensus t h a tt h e s ei n s t r u m e n t s
a r ei d e a lf o rm e a s u r i n gd i s t u r b a n c e si n
Ref.
suchas
Refs. 11,
e.g.,
is
recommending f l o a t i n g - e l e m e n ts k i n -
f r i c t i o n b a l a n c e sb u tr a t h e rh e a tt r a n s f e rd e v i c e s
ofthis
(an ONERA
t h et i p
and l a t e r a lf l u c t u a -
w i t h probes.
Hence, otherprobe
summary ofSiddon'swork(Ref.
(Ref.21).
---" Siddon
e x c e l l e n tp r o b ef o ru n s t e a d ys t a t i c - p r e s s u r e
36) i s e x t r a c t e d from
has r e p o r t e dc o n s t r u c t i o no fa n
measurements, and hehas
ted i t i n v a r i o u s c o n t r i v e d f l o w s t o r e m w e t h e e r r o r s
causedby
calibra-
t h ei n t e r a c t i o n
*Credle(Ref.
33) n o t e de a r l i e rt h a tt h et r a v e r s i n gp r o b es u p p o r ts t r u c t u r e
appeared t o g e n e r a t e a d d i t i o n a l n o i s e ,
basedon comparisons w i t h a c o u s t i c
data obtained on an ogive-cylinder
and t h e AEDC 10 deg cone w i t h f l a t s .
151
o f t h e body o f t h e p r o b e
with streanwiseandcross-flowvelocityfluctuations.
t o thediaphragm
The p r e s s u r e i s t r a n s m i t t e d
phone(0.25
dm diam.)
i n s i d et h ep r o b e
o f a miniaturecondensormicro-
(0.305 cm diam.)
s l i t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 diametersdownstreamfromthe
A 0.318 cm (1/8
venose.
throughanannular
t i p o f thebalsa
downstream o f t h e
i n . )c o l l a ra r o u n dt h ep r o b e ,
s l t, was c a r e f u l l y p o s i t i o n e d
wood,
t o make t h e s t e a d y p r e s s u r e a t t h e s l i t e q u a l
when t h e r e i s n oc r o s sf l o w .
t o t h ef r e e - s t r e a ms t a t i cp r e s s u r e
The probe-
a flowwithsinu-
"Siddon'suniqueachievement
isthe
His
t o c a n c e lt h ep r e s s u r ef l u c t u a t i o n sp r o d u c e db yc r o s s - f l o wf l u c t u a t i o n s .
scheme i s based uponan
elementswereused
e a r l i e rt r a n s d u c e ri nw h i c hp i e z o e l e c t r i cf o r c e - s e n s i n g
t o measure l i f t f l u c t u a t i o n s o f
p r o p o r t i o n a lt ov e l o c i t yf l u c t u a t i o n s
normal t o t h e a i r f o i l
a t t a c kf l u c t u a t i o n sa r es m a l l .I nt h ep r e s e n t
o f f o u rp i e z o e l e c t r i c
will be p r o p o r t i o n a lt ot h ei n s t a n -
t a n e o u st r a n s v e r s ev e l o c i t ya tt h en o s e .
measuredby
The two e l e c t r i c a ls i g n a l sr e p r e s e n t i n g
components o f t r a n s v e r s e v e l o c i t y
t h et r a n s v e r s ev e l o c i t y .
A f r a c t i o no ft h i ss i g n a l
p r e s s u r ef l u c t u a t i o n st h a tw o u l d
through a r o t a t i n g i n c l i n e d n o z z l e .
where t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i s c o n s t a n t
theprobe.
A t t h a tp o i n t
summed
t o thesquare
was added t ot h ep r e s s u r e
a flow produced
absence o f t h e p r o b e .
by a j e t o f a i r passed
assumed t o b e p r o d u c e d b y c r o s s - f l o w i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h
These s i g n a l s werecancelled
thesquareofthetransversevelocity.
of
t og i v e( a p p r o x i m a t e l y )t h et r u es t a t i c -
have e x i s t e d i n t h e
"Siddon c a l i b r a t e dt h ep r o b ei n
condensormicrophonewere
wereeachsquaredand
t o o b t a i n a s i g n a lp r o p o r t i o n a l
thecondensormicrophone
t h ea x i so fr o t a t i o n ) .
configurationto
I f quasi-steady,slender-body,aerodynamic
t h e o r yi sa p p l i c a b l e ,t h et r a n s v e r s ef o r c e
withanalog-computerelements
anI-beam
moments producedbycross-flow-inducedtransverse
f o r c e s on t h e nose o f theprobe.
theorthogonal
when t h ea n g l e - o f -
caseSiddonusedanarrangement
Bimorph p l a t e e l e m e n t s i n
measure theorthogonalbending
a smallairfoil,whichare
by a d d i t i o n o f t h e p r o p e r f r a c t i o n o f
and
" S i d d o nc o n c l u d e dt h a tt h ee r r o ri nt h ep r e s s u r ep r o d u c e d
i n t e r a c t i o ni nt u r b u l e n c e
20 p e r c e n t .
was lessthan
measurements o f f l u c t u a t i n g p r e s s u r e c o u l d
quasi-steadyflow
was n o t v i o l a t e d
signalfromtheprobe
noseand
by c r o s s - f l o w
Thus, reasonablyaccurate
be made as l o n g as theassumption
and t h et i m el a g
thepressure
of
between t h et r a n s v e r s e - f o r c e
measured a t t h e a n n u l a r s l i t
was
n o ti m p o r t a n t .g e n e r a l l y ,t h . i sr e q u : i r e st h a tt h es p a t i a ls c a l eo ft h ep r e s s u r e
f l u c t - u a t i o n s be much larger than the probe dimensions.*
As a r e s u l t o f h i s
"
workSiddon
was a b l e t o c o n c l u d e t h a t i n
many p r a c t i c a lc i r c u m s t a n c e s
o n l y root-mean-squarepressurefluctuationswere
be s m a l l .
mustuse
Owing t od i f f e r e n c e si nt h ec o r r e c t e d
thecorrectedpressure
when t h ec o r r e c t e d
even
9) n o t e st h a t
anumber
He recommends thatthesetypesofacousticprobes
Dynamic s t a t i cp r e s s u r ep r o b e ss h o u l d
same."
as w e l l as
o f opera o r s o f
t r a n s o n i c and s u p e r s o n i c t u n n e l s a r e m e a s u r i n g f l u c t u a t i n g s t a t i c
standardized.
1 kelyto
and uncorrectedroot-mean-squarepressuresarethe
Thus, f o r anumber
pressures.
1i k e
measured w i t h p r o b e s
37), t h e . c o r r e c t i o n f o r c r o s s - f l o w i n t e r a c t i o n i s
Strasberg's(Ref.
where
and p i
bedeve
tot
opedand
be developed f o r h i g h
Refs.38,
14 i s shown i nF i g .
3.F.3.
t o be s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r
35 and 14.
A schematic o f t h e
B r i e f l y , i t c o n s i s t so f
cm ( 1 / 8i n . )d i a m e t e rp i e z o e l e c t r i ct r a n s d u c e r s
The probediameterof
NASA
mounted i n tandem.
measurements i n d i c a t et h ep r e s s u r ei sn e a r l yc o n s t a n ta c r o s st h ec e n t e ro f
f l a t - f a c e dd i s ki ns u p e r s o n i cf l o w .
c o v e r e dw i t h
a thin coating of
p a r t i c l e si nt h ef l o w .
The diaphragm o f t h e
exposedtransducer
is
damage by
The purpose o ft h es h i e l d e dr e a rt r a n s d u c e ri st o
serve as an a c c e l e r a t i o n( o rv i b r a t i o n )m o n i t o r .
i ss u b t r a c t e df r o mt h e
exposedtransducer
The s i g n a lf r o mt h i st r a n s d u c e r
inordertoaccountfortheeffects
nThe u n d e r l i n i n g was i n s e r t e d by t h e p r e s e n t a u t h o r s t o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e s i z e
o f t h e AEDC t r a n s i t i o n cone may i n d u c e e r r o r s i n n o i s e
measurements.
153
A U Dimensions in Centimeters
r E m s e d tnnrduccr
Figure
3 .F. 3 .
o f p r o b ev i b r a t i o n . *I no r d e rf o rt h i st e c h n i q u et o
(Ref.14)notedthatthetwotransducers
mustbe
be v a l i d , Anders, e t a l .
matched t o g i v e i d e n t i c a l
outputsforgivenaccelerationlevels.
Inconjunctionwiththeprobe,
chamber and t e s t s e c t i o n o f
a h o t w i r e was a l s o used i n t h e s t i l l i n g
a small Mach 5 w i n d t u n n e l a t
NASA Langley.
Assuming p u r e l y a c o u s t i c a l d i s t u r b a n c e s , t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n
was used t o
relatethefluctuatingstaticpressuresobtainedfromthehotwiretofluctuatingPitotpressures.
rms f l u c t u a t i n gt o t a lp r e s s u r eb e h i n d
a normalshock,
sound-source v e l o c i t yd e t e c t e d
by t h eh o tw i r e .
and
u
i st h e
The r e s u l t sf r o mt h i s
t i o n gave e x c e l l e n t agreement w i t h t h e f l u c t u a t i n g P i t o t p r o b e d a t a ,
Appendix I , Fig.
Anders, e ta l .
7.
It i sr e l e v a n t
equae.g.,
see
t o noteheretheconclusionreachedby
(Ref.14).
"The h o t w i r e and P i t o t p r o b e g e n e r a l l y i n d i c a t e t h e
same t r e n d and
l e v e lw i t hr e s p e c tt ot h e
Reynolds number. T h i s agreement i s o f g r e a t
p r a c t i c a li m p o r t a n c es i n c et h ep i e z o e l e c t r i cP i t o tp r o b ei s
a much more
ruggedinstrumentwithsimplerdatareductionproceduresthanthehotw i r ep r o b e .F o rd i a g n o s t i cs t u d i e s ,t h eP i t o tp r o b e
ca,n provideessent i a l l y t h e same i n f o r m a t i o n as t h eh o t - w i r ep r o b e. w i t h
much l e s s e f f o r t .
However, t h eh o tw i r e
does have one p a r t i c u l a r advantage i n t h e p r e s e n t
i n v e s t i g a t i o n .T h a ti s ,i n
a pure sound f i e l d t h e h o t w i r e
can d i s t i n g u i s h
betweenmovingsources
and f i x e d sources."
A s i m i l a r comparison o f h o t w i r e d a t a w i t h f l u c t u a t i n g P i t o t p r o b e d a t a
hasbeen
r e p o r t e d byGrandeand
diameterstrain
1.1 <
< 2.25.
Oates(Ref.
39).
However,a
155
we1 1.
These a u t h o r sc o n c l u d et h a t" t h ef r e q u e n c yr e s p o n s ec h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
t h es t a g n a t i o np r e s s u r es e n s o ra r ei d e n t i c a lt ot h o s e
of
of t h eh o tw i r e ,i . e . ,
it c a nb ec o n s i d e r e da ni d e a lp o i n ts e n s o rf o rf l u c t u a t i o n sw i t hs p a t i a ls c a l e s
somewhat largerthantheprobediameter.''
To summarize theadvantages
and disadvantages o f f l u c t u a t i n g P i t o t
probes,
thefollowingpointsarenoted.
D isadvan tages :
1.
c a n n o ts e p a r a t et h et h r e ep o s s i b l ef l o wd i s t u r b a n c e
entropy,vorticity
2.
modes o f
and p r e s s u r e .
cannot deduce w h e t h e rd i s t u r b a n c es o u r c e sa r es t a t i o n a r yo r
movi ng.
3.
s h o c km o d u l a t i o no fd i s t u r b a n c e s
(e.g.,see
Ref.
39 ) .
Advantages :
1.
r e l a t i v e l yi n e x p e n s i v e
and o f f - t h e - s h e l f ,
commercialtransducers
2.
speedandease
3.
s i m p l e rd a t ar e d u c t i o n .
4.
durable,;.e.,
o f measurement.
f a rl e s ss u s c e p t i b l et op a r t i c l e
damage compared
to hot wires.
5.
h i g hs i g n a lt on o i s er a t i o .
6.
reduced i n f l u e n c e o f f l o w p e r t u r b a t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f i n i t e
p r o b es i z e
(compared w i t h t h e
AEDC t r a n s i t i o nc o n e ) .
7.
minimum w a l l - p r o b e i n t e r f e r e n c e .
8.
e a s i l y moved about t o s u r v e y e n t i r e t e s t s e c t i o n .
I nc o n c l u s i o n ,r e c e n tr e s e a r c hw i t hf l u c t u a t i n gP i t o tp r o b e si n d i c a t e s
theseinstruments
i nt r a n s o n i c
may be adequate f o r i n i t i a l c a l i b r a t i o n o f f l o w d i s t u r b a n c e s
and s u p e r s o n i ct u n n e l s .T h i st y p eo f
measurement couldserve
as
aconvenient
and inexpensivestandardto
a l s or e l e v a n tt on o t et h a t
AEDC plansto
Doughertyof
compare tunnelnoiselevels.
thePropulsion
Wind Tunnelgroup
I t 1s
at
use af l u c t u a t i n gP i t o tp r o b et om o n i t o rf r e e s t r e a md i s t u r b a n c e
l e v e l sd u r i n gf l i g h tt e s t sw i t ht h e
AEDC t r a n s i t i o n cone.
1 57
1II.F.
References
1.
Dougherty, N. S. ; Anderson, C.
L. : "An Experimental
I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f Techniques t o SuppressEdgetonesfromPerforated
Tunnel Wa 1 1 s , I ' AEDC-TR-75-88,
2.
TransonicWindtunnel
Tunnels
4.
G.
McCanless,
,I1
. 1975.
Hartzuiker,
for theLargeEuropeanHigh-Reynolds-Number
theFlowQualityNecessary
3.
Aug
J. Acoust.
Schutzenhofer, L. A.
SOC.
March 1976.
AGARD-R-644,
LEHRT,"
Am.,
"NoiseReduction
Vol
andHoward,
. 56,
P. W. :
Mabey, D.
G.:
"FlowUnsteadiness
6.
Habey, D. G . :
"Suppression o f BackgroundNoise
A l A A Jour.,
andModel
7.
V i b r a t i o ni n
Wind Tunnels a t
1971.
of
' # A nH y p o t h e s i sf o rt h eP r e d i c t i o no fF l i g h tP e n e t r a t i o n
RAE TR 70189,
Wind TunnelModels,"
1970.
Mabey, D. G . :
"The I n f l u e n c e o f FlowUnsteadiness
ments a tT r a n s o n i c
8.
Nov. 1975.
C.P.
i n Transonic Wind
i n aTransonicWind-TunnelTestSection,''
5.
Wind
Speeds,"
Dougherty, N. S . and S t e i n l e , F.
W.:
on WindtunnelMeasure-
1473, 1973.
" T r a n s i t i o nR e y n o l d s
Comparisons i n SeveralMajorTransonicTunnels,"
Number
J u l y 1974.
9.
Westley,
R.:
w i t h Forward-Speed Simulation(High-speed
o f AGARD-AR-83,
IO.
R i d d l e , C.
16-Ft.
Aug.
11.
D.:
Sept.
Wind TunnelNoise)
,I1
Appendix
1975.
" I n v e s t i g a t i o no f
Tunnels o f t h e P r o p u l s i o n
F r e e - S t r e a mF l u c t u a t i n gP r e s s u r e si nt h e
Wind Tunnel F a c i l i t y , "
AEDC-TR-67-167,
1967.
Boone, J. R.
BackgroundNoise
" E v a l u a t i o no ft h eA c o u s t i cS o u r c e so f
12.
Boone, J. R. andMcCanless,
E v a l u a t i n gt h eA c o u s t i c
Facilities,"
Mar.
13.
C h r y s l e rH u n t s v i l l eO p e r a t i o n s ,
1969.
Credle, 0 . P . :
"An E v a l u a t i o no ft h eF l u c t u a t i n gA i r b o r n eE n v i r o n m e n t si n
t h e AEDC-PWT 4-Ft.Transonic
14.
G . F.:
Anders, J. R. ; Stainback,
Tunnel,"
P. C. ; Keefe,
L.
R. ; and Beckwith,
and F l u c t u a t i n g D i s t u r b a n c e Measurements i n t h e S e t t l i n g
Section o f a Small, Mach
ICIASF '75,
Wind Tunnel,"
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n i n Aerospace S i m u l a t i o n F a c i l i t i e s ,
15.
Sept. 22-24,
1975, publishedby
Anders, J. B.;
Stainback, P. C.;
"FluctuatingOisturbancesin
Horstman, C. C.
Keefe, L. R.;
a Mach
NASA TM X-62495,Dec.
17.
Donaldson, J. C.
MachNumber
18.
Lewis, T. L . and
Dods,
F l u c t u a t i o n sa t
Transducers,"
19.
Fuchs, H. V . :
W
i 1 Imarth, W.
W.
AnnualReview
Cal if.,
21.
5 Wind Tunnel,"Proc.
AIAA 9th
Flow,"
"Flow F l u c t u a t i o n Measurements a t
o f the12-InchSupersonicTunnel
J. B.:
NASA TN D-7087,
"Wind-Tunnel
Measurements
o f 1.6,
2.0,
(D)
,I'
o f Surface-Pressure
Oct. 1972.
"Measurement o f PressureFluctuationsWithinSubsonic
J . Sound & Vib.,
:
"Pressure Fluctuations
o f F l u i d Mechanics,Vol.
Alto,
1975.
W
i 1 Imarth, GI. W. :
Hanly, R. D.:
3 , AnnualReviewInc.,
P a l oA l t o ,C a l i f . ,
1971.
"EffectsofTransducerFlushnessonFluctuatingSurface
and Beckwith, 1 . E . :
1971.
o f F l u i d Mechanics, Vol.
22.
Ottawa, Canada,
1975.
MachNumbers
TurbulentJets,"
20.
I n t ' l Congress on
June 1976.
4 i nt h eT e s tS e c t i o n
AEDC TR-71-143,
I . E. : "Sound
Aerodynamics TestingConference,
16.
1969.
AEDC-TR-69-236,Nov.
Mar.
1975.
and E f f e c t s o f S u r f a c e P r e s s u r e F l u c t u a t i o n
Sept.
1972.
159
24.
0.:
"Evaluation of t h eO v e r a l l
Root-Mean-
Square F l u c t u a t i n g P r e s s u r e L e v e l s i n t h e
,I'
AEDC-TR-70-7,
Feb.
1970.
Chevalier, H. L. andTodd,
25
H. E.:
intheTestSectionofthe
from 5 t o 1000 cps,"
16-FootTransonicCircuitintheFrequency
AEDC-TN-61-51
i n 8-by6-FootSupersonic
Number i n t h e T r a n s o n i c
Dougherty, N. S . ,
28.
1
E.:
"Determination o f T r a n s i t i o n Reynolds
MachNumberRange,"AEDC-TR-70-218,
Jr.:
W h i t f i e l d , J. and Dougherty, N. S . ,
Jr.:
t o be p r e s e n t e d a t
and HypersonicMindTunnels
D.:
"A Method f o rt h eP r e d i c t i o n
1973, a l s o A l A A Jour.,
Treon, S. L.;
S t e i n l e , F.
P.
1425, Oct.
M.; Hagerman,J.
R. J . :" F u r t h e rC o r r e l a t i o no f
Speed T r a n s p o r t A i r c r a f t
PaperNo.71-291,
Credle, 0. P.:
33
AEDC-TR-73-158,
Mar.
Black, J. A.,
and B u f f i n g t o n ,
aHigh-Subsonic-
Wind Tunnels,"
AlAA
1971.
H e l l e r , H. H. andClemente,
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s onSlender
160
R.;
Model i n ThreeMajorTransonic
"PerforatedWallNoise
Mach-Number Flow,"
1974.
Data f r o mI n v e s t i g a t i o n so f
i nt h e
34.
,'I
o f t h eE f f e c t s
32
on
A l A A Jour.,Vol.
Oct.
Reynolds
"RadiatedAerodynamicNoiseEffects
Boundary L a y e r T r a n s i t i o n i n S u p e r s o n i c
31
June 1975.
"A Survey o fT r a n s i t i o n
Symposium onLaminar-TurbulentTransition,
30
Oct. 1970.
o f 0.56 t o
May 1970.
27
"Measurements o fF l u c t u a t i n gP r e s s u r e s
Range
b r a b i n u s , R. J. and Sanders, B. W. :
26.
29.
"Measurement o f t h eP r e s s u r eF l u c t u a t i o n s
A . R.:
AEDC-PWT
. 197 1 .
16-Ft.
" F l u c t u a t i n gS u r f a c e
Cones i n Subsonic,Supersonic,
1974.
and 4-Ft.
Pressure
and Hypersonic
35.
Stainback, P.
C. ; Wagner, R.
"ExperimentalStudies
D. ; Owen,
o f HypersonicBoundary-Layer
E f f e c t s o f Wind-Tunnel Disturbances,"
36.
Siddon, T.
E.:
C. :
T r a n s i t i o n and
D-7453, Mar.1974.
NASA TN
C.
i n Unsteady Flow,"
37.
F. K. ; andHorstman,
1969.
"Measurements o ft h eF l u c t u a t i n gS t a t i c
DavidTaylor
and Total-Head
1779,
38.
Stainback, P. C.
Measured i n HypersonicTunnelsUsingaHot-wire
Pressure Probe,'' A l A A Paper No. 72-1003,Sept.
39.
C.:
t oF l u c t u a t i o n si nS u p e r s o n i c
' ".P r o p u l s i o n
MIT Press,
Progress
1972.
in
Anemometer anda
Pitot
1972.
I'Response o fM i n i a t u r eP r e s s u r eT r a n s d u c e r s
Flow,"
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o nf o rA i r b r e a t h i n g
A s t r o n a u t iand
c s Aeronautics, A l A A Vol. 34,
161.
.
I
.
111.6.
....
. . ..
.. ... - .. . .. _.
. .._
1.
1930's indicated tunnel walls with proper arrangement of longitudinal slots would provide wall-interference-freeflow simulation.
This work wasinterrupted by World War 1 1 .
2. During 1946, Wright and Ward (Ref. 2) developed a "subsonic theory
for solid-blockage interference in circular wind tunnels with
walls slotted in the direction of flow." Subsequently, a 12-in.
diameter tunnel was designed with ten evenly spaced slots providing
a total openness ratio of one-eighth. The tunnel was put into
operation in 1947. This design d i d indeed prevent choking and
enabled testing t h r u Mach one of a model with 8.5% blockage.
3. Unfortunately, the solid slats in slotted tunnels were found to
and expansion waves at
cause significant reflecticns of bow shocks
supersonic speeds. Thus, around 1950 theoretical analyses at Cornel1
Aeronautical Laboratory* indicated better shock wave cancel lation
could be achieved with small-grain porous walls, Goodman (Ref. 3).
Unfortunately, exploratory testsshowed such walls clog easily, and
even worse, the porosity needed to vary with each change in Mach
number and/or shock strength. As an outgrowth of thiswork, the
now familiar perforated wall was selected
as a convenient compromise.
The early mathematical models of tunnel-wall-interference were
based on
the governing differential equation for perturbation velocity potential in subsonic,
compressible flow, e.g. ,'Baldwin, et
162
wall.
-a4
=
0 at solid
an
(3-6.2)
0 at open boundary.
(3.G.3)
The corrections to measured valueso f model lift and pitching moment, which
result when solving Eq. (3.6.1) with either solid or open-wall boundary conditions,
are discussed in detail by Garner, et al. (Ref. 5).
-1
R
This boundary condition was derivedby assuming the average velocity normal to
(a linearized
the wall is proportional to the pressure drop through the wall
approximation to viscous flow through the wall),
and that the pressure outslde
the wall is equal to freestream static. The value of R, for a given wall, i s
usually determined experimentally by measuring pressure drop and the associated
mass flow througha wall sample (e.g. Ref. 71, i.e.
An a p p r o x i m a t e , u n i f o r m b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n f o r s l o t t e d w a l l s
byBaldwin,
(Ref. 4).
etal.
a 4
ax
+ K - a20
axan
= 0
where K i s r e l a t e d t o s l o t
K =
was d e r i v e d
DS
lr
In
aitd e a ls, l o t t e dw a l l
(3. G.6)
geometry by
{CSC
(E
-wS1 1
DS
and
Ds =
=
Ws
I n anattempt
d i s t a n c e between s l o c
t enters,
w i d t ho sf l o t s .
t o account f o rv i s c o u se f f e c t s ,B a l d w i n ,e ta l .s u g g e s t e d
a d d i n gt h ep o r o u sb o u n d a r yc o n d i t i o nt o
Eq.
(3.6.6)and
measuring R f o r t h e
slotofinterest.
a+
ax
K e l l e r (Ref.
8)
&
axan
-1 a4
Rs
has r e c e n t l ys u g g e s t e dt h i sb o u n d a r yc o n d i t i o n
includevaryingslotwidth
by r e p l a c i n g l / R S w i t h l / R s
A f t e r more thantwodecadesoftesting
e x p e r i m e n t a lr e s u l t s ,
(3.6.8)
an
be extended t o
aK/ax.
and comparisons o f t h e o r y w i t h
i t i s now g e n e r a l l yr e c o g n i z e dt h a ta p p l i c a t i o no ft h e
l i n e a r b o u n d a r yc o n d i t i o n s ,w i t hc o n s t a n t
As an example o f t h i s d i s c r e p a n c y ,
va l u e so f
K and/or
R, i s inadequate.
a b r i e f summary o f a t y p i c a l case i s
presentedhere.
Lowe (Ref.
9)
measured t h ew a l lp o r o s i
p o r o s i t y and normalholes.
t y parameter f o r a w a l l w i t h
The standardporosityparameter,
e x p e r i m e n t a l l y by m e a s u r i n g t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e d r o p
164
22.5%
R , was determined
and mass f l o w a c r o s s
a s i d e w a l l o f theGeneral
9 - i n c hb y2 1 - i n c hs e c t i o no f
meter),Usingthe
t h e o r yo b t a i n e d
measured v a l u e s o f
byLo
R and t h e r e s u l t s o f
and O l i v e r( R e f .
turecorrectionsindicatedthewalldidnot
w i t ht h e
correctedfor
have t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
Thus, t h e r e s u l t s o f
an
an a i r c r a f t f o r c e
open-boundaryinterference,agreed
same model i nt h eL a n g l e y
1 i n e a rp e r t u r b a t i o n
open j e t . T h i s c o n t r a d i c t e d t h e r e s u l t s o f t e s t s w i t h
which,when
Dynamics 4-footHigh
withdataobtained
8 ' TransonicPressureTunnel(Ref.
Lowe, as w e l l a so t h e r s ,i n d i c a t et h e
model
I
ll)*.
measurement o f R and
I
use o f t h e c l a s s i c a l , l i n e a r p e r t u r b a t i o n t h e o r y i s n o t v e r y u s e f u l f o r c a l i b r a t i n gt h ee f f e c t so ft r a n s o n i cw i n dt u n n e lw a l l s .I f , i ng e n e r a 1 , t h i sa p p r o a c ht o
measurements o f R f o r
c o r r e c t i n gf o rw a l li n t e r f e r e n c e
had provensuccessful,
porous and s l o t t e dt u n n e l sw o u l d
have become a s t a n d a r dp a r to ft r a n s o n i ct u n n e l
calibration.
The c u r r e n t consensus i s :t h et r u e ,t r a n s o n i c - t u n n e lb o u n d a r yc o n d i t i o n s
a r e dependent on t h el o c a lf l o wc o n d i t i o n sn e a rt h ew a l l .T h i s ,i nt u r n ,
adependence
means
onbothtunneloperatingconditions@theparticular
Newman and Klunker (Ref.
configuration, e.g.,
14).
model
Recent e f f o r t st oo b t a i n
improvedboundaryconditionsforfixed(passive)wallconditionsincludethe
s t u d yo fv a r i a t i o n si n
n o n l i n e a rb o u n d a r yc o n d i t i o n sf o rw a l l sw i t hn o r m a lh o l e s ,
walls, e.g.,Refs.
17 and 18.
Of
Ref.
Ref.
15, and
16, and s l o t t e d
c o u r s e ,t h eb a s i co b j e c t i v eo ft h e s es t u d i e s
t oa t t a i nd a t ac o r r e c t i o np r o c e d u r e sw h i c h
is
can r e l i a b l y account f o r t h e e f f e c t s o f
real,ventilatedwalls.
111.6.2.
Adaptive
Wall
Studies
The d i f f i c u l t i e s i n a p p l y i n g t r a n s o n i c w a l l c o r r e c t i o n s , w h i c h
reduce to s i m p l e m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f
do n o t
known.
of
A l s o , one o f t h e c o n c l u s i o n s o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l , l i n e a r t h e o r y
walleffectsistheimpossibilityofusinguniformporositytosimultaneously
The r e c e n t , s u p e r c r i t i c a l a i r f o i l t e s t s o f E l a c k w e l l
and Pounds (Ref. 12)
i n d i c a t et h ea c t u a l
boundary c o n d i t i o n s h i f t s t o w a r dt h ef r e e - j e ta sp o r o s i t y
increases,i.e.,thetransonicshock
moves f o r w a r d f o r a g i v e n Mach number.
T h i s same t r e n d was alsoobserved asa
r e s u l to fi n c r e a s e db l o c k a g ei nt h e
s u p e r c r i t i c a lc o n e - c y l i n d e rt e s t so f
Page (Ref. 1 3 ) .
165
eliminatetheeffectsofwallinterferenceonbothnormalforce
moment, Ref.
16.
Forthesereasons,otherprocedureshave
b e i n gi n v e s t i g a t e d .
The theorydeveloped
suggestedthatthepressuredistribution
more c o r r e c t .
These a u t h o r s
c o r r e s p o n d i n gt ot h e
t h e measuredand
a r et h e n
amodel
in
( I ) t h ef l o w - d e f l e c t i o na n g l e s
The scheme t h e ni n v o l v e sc a l c u l a t i o no f
w h i c hc o r r e s p o n dt ot h e
be
and t h e s t r e a m l i n e d e f l e c t i o n a n g l e
measured a l o n gt h et u n n e lw a l l s( o u t s i d et h eb o u n d a r yl a y e r )w i t h
place.
19) and
by F e r r i and Baronti(Ref.
20) seems t o o f f e rt h ep r o m i s eo fb e i n g
Sears(Ref.
and p i t c h i n g
measured pressuredata
and (2) t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n
measured flow d e f l e c t i o na n g l e s .
calculatedpressuredistributions
The d i f f e r e n c e between
andstreamlinedeflections
1.
d e t e r m i n et h ew a l lp o r o s i t yw h i c he l i m i n a t e sw a l l
i n t e r f e r e n c ef o r
2.
a g i v e ne x t e r n a lp r e s s u r ed i s t r i b u t i o n ,
p r o v i d et h ec o r r e c tp r e s s u r ed i s t r i b u t i o no u t s i d e
oftheporouswallfor
3.
a givenporositydistribution,
d e t e r m i n ew a l lc o n t o u r st oc o n f o r mw i t hf r e e - a i r
stream1 ines, o r
4.
c a l c u l a t et h ew a l lc o r r e c t i o n st o
be a p p l i e dt ot h e
e x p e r i m e n t a rl e s u l t s .
One o f t h e
it o n l y r e q u i r e s t h e
advantages o f t h i s p r o c e d u r e i s t h a t
l i n e a r i z e dp e r t u r b a t i o ne q u a t i o n st o
be v a l i d n e a rt h ew a l l .T h i s
The primaryadvantage
t oe s t a b l i s ht h ea p p r o p r i a t e
means t h e
do n o t e x t e n d t o t h e
o ft h i sp r o c e d u r ei st h a t
boundaryconditions.
i t uses d a t a
However, asnoted
by F e r r i
and B a r o n t i ,t h ep r i m a r yd i s a d v a n t a g e sa r et h er e q u i r e m e n t sf o r" a c c u r a t e
measurements o f f l o w d e f l e c t i o n s
and p r e s s u r e v a r i a t i o n s a t s e v e r a l a n g u l a r
15" T r i s o n i c Gasdynamics F a c i l i t y a t t h e
Dynamics Laboratory.SinceStreamlineanglescan
away from t h e w a l l , t h e t h e o r y
s t a t i cp r e s s u r e s
modeland
166
and Baronti,anexperimentalpro-
bemeasuredmore
accurately
was s u b s e q u e n t l y m o d i f i e d t o u s e f l o w a n g l e s
w a l l .F o ra n g u l a r i t y
Air F o r c e F l i g h t
measurements, a new h o t - f i l m ,
and
between t h e
20 deg-wedge probe
+2
-
show it t o be capableof
minutes o f a r c
(Ref.21).Thisprobe,
a c o n v e n t i o n a l , cone-cylinder,static-pressure probe,provides
t h ei n p u tr e q u i r e d
b yt h eF e r r i
Results of this
and Barontitheory.
workhavedemonstratedthe
f e a s i b i l i t y o f changing
slotted-wallcontourtominimizetransonic-wall-interferencewiththeflow
o v e r 6% t h i c k b i c o n v e x a i r f o i l s a t z e r o a n g l e - o f - a t t a c k .
As expected,the
will need t o be
r e s u l t sf o rn o n z e r oa n g l e s - o f - a t t a c ki n d i c a t et h ew a l lc o n t o u r
changed as changes i n l i f t and/or model c o n f i g u r a t i o na r e
l i f t i n g a i r f o i l models i sc o n t i n u i n g .
However,enough
abletoconcludethatthisapproachoffers
viousapproach
The s t u d yo f
r e s u l t sa r e
now a v a i l -
a decidedadvantageoverthepre-
o f measuringpressuredrop
and t h e n t r y i n g t o
made.
use l i n e a r boundaryconditions
t o e s t i m a t e wa1l-model
interferencefactors.
Work i s a l s o underway a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f
and ONERA (France),Ref.
Southampton(England),Ref.
22,
23, on u s i n g a d j u s t a b l e , s o l i d w a l l s t o c o n f o r m w i t h
f r e e - a i rs t r e a m l i n e s .
V i d a l ,e ta l .( R e f .
o n e - f o o t ,s e l f - c o r r e c t i n gt u n n e l .
The c o n c l u s i o n sr e g a r d i n gt r a n s o n i cc r o s s -
f l o wc h a r a c t e r i s t i c so fp e r f o r a t e dw a l l sa r eq u i t eI n t e r e s t i n g .
The f o l l o w i n g
i s quotedfromtheirpaper.
"The u s u a lt h e o r e t i c a la p p r o a c h
i s t o assume t h a tt h e
normal v e l o c i t y
component i nt h ei n v i s c i ds t r e a mi sl i n e a r l yr e l a t e dt ot h ev e l o c i t y
t h r o u g ht h ew a l l ,w h i c hi sl i n e a r l yr e l a t e dt ot h ep r e s s u r ed r o pa c r o s s
t h ew a l l .
Our r e s u l t s show t h a tn e i t h e rl i n e a rr e l a t i o ni sa p p l i c a b l e
and t h a tt h ew a l l
i n v i s c i ds t r e a mb y
b o u n d a r yl a y e ra m p l i f i e st h en o r m a lv e l o c i t yi nt h e
1.15 t o 6.
a f a c t o rr a n g i n ga tl e a s tf r o m
n o t appear t o be f e a s i b l e t o c a l i b r a t e t h i s
t i o n because t h e l a t t e r
will depend,
o ft h e
The mainadvantage
boundarylayer.
t h a t it i s n o n i n t r u s i v e anddoes
I t does
boundary l a y e r a m p l i f i c a -
inpart,
on t h eu p s t r e a mh i s t o r y
t ot h ef l o w m e t e rt e c h n i q u ei s
n o tp r o d u c ed i s t u r b a n c e si nt h ef l o w f i e l d .
above.
C o n s e q u e n t l y ,t h ef l o w m e t e rt e c h n i q u ef o ri n f e r r i n gt h en o r m a lv e l o c i t y
componenthasbeen
probes f o r t h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n . "
Thus, this i s another case which shows the linear boundary condition at ventilated, transonic walls is basically incorrect.
The basic technique used to correct wall porosity is as follows. First,
theoretical estimates of the unconfined, longitudinal, disturbance-velocities,
are made at a chosen distance f r o m the tunnel wall. The wall porosities are
initially set to provide these distributions
by monitoring the local static
pressures with a long survey pipe.
velocity distributions. The wall porosities and/or plenum pressures are then
adjusted to provide this new velocity distribution. Next, the normal components are again measured,and the process continuesuntil the differences
between all the normal velocity components, measuredat successive iterations,
are less than 0.0005 Vm. At this point, unconfined flow conditions are assumed
to be achieved.
Experience with this iterative procedure
has shown that the convergence
criterion is unnecessarily stringent, and a better criterion is being considered. However, for the case of an NACA 0012 airfoil at M = 0.55, a =
and
6O,
4O
iterations. The significant result was the measured airfoil pressure distribution, obtained in the one-foot tunnel with wall control, agreed very well with
data obtained with the same airfoil
in the 8-foot tunnel.
still a large
Although the Calspan results are encouraging, there are
number of problems to overcome before three dimensional models be
cansimilarly
tested, i.e., adequate theoretical modelso f 30 transonic flows and porosity
adjustment of all four walls.
*The
168
He hasproposed
u s i n gl i m i t e da d a p t i v e - w a l lc o n t r o lt or e d u c ei n t e r f e r e n c et oa n a l y t i c a l l y
,
c o r r e c t a b l el e v e l s .I n
sumnary, r e d u c t i o no tf r a n s o n i c - w a l l - i n t e r f e r e n c e
improveddata-correction
and Europe.
methods a r e a r e a s o f a c t i v e r e s e a r c h i n t h e
Considerableprogress
111.6.3.
noisethan
etal.
do p e r f o r a t e dw a l l s .
phenomena hasbeen
and WallGeneratedNoise
(Ref.
161, s l o t t e d - w a l lt u n n e l sg e n e r a t el e s s
An i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s
a i r c r a f t model was t e s t e d i n t h e
Near-interference-free data
USA, Canada,
i sa n t i c i p a t e di nt h en e a rf u t u r e .
BoundaryLayers
As notedbyPindzola,
and
11).
I nt h e i rt e s t s ,
anF-111
and s l o t t e d w a l l s .
a Machnumber
o f 0.60 t o 0.80 w i t ht h es l o t t e dw a l l s .W i t ht r a n s i t i o nf r e e ,t h i sc o r r e s p o n d e d
t o anobservedrearward
p o r o u sw a l lt e s t s .
movement of boundary l a y e r t r a n s i t i o n
Thus,
t h i sp r o v i d e s
compared t o t h e
a s p e c i f i c case o fw a l l - g e n e r a t e dn o i s e
f
a f f e c t i n g b o u n d a r yl a y e rt r a n s i t i o n
I n thesupersonic
(Ref.28)havedeveloped
onan
a i r c r a f t model.
c o r r e l a t i o n st or e l a t et u n n e lw a l l
p r o p e r t i e st or a d i a t e dn o i s e . " "
boundarylayer
And i nt h et r a n s o n i cr a n g e ,t h er e c e n tt e s t s
o fV i d a l ,e ta l .
r e a f f i r mt h ee s s e n t i a lr o l et h e
boundary l a y e rp l a y si nd e t e r m i n i n gw a l lc r o s s f l o wc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
These t e s t s ,
among others,havealsodemonstratedthatmodel-inducedpressuregradientscan
s i g n i f i c a n t l ya l t e rw a l l - b o u n d a r y - l a y e r si nt r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s .T h i s
empty-tunnelboundary-layersurveysmust
surveyswithmodels
i np l a c e( p a r t i c u l a r l y
summary, w a l l boundarylayersurveysare
means
be supplemented by t a k i n g a d d i t i o n a l
for h i g h l i f t c o n f i g u r a t i o n s ) .I n
a n e c e s s a r yp a r to fc a l i b r a t i n gb o t h
t r a n s o n i c and supersonictunnels.
The new N a t i o n a l T r a n s o n i c F a c i l i t y a t
NASA Langley will have s l o t t e d w a l l s
26.
becausetheygeneratelessnoise
and i n t e r f e r e n c e a t s u b s o n i c
speeds,Ref.
Parker(Ref.
30) a l s o found s l o t t e d w a l l s , asopposed
t op e r f o r a t e dw a l l s ,
p r o v i d e d amore u n i f o r m c e n t e r l i n e Machnumber d i s t r i b u t i o n up t o M
1.1.
**Tunnelnoise
measurements a r ed i s c u s s e di ng r e a t e rd e t a i li nS e c t i o n
I1I.F.
169
A review of various
31).
g i v e n byKennerandHopkins(Ref.
l a y e r measurementsona
been
These investigatorsobtainedboundary
supersonictunnelwail
with a s i n g l e
t r a v e r s i n g p r o b e ,t h r e ed i f f e r e n tr a k e s ,
and a 12 deg.wedge
theleading
may c o n s u l t t h i s r e f e r e n c e f o r d e t a i l s
edge.
The i n t e r e s t e dr e a d e r
o f boundary layerprobedesigns
expected.Also,Allen(Ref.
o f Machnumber
anda
32)has
with orifices in
discussionoftheresultsthat
can be
g i v e na g e n e r a ld i s c u s s i o no ft h ee f f e c t s
on P i t o t probe measurement e r r o r s i n t u r b u l e n t
boundarylayers.
111.6.
References
1.
2.
3.
Interference Effect
4.
inc.
"Wall Interference in
5. Garner,
C. ; Rogers, E. W. E. ; Acum, W. E. A. ; and Maskel 1 , E. C. : "Subsonic Wind Tunnel Wall Corrections," AGARDograph 109,Oct. 1966.
H.
6. Heyson, H.
H.:
7. Pindzola,
W. L.:
"A Summary of Perforated Wall Wind Tunnel
Studies at the Arnold Engineering Development Center,'' AEDC-TR-60-9,
August 1960.
8.
M. and Chew,
Keller, J. D.:
in
9. Lowe, W.
H.:
1973.
10.
11.
171
12.
Blackwell, J. A.,
Effects ona
G . A.:
Jr. andPounds,
"Wind TunnelWallInterference
SupercriticalAirfoilatTransonic
Speeds,''
1976.
13.
Page, W. A.:
"ExperimentalStudy
aboutSlenderCone-Cylinders
Paper No.1,
o ft h eE q u i v a l e n c eo fT r a n s o n i cF l o w
of Circular
and E l l i p t i c CrossSection,"
14.
Newman, P. A.
andBody-Shape
"NumericalModeling
E f f e c t s on TransonicFlow
P a r t 1 1 of Aerodynamic A n a l y s i s R e q u i r i n g
o f Tunnel-Wall
Over F i n i t e L i f t i n g Wings,"
NASA SP-
AdvancedComputers,
Mokry,
A.
J. : "Wall
D i m e n s i o n a lS u p e r c r i t i c a lA i r f o i l s ,U s i n gW a l lP r e s s u r e
D e t e r m i n et h eP o r o s i t yF a c t o r sf o r
Nat'l.
16.
Aero.Estab.,Ottawa,
WorkingSections,"
18.
Berndt, S . B. andSorensen,
NRC-13894,
1974.
and C h e v a l li e r ,
J. P.:
"Design o fT r a n s o n i c
theDesign
17.
App.
Measurements t o
Canada,
Feb.
I n t e r f e r e n c e on Two-
H.:
AGARD-AR-83,
Sept.
"Flow P r o p e r t i e s o f S l o t t e dW a l l sf o r
TransonicTestSections,"
Techniques, AGARD-CP-174,
Mar. 1976.
Barnwell, R. W. :
1975.
"Improvements i nt h eS l o t t e d - W a l l
Boundary Conditions,''
19.
F e r r i , A.
and B a r o n t i , P.:
AIM Jour.,
20.
Sears, W.
T. M. :
Goodyer, M.
AeronauticalJour.,Vol.
78,
1974.
"Re du c t i o n o f T r a n s o n i cS l o t t e dW a l lI n t e r f e r e n c e
o f SlatContouring,''
22.
Wind-Tunnel Corrections,''
973.
Feb.-Mar.
21.
Weeks,
Jan.
"A Method f o rT r a n s o n i c
J.:
AFFDL-TR-74-139,
"The Low
Speed
13, WindtunnelDesign
by Means
Mar. 1975.
SelfStreamliningWindtunnel,"
and TestingTechniques,
AGARD-CP-174,
Paper No.
Mar. 1976-
C h e v a l li e r ,
23
J. P. :
" S o u f f l e r i eT r a n s s o n i q u e
A ParoisAuto-Adaptable,"
AGARD-CP-174,
Mar.
1976.
24.
25
B., Jr.:
Kemp, W.
"Toward t h eC o r r e c t a b l eI n t e r f e r e n c eT r a n s o n i c
Wind
26.
HcKinney, L. W.
"
"
R. R . :
andHowell,
"The C h a r a c t e r i s t i c so ft h eP l a n n e d
Proc. -A
" l A A 9 t h Aerodynamic TestingConference,
N a t i o n a lT r a n s o n i cF a c i l i t y , ' '
June 1976.
27.
Pate, S. R.:
"Measurementsand
onSharpSlender
28.
Dougherty, N.
Cones a t H i g h
S.:
29.
Starr,
Dec. 1975.
R. F.:
Speeds,"
A l A A Jour.,Sept.
" C o r r e l a t i o n of T r a n s i t i o nR e y n o l d s
dynamicNoiseLevels
Jour.,
C o r r e l a t i o n s o f T r a n s i t i o n Reynolds Numbers
1971.
Number w i t h Aero-
2.0
3.0,"
"Experiments t o Assess t h eI n f l u e n c e
o f Changes i n t h e
WallBoundaryLayeronTransonicWallCrossflowCharacteristics,''
TunnelDesignandTestingTechniques,
30
Parker, R. L.,
Jr.:
AGARD-CP-174,
"Fiow G e n e r a t i o nP r o p e r t i e s
E. J.:"Accuracy
Mar;
Tunnel
1976-
o f F i v eT r a n s o n i c
AEDC-TR-75-88,
TunnelTestSectionWallConfigurations,''
31.
AlAA
Aug.
Wind
1975.
o f P i t o t - P r e s s u r e Rakes f o r
Measurements i n SupersonicFlow,"
NASA TN D-6229,
Mar. 1971.
32.
A l l e n , J.
M.:
" E f f e c t so f
T u r b u l e n t BoundaryLayer
PP. 949-590,
Mach
Number
,I'
on Pitot-ProbeDisplacement
NASA TN D-7466,
in a
J u l y 1975).
173
1II.H.
STANDARD
MODELS
III.H.l.
Theneed
andModel
1.
Ref.
f o r standardmodels
T e s t i n gP a n e l .I n
thepurpose
AGARD Force
Models
was r e c o g n i z e d e a r l y b y t h e
1952, t h i sp a n e la d o p t e d
I t was t h o u g h tt h a tt h i sw o u l d
b e" e x t r e m e l yu s e f u li ne s t a b l i s h i n g
standards o f comparisonbetweenwindtunnels."
It w o u l da l s o
be u s e f u l i n
s t u d y i n gt h ee f f e c t s
model f a b r i c a t i o nt o l e r a n c e s .
o f RH-IO.
deltawingwitha
and h o r i z o n t a lt a i ls u r f a c e s .T h i sc o n f i g u r a t i o n
wouldbe
speedrange.''
sym-
an o g i v e - c y l i n d e r anda
m e t r i c a l , 4% c i r c u l a r - a r c a i r f o i l . I n
t o i n c l u d ev e r t i c a l
body w i t h f i n s w h i c h
The purpose o f t h e t a i l
was desig-
and c a l i b r a t i o n i n
expansion waves.
AGARD models a r e g i v e n i n
The g e o m e t r i c a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r t h e v a r i o u s
References 1 , 2 and
4.
Goethert(Ref.
3.
5) a l s od i s c u s s e s
The associatedwindtunneldata
The f o l l o w i n gc o n c l u s i o n
Based oncomparisons
o f d a t af o r
c o u l d beachieved
1% b l o c k a g er a t i o .
AEDC d a t ao b t a i n e df o r
was d e r i v e df r o mt h e s ee a r l y
i t was c o n c l u d e d t h a t s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s
i f a i r c r a f t models d i d n o t
i nt r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s
exceedabout
o f thumb
Responses t o t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e i n d i c a t e t h i s r u l e
has been a d o p t e da l m o s tu n i v e r s a l l y .
(Ref.
some o f t h e e a r l y
i s presented i n Reference
However, f o rp r e c i s i o nt e s t i n g ,G o e t h e r t
5) recommended b l o c k a g er a t i o s
be keptassmallas
span n o te x c e e d i n gh a l ft h et u n n e lw i d t h .
These e a r l y c o n c l u s i o n s werebasedon
The more r e c e n t t e s t i n g o f t h e p a s t
measure p r e s s u r ed i s t r i b u t i o n s .
designed t o
models w i t h 1%
t u n n e lb l o c k a g ec a ne x p e r i e n c ec o n s i d e r a b l ew a l li n t e r f e r e n c e ,e s p e c i a l l yn e a r
174
models.
even i n t h eb e s tv e n t i l a t e dt u n n e l s .
Mach
one,
of pressuremodels
sonicwallinterferencerequiretheuse
of tran-
Thus, c u r r e n ts t u d i e s
to providethe
necessary data.
lll.H.2.
Inthepast,
Transonic
Pressure
Models:
anumber
w a l li n t e r f e r e n c e .
2-D
What f o l l o w s i s
a brieflistofairfoils
whichhavebeen
employed r e c e n t l y .
Weeks (Ref.
w a l li n t e r f e r e n c e
64 A010
*
airfoil
6) hasused
a s y m n e t r i c a l , 6% c i r c u l a r - a r c a i r f o i l
a t ONERA (Ref. 7) f o rt w o - d i m e n s i o n a ls t u d i e s
has beenused
w i t ha d j u s t a b l ep o r o s i t y
p r o v i d eb a s e l i n ef o r c e
flow q u a l i t y .
hasbeen
t e s t e di nt h eC a l s p a n
9.
8 - f t Tunnel t o
and p r e s s u r ed a t aw h i c ha r ew a l l - i n t e r f e r e n c e - f r e e .A l s o ,
found t o be l e s s s e n s i t i v e t o
Thus, P i n d z o l a ,e ta l .
a i r f o i l beadoptedas
of
Whereas, C a l s p a ns t u d i e so fw a l l s
have u t i l i z e d t h e s y m m e t r i c a l
this airfoil
NACA
i n a c o n t o u r e d ,s l o t t e d - w a l tl u n n e l .I nF r a n c e ,a n
s o l i d ,a d j u s t a b l ew a l l si nt r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s .
A 15.2 cm
t o study
(Ref.
I I l.H.3.
A 20deg
TransonicPressureModels:
c o n e - c y l i n d e r hasbeenused
3-0
i n anumber
of transonic facilities
( p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r M > 1) t o s e l e c t o p e r a t i o n a l v a l u e s o f w a l l p o r o s i t y , w a l l
a n g l e and plenumpumping.
c a s ew h i c hi l l u s t r a t e st h i sp r o c e d u r e .
1 1 ) havedescribed
They have a l s or e v i e w e dt h ew a l l -
i n t e r f e r e n c e - f r e e ,t r a n s o n i cd a t aw h i c hi sa v a i l a b l ef o rt h i s
A t onetime,
i t was t h o u g h tt h a t
model geometry.
if thewallparameterswereselected
g i v e minimum i n t e r f e r e n c e on t h i s model,through
models.However,
t e s t s have shown t h i si sn o tt h e
case.Forexample,Davis'(Ref.12)transonic
AGARD Model B
i n d i c a t e db e t t e r
datacouldbeobtainedwithdifferentwallsettings.
to
Mach one, t h i s w o u l d b e s a t i s -
f a c t o r y for t e s t i n g a l l t y p e s o f
t e s t sw i t ha n
a typical
anumber
ofaircraft
agreement w i t h t h e
model
AGARD r e f e r e n c e
Thus, c a r e must b ee x e r c i s e di ns e l e c t i n g
it i s now r e c o g n i z e dt h a t
ular,
w h i c ha r et o
n o ty e t
a c a l i b r a t i o n model.
a c a l i b r a t i o n model mustbe
' % i m i l a r l l t o models
be t e s t e d .U n f o r t u n a t e l y ,p r e c i s ec r i t e r i af o r
how s i m i l a r have
A l l t h a t may be s a i d a t t h i s t i m e i s :
been defined.
o fs t a n d a r dc a l i b r a t i o n
I np a r t i c -
model i s necessary f o r v a l i d t e s t i n g o f m i s s i l e , a i r f o i l ,
and a i r c r a f t models i n e x i s t i n g t r a n s o n i c t u n n e l s .
The t e s t s o f
Treon, e t a l .
(Refs.
13 and 14) e s t a b l i s h e dt h e
need f o r
a 0.0226-scale
8-ft.,
theCalspan
and t h e AEDC 1 6 - f t .
sonicwindtunnels.
forcebalance
model o ft h e
The same c o m b i n a t i o no fm d e l - s u p p o r ts t i n g
(16T) t r a n -
and i n t e r n a l
ferences i n blockage,buoyancy
of s m a l l d i f -
have
I na d d i t i o nt of o r c e s
t o measure l o c a l s t a t i c p r e s -
sure.Thisenabledcomparisons
e f f e c t i v ef r e e s t r e a m
o f buoyancyandmodel-induced
Mach number.
and e f f e c t i v eR e y n o l d s
and
changes i n
The r e s u l t i n g c o r r e c t i o n s f o r r e l a t i v e
numberk reducedthespread
inaxialforce
by
buoyancy
75 percent
f o r Mach number b e l o w t h e d r a g r i s e v a l u e ? F i n a l l y , t h e s e t e s t s p e r m i t t e d
estimatesofthe"bestexpectancyagreement"betweendataobtained
inthethree
facilities.
The u t i l i t y o f t h e
i nS e c t i o n
AEDC t r a n s i t i o n cone(Refs.
t h a tt h i ss t u d yo ft h ee f f e c t so ft u n n e le n v i r o n m e n t
was a l s o basedon
the same model,
thefundamentalpremiseemployed
Namely,
results.
A s i m p l i f i e d ,b u tv e r s a t i l e ,a i r c r a f t
and 4T t r a n s o n i ct u n n e l s
by Binion(Ref.
modelhasbeen
8).
Themodel
c o n s i s t so f
m e t r i c a l l ys i m i l a r ,c e n t e r b o d i e sw i t hr e c t a n g u l a r - p l a n f o r m
bodieshavepointed,ogive-typenoses
p r o f ile.
*
A*
See
p.
AEDC 16T
twogeo-
t e s t e di nt h e
and thewingshavethe
wings.
The c e n t e r -
NACA 63 A006 a i r f o i l
separateforce
150.
Subsequent t o t h i s work,Binion
and Lo (Ref. 15) showed, i n some cases,wall
i n t e r f e r e n c e canovershadow t h e e f f e c t s o f R e y n o l d s
number v a r i a t i o n s .
viz., the wing by itself, the tall by itself, and the wing with tail mounted close
behind and at a more aft position.
repeated by duplicating the pressure difference across the model forebody which
was initially calibrated as a functlon of a in the 16T.
The conclusions reached by Binion include the following.
1.
Flow angulari.tY can be induced into the tunnel flaw which is a function
2.
177
- .
Two s i z e s o f t h i s
H3) have r e c e n t l y
been t e s t e d i n t h e
p a r t o f a c o o p e r a t i v ep r o g r a mw i t h
ONERA.
The statedpurposes
of thisstudy
for (1) t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e o r e t i c a l
or e m p i r i c a l w a l l - i n t e r f e r e n c e c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s
and ( 2 ) t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f
guidelinestoallowreasonableselectionofwind-tunnel-to-modelsizeratios
i nt h et r a n s o n i c
speed regime.''
The t e s tr e s u l t s
and e v a l u a t i o na r er e p o r t e d
by B i n i o n (Ref.19).
An unexpected r e s u l t o f t h e s e t e s t s
number.
I nf a c t ,t h e
was t h e o b s e r v e d s e n s i t i v i t y t o R e y n o l d s
modelswerefound
when boundary l a y e r t r a n s i t i o n
t o bemore
s e n s i t i v et o
Reynolds number
was f i x e dt h a nw i t hf r e et r a n s i t i o n .A l s o ,
greatervariationofthedatafromtunnel-to-tunneloccurredwithfixedtransition.
from t h e l a r g e r
Wing pressuredata
causedby
d i f f e r e n c e si n
s e p a r a t i o n .F i n a l l y ,
wereused
model showed t h e s ed i f f e r e n c e sw e r e
shock-boundarylayerinteractions
even t h o u g hs t a t e - o f - t h e - a r tm a n u f a c t u r i n gt o l e r a n c e s
t of a b r i c a t e ,t h em o d e l s ,t h e r ea p p e a r st o
and t r a i l i n g edge
be s m a l l d i f f e r e n c e s i n t a i l
Thisprecludedusefulmodel-to-modelcompari-
moment.
t o be o v e r l y
and e x h i b i t e d i n s u f f i c i e n t
model s i m i l a r i t yf o ra c c u r a t es t u d i e so fw a l li n t e r f e r e n c e .
Thus, t h e
objectivesofthesetests
were notachieved.
Based o n e x p e r i e n c e w i t h t h e
models, t h e f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a
AEDC s i m p l i f i e d a i r c r a f t
haveevolved
f o r amodel
modeland
t h e ONERA
tostudytransonicwall-
interferenceproblems.*
1.
a s m a l lc y l i n d r i c a lc e n t e r b o d yw i t h
an o g i v e nose ( t h e c e n t e r b o d y musthouse
a passage f o r s u r f a c e p r e s s u r e
2.
Surfacepressures
a forcebalance
and p r o v i d e
1 ines).
on thecenterbodyshouldbeselected
and c a l i b r a t e d
3.
The wingshouldhave
an NACA 0012 a i r f o i l , z e r o t a p e r ,
a l i g n e dw i t ht h ec e n t e r b o d ya x i s .
A v a r i a b l e sweep f e a t u r ew o u l d
desirableinordertostudytheeffectof
*Binion,
~~
~~~
178
T. W.,
Jr.,
personalcommunication,
be
l i f t o na x i a 1 , i n t e r f e r e n c e
gradients.
~
and should be
model is required.
models, e.g.,
179
1II.H.
1.
References
1958.
. .
2.
3.
Curry, W.
H . , ed.:
1969.
Association,''SandiaLaboratories,Sept.
4.
H i l l s , R.,
ed.:
Supersoni c Tunnel
"A.Review o f Measurements
on
5.
Goethert, B. H.:
6.
Weeks, T. M.:
Transonic Wind
Tunne.1
"Reduction o f TransonicSlottedWallInterference
o fS l a tC o n t o u r i n g , "
7.
AFFDL-TR-74-139,
Binion, T. W . ,
Jr.:
9.
V i d a l , R.
J.;
a' ParoisAuto-Adaptables,"
March 1976.
i n a VariablePorosityTransonic
Erickson, J. C.,
a S e l f - C o r r e c t i n g Wind Tunnel,''
Three-DimensionalWall
Wind Tunnel
Jr.;
by Means
March 1975.
J. P. : "SoufflerieTranssonique
C h e v a l li e r ,
Wind TunnelDesign
8.
,'I
Interference
Oct. 1974.
AEDC-TR-74-74,
and C a t l i n , P. A.:
Wind TunnelDesign
"Experiments w i t h
and TestingTechniques,
Pindzola,
sonicWorkingSections,"
theDesign
11.
Davis,J.
A F u r t h e r Review o f C u r r e n t
"Design o f Tran-
Research Aimed a t
and
Graham,
R. F.:
f o r 20 Cone-Cylinders,"
"Wind-TunnelWall
A l A A Jour.Spacecraft
1975
Sept.
I n t e r f e r e n c eE f f e c t s
5 Rockets, Oct.
1973
12.
Davis, J. W.:
Marchall Space F l i g h tC e n t e r ,H u n t s v i l l e ,A l a . ,p r e s e n t e da t3 9 t h
Annual STA Meeting, Mar.
13.
Treon, S.
L.;
Steinle,
180
Semi-
1973 ( r e f e r e n c e dw i t ha u t h o r ' sp e r m i s s i o n ) .
F. W.; H o f s t e t t e r ,
W.
"Data C o r r e l a t i o n f r o m I n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f
aHigh-Subsonic
A i r c r a f t Model i n ThreeMajorTransonic
Wind Tunnels,"
69-794, J u l y 1969.
NASA
Speed Transport
A l A A Paper No.
15.
Transonic Wind Tunnel Data," AlAA Paper No. 72-1009, Sept. 1972.
W.:
17.
19. Binion, T.
Jr.:
"Tests o f the ONERA Calibration Models in Three
Transonic Wind Tunnels," AEDC-TR-76-133, Novo 1976W.,
181
111.1.
111.1.1.
OPTICAL METHODS
Supersonic
Tunnels
i n a n empty t e s t - s e c t i o n i s w e l l
may be designated a c l a s s i c a lt e c h n i q u e
i nt h e
*.
1 ) and, i n f a c t ,
known (Ref.
Obviously,theobservanceof
e m p t y - t u n n e li n d i c a t e sc o r r e c t i v ea c t i o ni sn e c e s s a r y .
These means o f
af probesand
flowvisualizationarealsohelpfulinassessingtheperformance
rakesand
a shock
t h e i ri n t e r a c t i o nw i t hn e a r b yb o u n d a r i e s .H i g hq u a l i t yp i c t u r e sa l s o
and t h e r e b y p r o v i d e a d d i t i o n a l
datatoguideimproveddesigns.
A third,classical
interferometer.
method f o r f l o w v i s u a l i z a t i o n i s t h e
However, theseinstrumentsareseldom
c a l i b r a t i o n because o f t h e i r c o s t
Mach-Zehnder
used f o rw i n dt u n n e l
and h y p e r s e n s i t i v i t y t o v i b r a t i o n
and a l i g n -
ment e r r o r s .
D e t a i l e dd i s c u s s i o n so ft h e s e
2 thru
number ofreferences.References
i n a r a t h e rl a r g e
a r er e p r e s e n t a t i v eo fb o t ho l d e r
and newer l i t e r a t u r e w h i c h d e a l s w i t h t h e s e t h r e e
methods o f f l o w v i s u a l i z a -
tion.
111.1.2.
Transonic
Tunnels
A s p r e v i o u s l yd i s u c s s e di nS e c t i o n
ona
III.D.,
staticpressureprobeisstronglyaffected
istics.
byblockage
For example, t h es c h l i e r e np h o t o g r a p h so f
i n s t r u c t i v e as t o t h e e f f e c t s
ona
movement o f a transonicshock
probecaused
and w a l lc h a r a c t e r -
5)
Page (Ref.
a r eq u i t e
by v a r y i n gt u n n e lb l o c k a g ef r o m
0.25% t o 0.005%.
In thecase of s u p e r c r i t i c a l f l o w a b o u t
shadowgraphs o f Hsieh(Ref.
6 ) w e r ev e r yh e l p f u li nd e t e c t i n g
s e p a r a t i o n and i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e
*Most
a hemisphere-cylinderprobe,the
measuredpressure
boundarylayer
distributions.
o ft h er e s p o n d e n t st ot h eq u e s t i o n n a i r ei n d i c a t e dt h e yr o u t i n e l y
one or b o t h o f thesetechniques.
182
used
A t lowsupersonicspeeds,schlierens
andshadowgraphs
a r ev e r yu s e f u l
in studiesoftheshock-cancellationpropertiesofventilatedwalls,
Ref.
7.
Also,Dougherty,
e ta l .
photographs t o s t u d y t h e
(Ref.
e.g.,
8) h a v ev e r ye f f e c t i v e l y
used s c h l i e r e n
sound f i e l d g e n e r a t e d by p e r f o r a t e d w a l l s
when ex-
posed t oh i g h - s u b s o n i cf l o w s .
111.1.3.
Newer Methods
Newer o p t i c a l methods f o r f l o w v i s u a l i z a t i o n i n c l u d e l a s e r D o p p l e r
v e l o c i m e t e r s (LDV)
( H I ) f o rd e n s i t y
, h o l o g r a p h i cv e l o c i m e t e r s
measurements.
(HV)
, and
The primaryadvantage
h o l o g r a p h i ci n t e r f e r o m e t r y
o f LDV'sandHV's
istheir
flow.
p o t e n t i a l t o m e a s u r et h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a lf l o wf i e l d sw i t h o u td i s t u r b i n gt h e
As
we
have seen, t h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t i n t r a n s o n i c t u n n e l s
near Mach
one.
The c u r r e n t s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t o f
LDV'sand
reviewed i n Appendix I I .
c a l i b r a t i o ni s
tems i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.4
theirapplicationtotunnel
Sincetheaccuracyofcurrent
LDV s y s -
0.5%, t h e ya r en o ty e ts u p e r i o rt oc o n v e n t i o n a l
probeswhichprovidecomparableaccuraciesof
0.1%.
The fundamentals o f h o l o g r a p h i c v e l o c i m e t r y a r e r e v i e w e d b y S h o f n e r , e t a l .
9).
(Ref.
A verycomprehensivereview
t e s t i n g hasbeen
compiledby
mating H I d a t ar e d u c t i o n
this is still
ofthe
i s reportedby
Progress(up
Hannah and
Havener
t o 1975) i na u t o (Ref.11).Since
a developingtechnology,applicationsofholographytoempty-tunnel
c a l i b r a t i o n appears t o be i n t h e f u t u r e .
12) have r e c e n t l yd e m o n s t r a t e dt h eu s e f u l n e s so f
SparksandEzekiel(Ref.
LaserStreakVelocimetry
f i e l d s nearmodels.Thistechnique
v e l o c i t i e s on a planeas
LDV's.
has theadvantage
o fp r o v i d i n g ,s i m u l t a n e o u s l y ,
opposed t o t h e p o i n t - b y - p o i n t
measurements r e q u i r e d w i t h
However, theaccuracy
c a l i b r a t i o n s .F i n a l l y ,
certechniques
o f LSV's i sc u r r e n t l yi n s u f f i c i e n tf o re m p t y - t u n n e l
Sedney, e ta l .
(Ref.
13) have g i v e n a r e v i e wo ff l o wt r a -
and t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n s i n s u p e r s o n i c - f l o w f i e l d d i a g n o s t i c s .
183
111.1.
1.
pope,A.and
2.
Ladenburg,
Goin, K. L.:
R.
W.;
Lewis,
References
B.;
3.
Press,
1954.
Vasil'er,
A.
L.:
Merzkirch, \J.:
5.
Page, W. A.:
NACA TN 4233,Apr
i 1 1958.
8.
Dougherty, N. S . ,
Jr.;
F.;
Anderson, C.
Menzel, R . ;
"A UsersGuild
and Havener, A.
I n t e r f e r o m e t r y , "I n t ' l
Faci 1 i ties,
12.
Sparks, G.
I EEE Pub.
W.,
13.
Sedney, R.;
AEDC-TR-75-88,
Aug.
From
"Fundamentals o f Holographic
f o r Wind Tunnel
1975.
" A p p l i c a t i o n so f
G.:
Automated Holographic
Congress on I n s t r u m e n t a t i o ni n
AerospaceSimulation
i n Gases,"
Kitchens, C. W . ,
"LaserStreakVelocimeterfor
A l A A Jour.,Vol.
Jr.;
USA B a l l i s t i c ResearchLaboratories,
Two-
184
"An
1975.
on PulseLaserHolography
J r . and E z e k i e l , S . :
DimensionalFlows
Jr.:
Nov. 1968.
ARL TR 75-0213,June
W.
L.,
to SuppressEdgetones
and R u s s e l l , T. G.:
AFFDL-TR-68-140,
G.:
Pergamon, 1961.
and Parker, R.
E x p e r i m e n t a lI n v e s t i g a t i o no fT e c h n i q u e s
Hannah, B.
AlAA
11.
Mm = 0.7
1.0,"
i n TransonicFlow,
Goethert, B. H.:
Testing,"
1971.
o f theEquivalenceofTransonicFlow
7.
10.
Baruch, I s r a e l Program
o f C i r c u l a r and E l l i p t i c CrossSection,''
"Hemisphere-Cylinder
Jour.,Oct.
9.
A.
Hsieh, T.:
(editors):
AboutSlenderCone-Cylinders
6.
S.
Combustion, P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y
S c h l i e r e n Methods, Transl.by
forScientificTranslations,
4.
and T a y l o r , H.
Pease, R. N.;
1965.
Feb. 1975.
BRL R-1763,
1II.J.
Humidity Measurements
Il.C.7.
air drying
Measurement and m o n i t o r i n g o f t h e
1s t h e r e f o r e an e s s e n t i a l pa r t o f t u n n e l
m o i s t u r ec o n t e n to ft h et u n n e lf l o w
c a l i b r a t i o n and operation.
The m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t o f
humidity(ratioofmoisturepartialpressuretosaturationpressure),
dew
p o i n t (or f r o s tp o i n t )t e m p e r a t u r ea ta t m o s p h e r i cp r e s s u r e ,s p e c i f i ch u m i d i t y
(MSS
o f water per
mass o f d r y g a s ) ,
permillionpartsofair).
and volume r a t i o ( p a r t s o f w a t e r
vapor
The dew p o i n to ri c e - p o i n ta ta t m o s p h e r i cp r e s s u r e
o fe x p r e s s i o nf o rw i n dt u n n e lo p e r a t i o n s .
t o completelyautomatic,continuouslyrecording
dew p o i n t system5 .
bas i c
p r i n c i p l e s used.
One o f t h e
more basicnon-continuous
operatesontheprincipleofallowing
a t known pressure and temperature,
theexpansionreducesthesampletemperature
tures,fogiscreatedwhich
may beobserved
t o or belowthe
visuallythrough
A t r i a l and e r r o r p r o c e d u r e i s r e q u i r e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i n i t i a l
surewhich
will expand t o c r e a t e a j u s t - v i s i b l e f o g - S i n c e
1).
If
dew p o i n t canbe
These i n s t r u m e n t sa r el o wi n
185
o f l e s sb a s i ci n s t r u m e n t s .
and for m o n i t o r i n gt h ea c c u r a c y
They p r o v i d e o n l y
for f a c i l i t i e s
A 1 1 readings must
-4OC a r e d i f f i c u l t t o make.
be manuallyrecorded.Heasurementsbelowabout
C o n t i n u o u si n d i c a t i n g
typewhich
and r e c o r d i n gh u m i d i t ys e n s o r si n c l u d et h eD u n m r e
changes r e s i s t a n c e i n a n o n - l i n e a r f a s h i o n w i t h r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y .
A modifiedformrespdndsto
range,
2).
dew po'int(Ref.'
so t h a ts e v e r a la r er e q u i r e d
i f thehumidltyrange
i s large.
C.
An e l e c t r o l y t i c h u m i d i t y s e n s o r i s a l s o a v a i l a b l e .
an element which electrolyzes water into hydrogen
e l e c t r o l y s i sc u r r e n tt o
inpartspermillion,
flow.
The range
These sensors u t i l i z e
andoxygen,causingan
The e l e c t r o l y t i ci n s t r u m e n ti su s u a l l yc a l i b r a t e d
with fullscaleranges
T h i si n s t r u m e n t ,l i k et h er e s i s t a n c ed e v i c e ,
h u m i d i t y and p r o v i d e an e l e c t r i c a l s i g n a l f o r
aslowas
canbe
0 to 100 p a r t s p e r m i l l i o n .
c o n f i g u r e dt ob o t hi n d i c a t e
an e x t e r n a lr e c o r d i n gd e v i c e .
Dew point t e m p e r a t u r e s c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d b y c o n t r o l l i n g a u t o m a t i c a l l y
film o f
thetemperatureofapolishedmetalmirrortothepointthatatrace
c o n d e n s a t i o n( o rf r o s t )i sm a i n t a i n e d .S e v e r a il n s t r u m e n t s
p r i n c i p l e have been developed.
therm-electriccoolingeffect
r e f r i g e r a t i o n If necessary).
byfeedbackcontrol
186
More r e c e n tt y p e sa r es i m p l i f i e di nt h a tt h e
i s used t o c h i l l t h e
mirror ( w i t h a u x i l i a r y
ofthemirrortemperature,utilizinganopticalsource
reflectrylightfromthecooled
bridge circuit.
based on t h i s
mirror t o a p a i r o f p h o t o - d e t e c t o r s f o r m i n g a
i s measuredby
athermocoupleor
r e s i s t a n c e - t e m p e r a t u r ed e t e c t o ra t t a c h e dd i r e c t l yt ot h em i r r o r .
pointisindicated
byameter
o ro t h e rI n d i c a t o r ,
The dew
and thetemperaturesensor
o u t p u t may a l s o berecorded,suppliedtothewindtunneldatasystem,etc.
The rangecanextend
t o aslow
as 200
OK
(-100 OF).
and c o n t r o l o f - t u n n e l
p r o v i d e Information ontheperformance
ineasurements.Theycan
also
of dryersand.othertunnelequipment.
I I I . J. References
1.
High Speed
Wind
TunnelTesTing.,
pp. 223-226,
2.
Doeblin, E. 0 . :
Measurement
Systems;
3.
Fraade,
I). J.:
"Measuring M o i s t u r ei n
188
Gases,"
IV.
Treatment o f accuracyandsources
p r i n c i p l e so fs t a t i s t i c s
sciencetends
oferrorinexperimentaldatainvolves
and p r o b a b i l i t y .U n f o r t u n a t e l y ,
t o d e v e l o ps p e c i a l i z e dt e r m i n o l o g y ,w h i c h
eachbranch
impedes understanding
An attempt will there-
f o r e be made t o d e f i n e and r e c m e n d b a s i c t e r m i n o l o g y w h i c h
advantage i n e v a l u a t i n g , d e f i n i n g
As a f i r s t s t e p , a d e f i n i t i o n
of
may be used t o
and c o m n u n i c a t i n gc a l i b r a t i o na c c u r a c y .
and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f v a r i o u s t y p e s o f e r r o r s
will be stated.
1V.A.
E r r o r s may be c l a s s i f i e d i n
Random E r r o r
two generalcategories:
Random e r r o r i s f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r r e d t o
as"scatter,""noise,"etc.,
y i e l dt h e
random and f i x e d .
by t h ee n g i n e e ri nl e s sp r e c i s et e r m s
a l li m p l y i n gt h a tr e p e a t e d
measurements do n o t
i f a s u f f i c i e n t l yl a r q e
same value.Mostprocessesaresuchthat
each v a l u e i s
measured v a l u e ,t h er e s u l t i n gp l o t( t h ep r o b a -
will a p p r o a c ht h ef a m i l i a rb e l l - s h a p e dn o r m a ld i s t r i -
b u t i o nc u r v e .I nt h i sc a s e ,t h ea r i t h m e t i c
mean v a l u e ,o r
average,
N
i=l
o c c u r sa tt h e
underthecurve
xi
N
(4.A .1)
peak o ft h ec u r v e .
i su n i t y .
o r random e r r o r , i s s p e c i f i e d
When p l o t t e di nn o r m a l i z e df o r m ,t h ea r e a
The p r e c i s i o n ,w h i c hi sa
measure o f t h e s c a t t e r
bythestandarddeviation,
(4.A.2)
a =
i=l
N-1
189
if,the distribution is
68 p e r c e n t o f t h e
w i t h i n +2
based on a s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e
measurements will l i e w i t h i n t h e
u and 99.7 p e r c e n t w i t h i n 23 u
f o r ec o r r e s p o n d st o
number o f measurements,
range +1 u
, 95.4
A wide!. f l a t d i s t r i b u t i o n t h e r e -
measurements w i t h a l a r g e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n ,
a large
amount o f s c a t t e r ,
a l a r g e random e r r o r , or a l a c k o f p r e c i s i o n , a l l o f
w h i c hr e f e rt ot h e
same c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e
isquantativelystatedin
1V.B.
A second f o r m o f
e r r o r or b i a s .T h i s
measurements.
thesecan
measurement.The
terms o f t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n
be s p e c i f i e d as 1 u
shouldalways
,2
random e r r o r
and e r r o rs t a t e m e n t s
, etc.
Fixed Error
measurement e r r o r i s r e f e r r e d t o
component o f e r r o r
a ss y s t e m a t i ce r r o r ,f i x e d
be determinedonly
percent
may n o t be known a p r i o r i s i n c e
by comparison w i t h t h e t r u e v a l u e o f t h e
measured
quantity.
ment suchas
a pressuretransducer
will i n t r o d u c e a f i x e d b i a s o f
Upon d e t e c t i o n ,t h i sb i a s
r e c a l i b r a t i o n .S i n c e
t h e i rm i n i m i z a t i o n
or f i x e de r r o r
can beremoved
t i o n s o f i n s t r u m e n t sp r i o rt o
and d u r i n g t e s t s ,
a basicinstrument
f l o wc a l i b r a t i o n .
unknown magniby
unknown f i x e de r r o r sa r en o tc o r r e c t a b l e ,u n l e s sd e t e c t e d ,
p r e - a n dp o s t - t e s tc a l i b r a t i o n s
be a p p l i e d t o
an i n s t r u -
suchas
The o b j e c t i v es h o u l d
n place,
(2) r o u t i n e
(3) end-to-end c a l i b r a -
etcT
. his
same philosophycan
a pres S u r e t r a n s d u c e r
or t o t h e t u n n e l -
be t oe l i m i n a t ea l ll a r g e ,
unknown
f i x e de r r o r s .
Some t y p e s o f
c a l ib r a t i o n .
v a l u ei s
An example m i g h t be t h e d r a g o f
known.
a standardmodel,where
F a c i l i t y - t o - f a c i l i t y comparisonsallowonly
by
no " t r u e "
an e s t i m a t eo ft h e
may b e p o s s i b l e o n l y t o t h e
extentthatthecomparisontestsallowdeterminationof
cause(orcauses)ofthebias(or
The f i x e d e r r o r
a p o r t i o nt h e r e o f ) .
limit, whichnormallymust
limit o n t h e f i x e d e r r o r o r b i a s ,
i.e.,
i t may be 0,
and c o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e
o r 0,
be e s t i m a t e d ,i st h eu p p e r
rather than
1V.C.
+.
Uncertainty
The t o t a l u n c e r t a i n t y i n t e r v a l f o r
ameasurement
r e p r e s e n t st h el a r g e s t ,
r e a s o n a b l y - e x p e c t e de r r o r( i . e . ,t h et r u ev a l u es h o u l df a l li nt h eu n c e r t a i n t y
i n t e r v a l ) and i s a combination o ft h ep r e c i s i o n( s t a n d a r dd e v i a t i o n )
and t h e
estimatedbias.
(Ref.
1) and recornendedbythe
N a t i o n a l Bureau o f Standardsexpressestheuncertaintyastherangecentered
aboutthe
(4.C.l)
U p + (B+tg5u)
Where U i st h eu n c e r t a i n t y ,
B t h eb i a s
"t" d i s t r i b u t i o n .
9 5 t hp e r c e n t i l ep o i n tf o rt h eS t u d e n t
depends onthe
number o fv a l u e s
measurements theStudent
tion.
The use o ft h e
1 imit, and t
or f i x e de r r o r
The v a l u eo f
f a c t o ri n c r e a s e st h eu n c e r t a i n t y
more a c c u r a t e l y ,t oe s t i m a t e )
e ta l .
2.0 be used f o r t
recommended t h a t a v a l u eo f
2 ) c o n t a i nt a b l e so fS t u d e n t ' s
t g 5 can be o b t a i n e df o rl e s st h a n
normal d i s t r i b u -
samples a r e used t oc a l c u l a t e( o r ,
t e x t s (e.g.,
i st h e
t d i s t r i b u t i o ni si d e n t i c a lt ot h e
95
95
30 samples.
95
Abernathy,
f o r 3 1 o r moresamples
( 1 ) and most s t a t i s t i c s
t d i s t r i b u t i o n sf r o mw h i c h
S t a t i s t i c a l methods employing
methods f o r o b v i o u s
191
r e a s o n s .A l t h o u g ht h i s
othererror
example I ss i m p l i f i e d ,
it canbeextended
t oI n c l u d e
terms.
An a d d i t i o n a l p r o b l e m i n a c c u r a t e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f
not discussedabove,
isthatthe
measurement e r r o r ,
measured p r o p e r t i e s n o r m a l l y
a m p l i t u d ev a r i a t i o n sw i t ht i m e .I na d d i t i o nt oo b t a i n i n g
have small-
a statistically
component o f tunnelunsteadiness,as
1V.D.
In essentially all
3).
E r r oPr r o p o g a t i o n
cases, c a l i b r a t i o np a r a m e t e r sa r ed e t e r m i n e df r o m
b a s i cp r o p e r t i e sw h i c ha r e
q u a n t i t i e s and thedesiredparameter.
t i o n o f Machnumber
one com-
An obviousexamplewould
i nt h et e s ts e c t i o nf r o m
measured
be thedeterminaRandom error
measured pressures.
s o u r c e sw o u l di n c l u d et h ep r e c i s i o n( s t a n d a r dd e v i a t i o n s )o ft h ep r e s s u r e
measurements.
S t a t i cp r e s s u r ep r o b eu n c e r t a i n t yl i m i t s
a f i x e db i a si nt h e
may be estimated as
absence o f a c a l i b r a t i o n .A n o t h e rf i x e db i a sc o u l d
in y
t h ee s t i m a t e du n c e r t a i n t y
be
(4.D.1)
where t h ev a r i a t i o n si n
and
P a r et a k e nt o
be u n c o r r e l a t e d .
The f i x e d
(4.D .2)
192
and Bp a r et h ee s t f m a t e du n c e r t a i n t y
1 i m i t sf o rt h er a t i o
Y
s p e c i f i c h e a t s and f o r t h e s t a t i c p r o b e e r r o r , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
where
Eq. (4.C.1)
a s p e c i f i c( p o i n t )
of
t od e t e r m i n et h e
(4.D.3).
The u n c e r t a i n t y i n t e r v a l
o f an i n d i v i d u a lp r o p e r t y
,
a pressure,canalso
measurement, suchas
be estimated as above;where
i n d i v i d u a le r r o rs o u r c e ss u c h
as t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n
o f t h et r a n s d u c e r ,t h ee x c i t a t i o n
i n s t r u m e n t a t i o na m p l i f i e r
and t h e a n a l o g - t o - d i g i t a l c o n v e r t e r a r e a l l t a k e n
power supply,the
i n t o account.Normally,however,thecalibrationisperformedend-to-end
u t i l i z i n g a l l components so t h a t a l l o f t h e above f a c t o r s a r e t a k e n i n t o
accountand
a t t r i b u t e dt ot h ep r e s s u r et r a n s d u c e r .
193
IV.
1.
Abernathy, R.
B.,
e ta l
Ref erences
2.
Inc.,
H u h l s t e i n , L. Jr.,
AccurateStatic
Paper 75-142,
194
"Handbook;
February
I n t r o d u c t i o nt oH a t h e m a t i c a lS t a t i s t i c s ,
3.
Jr.:
Uncertainty
and Coe, C.
F.:
" I n t e g r a t i o n TimeRequired
tG
1975.
Extract
AlAA
V.
V.A.
Summary o fS t a t e - o f - t h e - A r to fT r a n s o n i c
Supersonic Wind Tunnel C a l i b r a t i o n
Reference hasbeen
and
made t h r o u g h o u t t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n s o f t h i s r e p o r t
toinformation,obtained
from t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s u r v e y , l i t e r a t u r e s e a r c h
A condensat.ion o f t h i si n f o r m a t i o n
personalcontacts.
where a p p r o p r i a t e .P r i m a r i l y ,i n f o r m a t i o n
has
been
hasbeensummarized
focusedontheprimaryproblemswhichwereconsideredto
s t a g n a t i o n and s t a t i c p r e s s u r e
t h eb e s t ,c u r r e n t ,
d e v i a t i o n )r a n g e s
f o rb o t h
of
A concluding
for convenience.
evaluationofdatareportedinthequestionnaires,
continuoustunnels.
t e s t - s e c t i o n w a l l pressure.
b o t hr e q u i r e
i n anattempt
A t t e n t i o n has been
pressure-measurementaccuracy(onthebasisofstandard
blowdownand
plenumchamber
presented
bemeasurements
sumnary o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s u l t s i s p r e s e n t e d h e r e
Based onajudgment
and,
as many transonictunnelsuse
a r e f e r e n c et om o n i t o r
However, b o t ht y p e so f
to
a calibration(s)torelatetheassociateddatatostaticpressure
measurements a l o n g t h e c e n t e r l i n e .
The most p o p u l a r s t a t i c - p r e s s u r e - p r o b e i s
or more c y l i n d e r d i a m e t e r s
t o bea
downstream o f t h e s h o u l d e r .
t r a d e - o f f between t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s t o m i n i m i z e
and, simultaneously,
be e a s i l y f a b r i c a t e d
r e p e a t e d l y i n a windtunnelenvironment.Although
subsonic speedsashockforms
on t h e c y l i n d e r
staticpressurerequiresorifices
lower,shock-attachment
and durable
athigh
a t severalstations,only
d e s i g n ss u b m i t t e dw i t ht h eq u e s t i o n n a i r e s
cone not o n l y hasa
a 10 deg c o n e - c y l i n d e r w i t h
have t h i sf e a t u r e .
afew
o f theprobe
A smaller-angle
Mach number b u t i t a l s o g e n e r a t e s
195
weaker t r a n s o n i c s h o c k o n t h e c y l i n d e r
streamconditions.
and t h u s s m a l l e r d e v i a t i o n s f r o m f r e e -
O f t h ev a r i o u ss t a t i cp r o b ed e s i g n sd e s c r i b e di nr e s p o n s e
tothequestionnaire,
a two-degree
( t o t a l - i n c l u d e da n g l e )c o n e
was t h e s m a l l e s t .
is t h e
An a d d i t i o n a l s o u r c e o f e r r o r i n c a l i b r a t i n g t r a n s o n i c t u n n e l s
n e g l e c to fv a r i a t i o n st r a n s v e r s et ot h ef l o w .A l m o s tw i t h o u te x c e p t i o n ,i n
caseswheremeasurements
Mach number g r a d i e n t so c c u ra c r o s st h ef l o wt h a na l o n gt h et u n n e lc e n t e r l i n e .
T h i s may be most s i g n i f i c a n t . i . n t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f d r a g d i v e r g e n c e a n d / o r
b u f f e to n s e tf o rt r a n s o n i ca i r c r a f t
a r t o f wind'-tunneltesting
models.
However, t h ep r e s e n ts t a t e - o f - t h e -
i s t o use o f f - c e n t e r l i n e d a t a e x c l u s i v e l y a s
a diag-
n o s t i ct o o lt od e t e c tu n a c c e p t a b l yl a r g ev a r i a t i o n s .I nw h i c hc a s en o z z l ea n d / o r
test section configurations are altered.
Themost
p o p u l a rf l o w - a n g u l a r i t y - p r o b e sa p p e a rt o
simultaneousmeasurements
o f p i t c h and yaw.Wedges
be t h e 30-deg-cone f o r
o fv a r i o u sa n g l e sa r eo f t e n
I t a p p e a r sf e a s i b l et od e s i g np r o b e so ft h i s
The quotedaccuracy
for f l o w a n g l e measurements
A spatialvariation
o f +1/4
deg was f r e q u e n t l y
mentioned.
Quoted stagnat ion-temperature accuracy usual
The m a j o r i t y o f r e p o r t i n g f a c i l i t i e s
Inordertoachieve
a Machnumber
l y ranged from 1 t o 2
OC.
do n o t c o n t i n u o u s l y m o n i t o r h u m i d i t y .
accuracyof
0.001,
h u m i d i t y must be monitored
continuously.
Nearly 50% o f t h e t u n n e l s
s t i l l i n g chamber, t h et e ss e c t i o na n d / o rt h e
either miniature strain
t o measure thenoisedata.
plenum chamber.
I n mostcases,
have beenemployed
to
measure f r e e s t r e a m d i s t u r b a n c e s i n t r a n s o n i c a n d / o r s u p e r s o n l c w i n d t u n n e l s .
1.
High-frequency-responsepressuretransducers
the tip of
mounted near
cones t o measure f l u c t u a t i n g s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s
beneath a laminarboundarylayer.
I I
II
2.
Pressuretransducers
mounted on wedges w i t h t h e
surfacealignedwiththe
3.
Pressuretransducers
measurement
flow.
of
mounted o nt h ec y l i n d r i c a lp o r t i o n
ogive-cylinders.
4.
Pressuretransducers
5.
mounted i n P i t o t
probes t o measure
f l u c t u a t i o n si nP i t o tp r e s s u r e .
Approximately 25% o f t h e t u n n e l s r e p o r t e d h a v i n g
film measurements o ft u r b u l e n c e .
However, i n t h e m a j o r i t y o f
l i m i t e d c e n t e r l i n e and/or w a l l boundarylayer
Only afew'
t u n n e l sr e p o r t e d
made h o t - w i r e o r h o t -
measurements o f f l u c t u a t i n g P i t o t p r e s s u r e .
The m a j o r i t y o f t h e t u n n e l s r e p o r t e d t h a t S c h l i e r e n
v a l u ei nd e t e c t i n g
withhigh
cases o n l yv e r y
systemswere
unwanted d i s t u r b a n c e si nt h et e s ts e c t i o n .
of
When combined
on f l o wu n s t e a d i -
ness.
Most o f t h e r e s p o n d i n g f a c i l i t i e s
models d u r i n gc a l i b r a t i o n .
usuallyonlyqualitative
However, comparisons w i t hr e f e r e n c ed a t aa r e
and a r e o f l i m i t e d
use i n p i n p o i n t i n g u n d e s i r a b l e f l o w
characteristics.
The w e l l known r u l e o f
thumb t h a t t h e
model c r o s ss e c t i o ns h o u l dn o t
exceed 1% o ft h et u n n e la r e af o rt r a n s o n i ct e s t i n ga p p e a r st o
accepted.
A consequence o f t h i s c r i t e r i o n i s t h a t v e r y
be u n i v e r s a l l y
fewtunneloperators
a t t e m p tt oc o r r e c tf o rw a l li n t e r f e r e n c e .T h i sa l s or e f l e c t st h el a c ko f
an
a c c e p t e dt h e o r yf o rc o r r e c t i n gf o rt r a n s o n i cw a l li n t e r f e r e n c e .
F i n a l l y ,t h e
tunnelshould
consensusonfrequency
o f w i n dt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o ni st h a t
be r e c a l i b r a t e d o r a t l e a s t s p o t
checkedwhenever:
1.
t u n n ecl o n f i g u r a t i o n
2.
s i g n i f i c a n ti n s t r u m e n t a t i o nm o d i f i c a t i o n sa r e
3.
erroneousdata
4.
i nt h e
changes
occur,
made,
i s b e i n go b t a i n e d ,o r
absence o f any o f t h e
S t a t i c - p r e s s u r eo r i f i c e ss h o u l da l s o
above,onceeachyear.
be i n s p e c t e db e f o r er e c a l i b r a t i n g .
197
TRANSONIC
V.B.
0.75
. - < M < 1.0.
o f +O.OOl,
Foran
"
particularlyinthetransonicdragriseregime:
airtest
medium, t h i s r e q u i r e s t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n s t r a i n t
i n t o t a l and s t a t i c p r e s s u r e measurements.
o nt o t a le r r o r s
"
AH
"
AP < L
P -
23
5 + M
i n Reynolds number ( S e c t i o n 1 1 . 8 . 2 ) or h u m i d i t yl e v e l( S e c t i o n
However,changes
Il.C.7)
v a r i a t i o n ss e v e r a lt i m e sl a r g e rt h a n
For t h i s reason,considerablecareshould
o v e rt h ee n t i r er a n g eo f
h u m i d i t yl e v e l s ,
h u m i d i t yl e v e l sn o r m a l l ye n c o u n t e r e d
f o r t y p i c a l ,o p e r a t i n g
a c o n t i n u o u sm o n i t o r i n go fh u m i d i t yi sp r e f e r r e d ,
( i.e.
c o r r e c t i v ea c t i o n ,
, AHS/HS
e.g.,
e.g.,a
strip
of
I na d d i t i o n ,e x c e s s i v es p a t i a lv a r i a t i o n s
> 0.001) a c r o s s t h e s t i
a d d i t i o n a sl c r e e n s ,
1 1 i n g chamber may r e q u i r e
honeycombs, e t c .F i n a l l y ,t h e
assumption o f an i s e n t r o p i c e x p a n s i o n f r o m t h e s t i l l i n g
sectionshouldbeevaluated
0.001.
to c a l i b r a t ea ne m p t y - t u n n e l
Once t h et u n n e li sc a l i b r a t e d
subsequentreference.
total pressure
betaken
Reynolds numberand
d u r i n gr o u t i n eo p e r a t i o n s .
r e c o r d e rf o r
to
c a l i b r a t i o n s i n t r a n s o n i ct u n n e l ss h o u l db e
TUNNELS
chamber t o t h e t e s t
by d i r e c t measurements i n t h e t e s t s e c t i o n , b o t h
on
and o f f - c e n t e r 1 i n e .
The long,static-pressure,surveypipe
f o ro b t a i n i n gc e n t e r l i n e
measurements.
i sw e l le s t a b l i s h e d
B e s tr e s u l t sa r ea c h i e v e dw i t ht h e
o ft h ep i p el o c a t e dw e l lu p s t r e a mi nt h es e t t l i n g
o r d e rt op r e v e n t
chamber; t h i s i s
nose
necessary i n
passage o f a t r a n s o n i c s h o c ko v e rt h el e n g t ho ft h ep i p e .I n
a l l c a s e s ,t h er e s u l t i n gd a t as h o u l d
errors.
as thestandard
Once t h ec e n t e r l i n ed a t a
be c a r e f u l l y i n s p e c t e d f o r o r i f i c e - i n d u c e d
i'sdetermined
t o befreeoforificeerrors
( S e c t i o nI I I . D . l . ) ,s t a n d a r dp r o c e d u r ei st ou s et h es t a t i cp r e s s u r ed a t at o
c a l i b r a t ee i t h e r
plenum chamber p r e s s u r e or w a l ls t a t i ct a p s .
speeds and ( 2 ) r a p i d l y v a r y i n g
c o n d i t i o n s suchasoccurduringrapid
198
1 it y o f d e p a r t u r e s fromempty-
l i f t i n g models a th i g h - s u b s o n i c
statictapsare
I f plenumpres-
used f o r Machnumber
l a r g e (> 1%)
Machnumber
changes i n model o r i e n t a t i o n .
control,atleast
oneshould
If wall
be l o c a t e d on
each w a l l , ahead o ft h e
t h i s average i s p r e f e r a b l e t o u s i n g o n l y
Since a l o n g p i p e i s d i f f i c u l t t o
a singlewallstaticpressure.
move a b o u t t h e t e s t s e c t i o n
i t is recommended
c e n t e r l i n ed a t ai si m p o r t a n tf o ra i r c r a f t - m o d e lt e s t i n g ,
t h a ts u p p l e m e n t a r y ,o f f - c e n t e r l i n ed a t a
be o b t a i n e d w i t h a c o n v e n t i o n a l s t a t i c
pressure probe
or r a k e o f suchprobes,
Sincethewing
span o f m o s t t r a n s o n i c a i r c r a f t
when
c e n t ,o rl e s s ,o ft h et u n n e lw i d t h ,b o t h
s h o u l db eo b t a i n e do v e rt h i s
Off-centerline
o fe r r o r s
M is
not near
I I I .D. 2 ) .
one (Sec.
60 per-
models i s r e s t r i c t e d t o
span i n t h e v e r t i c a l
and h o r i z o n t a lp l a n e s .
measurements o f f l o w a n g u l a r i t y a r e s e n s i t i v e i n d i c a t o r s
causedby
n o z z l ec o n t o u r ,w a l ls e t t i n g s ,s e a l e a k s ,e t c .
a c c u r a t e measurements o f f l o w a n g u l a r i t y
timewith
and o f f -
a p r o b ec o n s i s t i n go f
The most
can be o b t a i n e d i n t h e l e a s t
two,orthogonal,symmetricalwings
amount o f
and a f o r c e
measurinq Machnumber
and f l o w a n g u l a r i t y o f f - c e n t e r l i n e ,
be taken a tr e p r e s e n t a t i v ef o r w a r d ,c e n t e r ,
t h eu s e a b l et e s ts e c t i o n .
and a f t s t a t i o n s i n
I t i s suggested t h a tt h er e s u l t i n gd a t a ,a t
g i v e ns t a t i o n ,
be expressed i n terms o fs t a n d a r dd e v i a t i o nf r o mt h e
t h ec e n t e r l i n e
measurements.
informationonflowquality
sity,wallangleor
T h i st y p eo fd a t a
a
mean o f
amount o f plenumevacuation.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , no g e n e r a l c o n s t r a i n t s e x i s t
o f f - c e n t e r l i n ev a r i a t i o n s .
as t o what a r ea c c e p t a b l e
Jackson ( A E D C ) has s u g g e s t e dt h ef o l l o w i n gc r i t e r i a
f o r ''good" un i f o r m i t y i n c e n t e r 1 i n e Machnumber :
2 aM 5 0.005
2
Inthepast,
UM
for M < 1
2 0 . 0 1 for M > 1
a criterionforacceptableflowangularityalongthecenterline
has n o t beenneeded
because a g i v e n model i s u s u a l l y r u n u p r i g h t
i no r d e rt oe s t a b l i s ht h ee f f e c t i v ea n g l eo fi n c i d e n c e .T h i si s
*Acceptableaccuracycanalso
pressureprobes,seeSection
and i n v e r t e d
a v a l i d and
be o b t a i n e d w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l , d i f f e r e n t i a l 1II.E.
199
w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e dt e s t i n gp r a c t i c e ;
i n t h e yaw p l a n e
however, f l o w a n g u l a r i t y
To summarize, standard c r i t e r i a f o r f l o w u n i f o r m i t y
i sf r e q u e n t l yi g n o r e d .
need t o be developed f o r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e( p r e f e r a b l ys t a n d a r d )m o d e l s
o f t e s t s , =.g.,
v a r i o u sk i n d s
f o r c e ,b u f f e t ,f l u t t e r ,e t c .
Unsteadydisturbance
Recentuse
u n s t e a d y - f l o wc a l i b r a t i o ni na tl e a s t
be a
o fh o t - w i r e si nt h et e s t
NASA Ames i n d i c a t e st h e s e
s e c t i o n o f a t r a n s o n i ct u n n e la t
some t u n n e l s .
may be u s e f u l f o r
However, asdynamicpres-
sureincreaseshot-wires
be i m p r a c t i c a l f o r u s e i n t h e
chamber).
new high-Reynolds-number
f a c i 1ities(except
Based on e x t e n s i v ee x p e r i e n c ew i t ht h e
cone i n twenty-onemajorwindtunnels
t h i sd e v i c e
and flow
measurements i n t r a n s o n i c t u n n e l s s h o u l d
o f t u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n .
t h es e t t l i n g
Machnumber
on and o f f - c e n t e r l i n e .
angularity,both
s t a n d a r dp a r t
These c r i t e r i a
for a c c e p t a b l e v a r i a t i o n s i n
shouldincludestandards
in
oftheUnitedStates
AEDC t r a n s i t i o n
andWesternEurope,
c u r r e n t l yc o n s i d e r e dt o
modeland
a d e f i n i t e need f o r a lessexpensiveinstrumentwhich
e a s i l yr e p r o d u c e d
and used i n a l l s i z e s o f f a c i l i t i e s .
a t i n gP i t o tp r o b e sa p p e a r st o
manent m o n i t o ro ft u n n e ln o i s e .
m a t e l y 0.025 cm (0.01
A w a l lt r a n s d u c e r ( s )c a nt h e n
of
T h i st y p e
i n . )b e l o wt h ep l a n eo ft h et u n n e l
a frequencyresponseoutto
A l t h o u g ht h e r ea r e
steadiness, Mabey (RAE)
beusedas
The w a l lt r a n s d u c e r ( s )s h o u l d
30 kHz.
a per-
bemounted
approxi-
w a l l and, p r e f e r a b l y ,
By u s i n g two o r more w a l l o f disturbancescan
f r e ef l u t t e r
The development o f f l u c t u -
meet t h i s need ( S e c t i o n I 1 I . F ) .
mounted t r a n s d u c e r s , t h e d i r e c t i o n o f p r o p a g a t i o n
t a ined
canbe
dynamic pressuretransducers.
shouldhave
is
be t h eb e s ta v a i l a b l ed i s t u r b a n c ec a l i b r a t i o ni n s t r u m e n t
However, t h e r e i s
instrumentcan
in
be a s c e r -
no g e n e r a l c r i t e r i a f o r a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l s o f f l o w
un-
and b u f f e tt e s t s( S e c t i o n
I I1.F.).
The g o a lo ft r a n s o n i ct u n n e l ,
n o i s e - r e d u c t i o nr e s e a r c hi st or e d u c eu n s t e a d i n e s st ol e v e l sc h a r a c t e r i s t i c
t u r b u l e n t boundarylayersonsolidwalls,i.e.,
of
< 0.005.
P
An accepted measure o f w a v e - c a n c e l l a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f v e n t i l a t e d
wallsistoobtainpressuredistributiondata
p a r et h er e s u l t sw i t hw a l l - i n t e r f e r e n c e - f r e ed a t a .
200
AC
t r a d i t i o n a la s s u m p t i o n
w a l l si s
erroneous.
o f a l i n e a r boundary c o n d i t i o n a t v e n t i l a t e d , t r a n s o n i c
o f p a s ta t t e m p t s
Thus, t h i se x p l a i n st h ef a i l u r e
r e t i c a l l yc a l c u l a t et h ee f f e c t s
ments o f t e s t - s e c t i o n - w a l l
o f w a l li n t e r f e r e n c e
on madel t e s t i n g .
of ventilated walls
on t r a n s o n i cw a l li n t e r -
and t h e i rc r o s s - f l o wc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .C u r r e n tr e s e a r c h
( I ) t h e d e r i v a t i o n o f more exactboundary
f e r e n c ei sf o c u s i n go nt h r e ea r e a s :
conditions,
(2) t h e development o f a s e l f - c o r r e c t i n g w i n d t u n n e l w l t h a u t o m a t i c
c o n t r o l of l o n g i t u d i n a l l yv a r y i n gv e n t i l a t i o n ,
to attain wall-interference-free
(3) v a r y i n gw a l lc o n t o u r s
usedas
The ONERA t r a n s p o r t a i r c r a f t
i n two-dimensionaltests.
oftransonictunnels
t o f l o wq u a l i t y .
and
f l o w aboutmodels.
Measure-
and w i t h o u t models i n s i t u ,
b o u n d a r yl a y e r s ,b o t hw i t h
made i n e f f o r t s t o g a i n a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g
a r eb e i n g
t o theo-
a standardpressure
modelshave
model
been t e s t e d
AGARD has n o ty e t
adopted a s t a n d a r d ,t r a n s p o r t - a i r c r a f t
model.
model ( o r
and datacomparisons
between
tunnel s.
LaserDopplerVelocimetersare
f o rw i n dt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n .
p e r t u r bt h e
flow.
addition,an
a l s oc a n
one.
The obviousadvantageofan
LDV canbeused
notonlyfor
LDV i s it does n o t
t h i s i s an importantadvantage.
measure f l o w a n g u l a r i t y and t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t i e s g r e a t e r t h a n a b o u t
1/4 t o
s o n i c speeds.
A t t h i st i m e ,t h e
tunnels.
In
mean-flow v e l o c i t y measurements b u t
115 as a c c u r a t e a s thebestconventionalprobesathighsubsonic
data.
le
an i m p o r t a n t a d d i t i o n t o t h e t o o l s a v a i l a b
LDV i sn o tb e i n g
However, we a n t i c i p a t e suchuse
LDV i s expected t op r o v i d es u p e r i o r
used t o r o u t i n e l y c a l i b r a t e
empty-
i nt h ef u t u r e .
201
SUPERSONIC TUNNELS
V . C.
Mach number i n s u p e r s o n i c t u n n e l s s h o u l d
independentpressures
bymeasuring
wedge.
i nt h et e s ts e c t i o n .A c c u r a t er e s u l t s
However, f r e e s t r e a mP i t o t
Pitot data
and theassumption
andbehindthe
neartheforward,center
chamber.
Mach number a r e t y p i c a l l y l a r g e r t h a n a x i a l
Mach number and f l o w
A t l e a s tt h r e ec r o s s - s e c t i o n ss h o u l d
be surveyed
and a f t p o r t i o n s o f t h e u s e a b l e t e s t s e c t i o n . T h i s
can be o b t a i n e d m o s t e a s i l y w i t h P i t o t
and s t a t i c proberakes
a r r a y s mounted on a t r a v e r s i n gs t i n g .T h i sd a t as h o u l d
a permanent Machnumber
f o rf r e q u e n t ,r o u t i n e
probewhichshould
checks on c a l i b r a t i o n .
be used t o c a l i b r a t e
:ngeneral,
good.
a c a l i b r a t e d Mach
Industrystandards
need t o
of
o f m i s s i l e s and a i r c r a f t models.
f o r c e and p r e s s u r e t e s t s
As i n t r a n s o n i c t u n n e l s , c e n t e r l i n e n o i s e
and used t o c a l i b r a t e
or
be i n s t a l l e d i n s u p e r s o n i c t u n n e l s
bow shock o f a
and s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s a r e p r e f e r a b l e t o o n l y
it i s c o n s i d e r e d e s s e n t i a l t o c a l i b r a t e b o t h
a n g u l a r i t yo f f - c e n t e r l i n e .
type of data
can be o b t a i n e d
S i n c et r a n s v e r s eg r a d i e n t si n
variations,
be c a l i b r a t e d bymeasuringtwo
measurements shouldbeobtained
has been t e s t e d i n
e x p e n s i v en o i s ec a l i b r a t i o nd e v i c ei s
needed t os e r v e
asa
designed to measure f l u c t u a t i n g P i t o t p r e s s u r e s s h o u l d
purpose.
TraditionaP
l i t o ts u r v e y so ft u n n e l - w a l
establishthesize
A smaller and l e s s
a l a r g e number o ft u n n e l s .
and geometry o f t h e i n v i s c i d
standard.Probes
be c o n s i d e r e d f o r t h i s
1 b o u n d a r yl a y e r sn o to n l y
f lowbutalsoaidcorrelations
o f f a c i 1 it y n o i s e .
I na d d i t i o nt ok e e p i n gt h et o t a lt e m p e r a t u r eh i g h
factionofthetest
t e s t gasshould
enough t o a v o i d l i q u e -
gas, t h e e f f e c t s o f t y p i c a l l e v e l s o f w a t e r v a p o r i n t h e
be c a r e f u l l y c a l i b r a t e d .
o f watercondensation
Also, v a r i o u s o p e r a t o r s
As i s w e l l
i s a loss o f t o t a l p r e s s u r e
haveobserved
known, t h ep r i m a r ye f f e c t
anda
riseinstaticpressure.
thatpressuretestsare
more s e n s i t i v e t o
h u m i d i t yl e v e l st h a nf o r c et e s t s .
The number o f surveys o f s u p e r s o n i c f l o w f i e l d s w i t h
c i m e t e ri si n c r e a s i n g
as some e a r l i e r problemshave
202
been r e s o l v e d .I nt h ef u t u r e
of supersonictunnels.
APPENDIX I
Introduction
'
2 provides
6, 7, and 8 ) .
Applications to transonic
*This
a constantcurrent
o f c o n s t a n tc u r r e n t ,
or c o n s t a n tt e m p e r a t u r e( r e s i s t a n c e ) .I nt h ec a s e
of thewireisobtainedbyanoutputamplifier
s a t i o nf o rt h et h e r m a ll a g
whose g a i n w i t h f r e q u e n c y i s a d j u s t e d ( d u r i n g
> 150) t h e w i r e e x h i b i t s
ratios (Ud -
Inthecaseof
For l a r g ea s p e c t
compensate e l e c t r o n i c a l l y .A d j u s t m e n to ft h en o n - l i n e a r ,
eachchange
to
a square wave h e a t i n gi n p u t )
compensate f o r decay o ft h eo u t p u tw i t hi n c r e a s i n gf r e q u e n c y .
isrequiredfor
compen-
compensating a m p l i f i e r
i n mean f l o w c o n d i t i o n o r
a constanttemperature
sensor.
anemometer, a high-gainfeedback
to f l u c t u a t i o n s i n c o o l i n g
system p r o v i d e s power t o t h e w i r e i n r e s p o n s e
c a u s e db yt h ef l o ws u c ht h a tt h ew i r er e s i s t a n c e( t e m p e r a t u r e )r e m a i n se s s e n t i a l l yc o n s t a n t .
The square o ft h ev o l t a g er e q u i r e dt om a i n t a i nc o n s t a n tw i r e
r e s i s t a n c e i s a d i r e c t measure o f t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r
environment.
The constanttemperature
between thesensor
and i t s
compared
t o a c o n s t a n tc u r r e n ts y s t e mi n c l u d i n g :
1.'
thermallagnot
2.
a u t o m a t i ca d j u s t m e n tt ol a r g e
a problemsincesensortemperature
i sc o n s t a n t ,
changes i n mean f l o wc o n d i t i o n s
whichreducesaccidentalburnouts
and c o n t i n u e s d a t a a c q u i s i t i o n
d u r i n g mean f l o w changes,
3.
4.
d i r e c t DC outputas
c o m p a t i b l ew i t h
a f u n c t i o no f
mean v e l o c i t y ,
complexfrequencyresponsecharacteristics,
5.
have
and
The constantcurrentapproach
was i n i t i a l l y p r e f e r r e d
because i t p r o v i d e d
higher-frequency-response and s i g n a l - t o - e l e c t r o n i c - n o i s er a t i o .S o l i ds t a t e
e l e c t r o n i c s , however,have
comparableperformance
systems t o have
p e r m i t t e dt h ec o n s t a n tt e m p e r a t u r e
and a r et h e
systems now g e n e r a l l yp r e f e r r e d .
t i o n i s measurement o f t e m p e r a t u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s i n d e p e n d e n t o f v e l o c i t y
d e n s i t ye f f e c t s .
a c h i e v e dw i t h
Here a minimum w i r et e m p e r a t u r ei sr e q u i r e dt h a t
a c o n s t a n tc u r r e n to p e r a t i o n .
i n c o r p o r a t eb o t hc i r c u i t s .R e f e r e n c e
ment s u p p l i e r s p r o v i d e f u r t h e r d e t a i l s
sensor s t y 1 es.
204
Moderncommercial
3 and l i t e r a t u r ef r o m
An excepand
i s best
u n i t sg e n e r a l l y
commercialequip-
A wire or
film sensorresponds
t o changes i n f l o w c o n d i t i o n s t h a t a f f e c t s
t h eh e a tt r a n s f e ro ft h es e n s o rt oi t se n v i r o n m e n t .F o rs t e a d yf l o wt h es e n s o r
response may be expressed a s
&
Nu -A+B
or
E2
where x=0.5
( P U ) ~ ] (Tw
[C+D
(1.2)
Te)
f o rc l a s s i c a la n a l y s i s( K i n g ' sl a w )o ff l o wa r o u n dh e a t e dc y l i n d e r s .
F i g u r e A.I.l
flow,
(1.1)
shows theresponse
o f a h o tw i r et ot h e
mean flow.Forsupersonic
Response t o F l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e
shock(Ref.
6).
Flow
The s i m u l t a n e o u s r e a c t i o n o f t h e h e a t e d s e n s o r t o d e n s i t y , v e l o c i t y
temperature i s thekeybothtotheadvantages
and d i f f i c u l t i e s o f t h e h o t - w i r e
anemometer approach t o m e a s u r i n gf l o wf l u c t u a t i o n s .
haveonesensormeasure
bothkinematic
comparison, a l a s e rD o p p l e rv e l o c i m e t e r
I t i s an advantage t o
and thermodynamic f l u c t u a t i o n s .I n
can o n l y measure t h e f l u c t u a t i n g v e l o c i -
t i e s and a microphone o rp r e s s u r es e n s o rr e s p o n d so n l yt ot h en e t
p r e s s u r ef l u c t u a t i o n s .S e p a r a t i o no ft h e
heatedsensor
i sn o ts i m p l e
f l o wc h a r a c t e r i s t i c sb e i n g
t h et e s t .
and, i ng e n e r a l ,r e q u i r e s
The sensoroutput,
w i r er e s p o n s et o
case.Forisothermal,
a h o t - w i r er e s p o n d so n l yt ov e l o c i t y
thesetwobounds
put i s w e l l behaved f o rs u p e r s o n i c
F i g . A.I.1.
modes of a f l u c t u a t i n g h o t -
mean f l o wi sw e l ld e f i n e df o rt h ei n c o m p r e s s i b l e
Of
a p r i o r i knowledge o f t h e
sampled.
A S i n d i c a t e di nt h e
p r e s s i b l ef l o w ,
sound o r
modes composing t h eo u t p u to ft h e
The c h o i c eo ft e c h n i q u e sf o rs e p a r a t i n gt h e
w i r es i g n a li s
and
changes.
incorn-
The sensorOut-
f o rt h el o w e rr a n g eo fw i r eR e y n o l d s
dependentbetween
number.
Testequipmentanddataanalysistechniquesaresufficientlydeveloped
p e r m i tu s e f u la p p l i c a t i o n sf o rt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n so v e rt h e
i n t e r e s ti nt h i sr e p o r t
(0.4
5 3.5).
t h ea r e a so ft r a n s o n i cf l o wa p p l i c a t i o n s
Mach range o f
Research t o improveequipment
s h o u l dc o n t i n u eh o w e v e r .I np a r t i c u l a r ,a d d i t i o n a lw o r k
to
and a n a l y s i s
needs t o bedone
in
and s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e s i g n a l i n t o i t s
component modes.
205
(Ref.
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
I
1 .o
t
.8
.6
.4
.2
0
0
F i g u r e A. 1.2
206
.2
.4
.6
.8
1 .O
3)
lo),
Rn Nu
1
T
wr
Rn Ret
Rn N u t
(I .5)
Tt
=-
2 Asw
1
+2
(K
wr
a R n ~
1 - nt) + rn
1 (sU
s +2
t P
sP)
( I .6j
For supersonic flow (M > 1.2), the heat loss is insensitive to Mach number,
and sensitivity to velocity and density are essentially equal (Refs.3, 6, 8).
:. su =
PU
7):
where the correlation coefficiento f mass flux and temperature is defined by:
Sensor o u t p u t , o b t a i n e d a t t h r e e d i f f e r e n t s e n s o r t e m p e r a t u r e s ,
s e n s i t i v i t y ,o b t a i n e df r o mc a l i b r a t i o n ,c a np r o v i d es o l u t i o n s
unknowns <(pu)*>,<Ttc>
and RpuT
7) and Morkovin(Ref.
modal diagramsasdevelopedby
8).
degrees o f c o r r e l a t i o n i s g i v e n i n F i g .
A f l u c t u a t i o nd i a g r a mf o rv a r y i n g
A.1.2.The
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c modal diagrams
o f Kovasznay f o rf l u c t u a t i o n si nv e l o c i t y ,t e m p e r a t u r e ,
Figs. A.1.3,
A.1.4,
f o r t h et h r e e
The normal p r a c t i c e i s t o p l o t d a t a ,
o b t a i n e da ts e v e r a lw i r eo v e r h e a tr a t i o s ,i n
Kovasznay(Ref.
and sensor
and A.1.5.
Independent f l u c t u a t i o n s w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e f l o w f i e l d a r e t h e v o r t i c i t y
( t u r b u l e n c e ) ,e n t r o p y( t e m p e r a t u r es p o t t i n e s s ) ,
modes.
The
v o r t i c i t y ,e n t r o p y ,
l a t e dt ot h e
sound)
and p r e s s u r es e n s i t i v i t yc o e f f i c i e n t sa r er e -
measured d e n s i t y , v e l o c i t y ,
c o e f f i c i e n t s as f o l l o w s( R e f .
and p r e s s u r e( n o i s eo r
and t o t a l t e m p e r a t u r e s e n s i t i v i t y
8):
(1.10)
Su + 8 ST
t
sU = s P
(1.11)
+ U S T
t
X Su
M
(I.12)
+ a (y-1) (l+nxM) ST
t
Where nx i s t h e d i r e c t i o n c o s i n e o f t h e n o r m a l t o
a p l a n e sound wave f r o n t
r e l a t i v et ot h ef l o wd i r e c t i o n .
d i s t i n c to r i e n t a t i o ne x i s t ,t h e n
asound
quiredfor
s e n s i t i v i t yc o e f f i c i e n t
Themodal
diagramtechnique
i s an accepted means o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e
mary c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s e n s o r s i g n a l i n s u p e r s o n i c
flows.
would be r e -
An i m p o r t a n ta p p l i c a t i o no ft h e
tionistodistinguish
o rh o l e si nt h ew a l l )
and c e r t a i nh y p e r s o n i c
modal diagram t o w i n dt u n n e lc a l i b r a -
causedbyroughness
from a t u r b u l e n t boundarylayeronthetunnelwall).Thistechnique
effectiveonly
The diagram f o r a f i x e d s o u r c e o f
and t h ed i a g r a mf o r
a movingsource
soundhasan
See Refs.
208
11,
A.1.4.
is
isnegligible.
origin-intercept(seeFig.
o f soundhas
s i m i l a r to thetemperaturediagramofFig.
Pri-
A. 1.5)
a positiveordinate-intercept
//
<E' >
-
STt
-1
F i g u r e A. I . 3
'Tt
FLUCTUATION
DIAGRAM
FOR 1 PERCENT TURBULENT
VELOCITYFLUCTUATIONS(VORTICITY
MODE). (Ref.
Figure A.1.4
FLUCTUATION
DIAGRAH
FOR I PER CENT
TEMPERATURE
(Ref. 7)
SPOTTINESS (ENTROPY M O D E ) .
7)
-I
~l~~~~
A . I . ~ FLUCTUATIONDIAGRAM
WhVES HAVING
1
FOR
SOUND
WAVES
THAT ARE
ALMOST
MACH
PER
CENT
PRESSURE
FLUCTUATIONS
( R e f . 7)
.3
.2
-1
-.5
.5
sPusT
F i g u r e A.1.6
21 0
FLUCTUATIONDIAGRAM
FOR UNCORRELATED MODES AT M = 1 . 7 5 ;
TEMPERATURE SPOTTINESS 0.1 PER CENT;TURBULENTVELOCITY
WAVES
(DETECTABLE) 0.1
FLUCTUATIONS 0.2 PER CENT; SOUND
PER CENT OF MASS FLOW FLllCTllATIONS.
(DOTTED
LINES
SHOW
SEPARATE
CONTRIBUTIONS.)
( R e f . 7)
When thedominate
mode i s sound, t h e f o i l c w i n g l s e n t r o p l c r e l a t i o n s
betweenpressure,density
and t e m p e r a t u r ea r ea p p r o p r i a t e
(Ref.
11):
(1.14)
The r e s u l t a n t h o t - w i r e e q u a t i o n
i nt h ef r e e s t r e a ma r eg i v e ni n
and c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e f l u c t u a t i o n q u a n t i t i e s
References 11 and 12.
I n Reference 15. an a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e d i a g r a m a p p r o a c h i s
i d e n t i f i e st e m p e r a t u r ef l u c t u a t i o n si nt h e
wake of a wedge i n h y p e r s o n i cf l o w
where t h ea d j o i n i n gf r e e s t r e a ms i g n a l e v e li s
I f bothtemperature
low.
a l l t h r e e modes,are p r e s e n t i s
absence o f onedominant
161, t h eI n t e r p -
shown I n F i g u r e A . 1 . 6 .
mode, s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e
a problem.References
f o r more d e t a i l s c o n c e r n i n g t h e
(Ref.
An example of a h o t - w i r e
becomes more d i f f i c u l t .
I t i s r e a d i l y seen t h a t i n t h e
shown which
modal diagramtechnique.
TransonicFlows
The m d a l diagramapproachcannotbegenerallyappliedforcompressible
A.l.1)
subsonicandtransonicflows(seeFig.
where t h e d e r i v a t i v e s o f t h e
# s
tion at high
forail
o v e r h e a tr a t i o s
(Refs.
3 , 8,
Mach number a r e n o t z e r o ,
and IO).
Transonicopera-
dynamicpressuresalsoincreasesproblemswithwirebreakage.
The aboveproblems
helpexplainthelimited
usage o f h o t - w i r e
systems i n
transonicwlndtunnels.Recentdevelopments,however,provideexamplesfor
overcomingthese
difficulties.
withtheuseofshorterwires(Ud
film sensors(Ref.
IOO),
wireswithinsulativebackingor
Heat l o s s e st o
and p o s s i b l e i n t e r f e r e n c e e f f e c t s n e c e s s i t a t e t h a t
i n a representativeflowenvironment.
end s u p p o r t so rs u b s t r a t e
eachsensorbe
The s e n s i t i v i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s
calibrated
Sp and Su
21 1
havebeen
s y s t e m a t i c a l l y measured i nt r a n s o n i cf l o wb yi n d e p e n d e n t l yv a r y i n g
d e n s i t y and v e l o c i t y ( R e f s . 9 and I O ) .
Su a r ea p p r o x i m a t e l ye q u a lf o ra l l
These r e s u l t se s t a b l i s ht h a t
0.5 and t h e w i r e
i f t h ew i r eo v e r h e a tr a t i oi sg r e a t e rt h a n
transonicrange)
Sp and
Reynolds number i sg r e a t e rt h a n
O p e r a t i o nw i t h i nt h e s er e s t r i c t i o n sa g a i n
20.
o f Eq. (1.7).For
p e r m i t st h eu s eo ft h es i m p l i f i e de x p r e s s i o n
many t r a n s o n i c
w i n dt u n n e l st h et o t a lt e m p e r a t u r ef l u c t u a t i o n sa r ex g i i g i b l er e l a t i v e
themass-flux
term.
In t h i s c a s et h eh o t - w i r ed i r e c t l y
a f a c i l i t y (such as a
new
c r y o o e n i ct u n n e l )t h el e v e l
a tc o n s t a n tc u r r e n t
R e d u c t i o no fm a s s - f l u x
Is unknown I n
may b ea s c e r t a i n e dw i t h
and neartherecoverytemperature.
measurements i n a t r a n s o n i c f l o w i n t o i t s e l e m e n t s
requiresfurtherassumptions,
o r anindependent
senses t h ef l u c t u a -
I f t h el e v e lo ft e m p e r a t u r ef l u c t u a t i o n
t i o n s o f themass-flux.
sensoroperated
to
e.g.,
possibleapplicationofthe
modal diagrams
or
measurement w i t h a l a s e rv e l o c i m e t e r ,p r e s s u r et r a n s d u c e r
a s p e c i a l h o t - f i l m geometry.Forboundary-layerflow.thepressurefluctuations
c a ng e n e r a l l yb en e g l e c t e dr e l a t i v e
t o v o r t i c i t y .O p e r a t i n gw i t h i nt h e
d e s c r i b e d w i r e and f l o w domain,boundary
and Reynoldsshear
layerprofiles
of v e l o c i t y . d e n s i t y
s t r e s s weresuccessfullyobtainedinRef.10
for a nominal
For o p e r a t i o ni nt h et r a n s o n i cf r e e s t r e a m ,
t h e p r i n c i p l e of modal diagramscanbe
i t a p p e a r st h a t
a p p l i e d t o high-Reynolds-number
OF t h ed a t a ,e x t r a p o l a t e d
provideinformationonthedominate
t o theordinate,wouldthen
mode a si nt h es u p e r s o n i c
approach for s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e f l u c t u a t i o n
case.
m e t r i c a l l ys h i e l d e d
t h a t one
from velocity).
fordirectcorrelation
Another
flow
0.5.
b yo b t a i n i n gd a t aa ts e v e r a lo v e r - h e a tr a t i o s ,a l lb e i n gg r e a t e rt h a n
Straightlinefairings
above
An a p p l i c a t i o n o f specialsensorgeometry,
measurements,hasbeen
r e p o r t e d for hypersonic,boundary-
17).
l a y e r flow (Ref.
have, i ng e n e r a l ,
compared w e l l w i t h
measurementsfrom
Agreement o f v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s o b t a i n e d w i t h
hot w i r e and
l a s e r systems w i t h i n a shock-wave/boundary-layer i n t e r a c t i o n( R e f .
credence t o b o t h systems and tends t o v a l i d a t et h ea s s u m p t i o n s
21 2
19) g i v e s
employed i n
d a t ar e d u c t i o n .I nt h ef r e e s t r e a mo f
t u n n e l st h e
menthasbeen
and i n suchcases
ments(Refs.
14and
20).
An examplecomparison
measurements a t M = 5 i s shown i n F i g .
A.1.7.
o f f l o w sw i t hn o i s ed n m i n a t e dd i s t u r b a n c e s ,
may sensesuch
requirements.Anotherwidely
F o rd i a g n o s t i c
a dynamic pressuretransducer
(See S e c t i o n 1 I I . F . 1
I n summary, t h eh o t - w i r ec a np r o v i d e
AEDC developed,
more i n f o r m a t i o nt h a n
The w i r e a l s o p r o v i d e s
a dynamic
and f i x e ds o u r c e s
a higherfrequencyre-
a h o t - w i r e system i s i m p o r t a n t ( i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e
The smallersensorof
frequencyaspect)
.).
it can d i s t i n g u i s h betweenmoving
o f sound w i t h a s i n g l e sensor.
i ng e n e r a l ,
a h o t - w i r e system.
used C a l i b r a t i o n model i s t h e
e.g.,
measurements
may s a t i s f y many w i n d t u n n - 1 c a l i b r a t i o n
pressuretransducer,
measure-
o f P i t o t and h o t - w i r e
f l u c t u a t i o n s w i t h much l e s s e f f o r t t h a n
A dynamic P i t o t p r e s s u r e s u r v e y
sponseand,
good agree-
i f l o c a lf l u c t u a t i n g
l a y e ra r er e q u i r e d .F u r t h e r ,t h ew i r e / f i l m
hidden from t h e v i e w o f
sensor may be l o c a t e di na r e a s
a laserDopplervelocimeter.
OtherDataAnalysisTechniques
O t h e rd a t a - r e d u c t i o nt e c h n i q u e sf o rt h ef l u c t u a t i n qs i g n a li n c l u d et i m e
( a u t o c o r r e l a t i o n ) and s p a t i a l( l o c a t i o n
and d i r e c t i o n ) c o r r e l a t i o n s o f t h e
s i g n a l .S p e c t r a la n a l y s i sp r o v i d e st h ee n e r g yc o n t e n ta t
These techniques and a s s o c i a t e d e l e c t r o n i c
described i nt h el i t e r a t u r e .
eachfrequency.
(Suggested r e f e r e n c e si n c l u d e
Minimum c a l i b r a t i o n r e q u i r e s
ingcalibrationdata
w i r e (Refs. 8,
12,
22,
and 23).
A ruggedsensor
a w i r e backedbyan
18 and24).
maximum use o f c o r r e l a t i o n s o f e x i s t -
and e n d - l o s s c o r r e c t i o n s t o p r e d i c t t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f
datagatheringefficiency
sensors.
had encouraged m i n i m i z i n g c a l i b r a -
and dataaccuracy,
may i n c l u d e a f i n e - d i a m e t e rs h o r tw i r e
i n s u l a t o r ,o r
The complexheatloss
A more recentapproach,thatpromisesimproved
a l a r g e rd i a m e t e r
(E/d
f i l m sensor(Refs.
and p o s s i b l es u p p o r ti n t e r f e r e n c e s
sensors r e q u i r e i n d i v i d u a l s e n s o r c a l i b r a t i o n s
and theuse
loo),
IO, 17,
w i t h such
o f a c o n s t a n t tem-
p e r a t u r e system.
213
Fully turbulent
nozzle wall
baundary layer
-+
aTa*nce
smt Oi
-turbulen
-First
Figure A. I
.7
C a l i b r a t i o n o f a heatedsensor
m a i n t a i n i n g a constant Machnumber
may, i n general, be o b t a i n e d i n s i t u b y
and temperature and v a r y i n g t h e t o t a l
= Su = S
PU
and f o r R > 20
Furtherdiscussionsonsuch
mean f l o w
i n References 3 , 8,
Rose andHorstmanhave
h o t - w i r e si n
s u c c e s s f u l l y used t h er u g g e dc l a s so ft u n g s t e n
a t r a n s o n i cf l o wf o ro v e r
a v a i l a b l e f i l m sensors(suchas
Yk
16 hourswithoutbreakage.Commercially
0.002 t o 0.006-inchdiametercylinders)should
a l s or e c e i v ec o n s i d e r a t i o nf o rw i n dt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o n
because o f t h e f o l l o w i n g
advantages :
.
.
.
s u p e r i o rr e s i s t a n c et op a r t i c l e
damage,
s u p e r i o rr e s i s t a n c et os u r f a c ec o n t a m i n a t i o n
highersensorReynolds
and s t r a i ng a g i n g ,
numbers ( p a r t i c u l a r l yi m p o r t a n ti nt r a n s o n i c
flow).
Compared to t h e rugged c l a s so ft u n g s t e nw i r es e n s o r ,t h eP l a t i n u m - f i l m
Sensor has comparable c a p a b i l i t i e s i n
frequency response
*Privatecommunication
150K Hz).
maximum o v e r h e a tr a t i o
(-one)
and
o f HotWire
Summary o f AdvantagesandDisadvantages
The advantagesanddisadvantages
System
o f u s i n g a hot-wiresystem
thefluctuatingflowpropertiesduring
t o measure
a w i n dt u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o na r e
sum-
marized as f o l l o w s .
Advantages
1.
Small
sensor
size
2.
High
frequency
response
3.
Higs
he n s i t i v i t y
4.
S e n s i t i v et ob o t hk i n e m a t i c
5.
D i s t i n g u i s h betweenmovingand
s t a t i o n a r yn o i s es o u r c e sw i t h
a
s i n g l es e n s o r( i nf l o w s
where temperaturespottedness
i sn e g l i g i b l e )
6.
Re1 i a b l e systemsandsensorscommerciallyavailable
7.
Rugged s e n s o r sa v a i l a b l e ,p a r t i c u l a r l y
and thermodynamic f l u c t u a t i o n s
film type
D i sadvan tages"
f:
1.
P o s s i b l ef r e q u e n tb r e a k a g eo ff i n e - w i r es e n s o r( d u et oa i rl o a d s ,
v i b r a t i o n s ,p a r t i c l e
impingement, b u r n o u t o
, x i d a t i o na
, c c i d e n t se
, tc.)
2.
P o s s i b l ef a l s es i g n a (l u s u a l l ya p p a r e n t l d u et os t r a i ng u a g i n g ,c o n t a m i n a t i o n ,o rv i b r a t i o no fp r o b e .
3.
C a l i b r a t i o n may be r e q u i r e di ns i t u( f a c i l i t yt i m e
4.
Separation o f s i g n ailn t oi n d e p e n d e n t
modes requiresassumptions
c o n c e r n i n gf l o wc h a r a c t e r i s t i c so ri n d e p e n d e n t
measurements
5.
Analyses o fs i g n a lp a r t i c u l a r l yd i f f i c u l tf o rc o m p r e s s i b l es u b s o n i c
o rt r a n s o n i cf l o w ,u n l e s sr e s t r i c t e dt oh i g h e rR e v n o l d s
numbers and
w i r et e m p e r a t u r e s .
Sincetheoriginalwritingofthissection,
by Comte-Bellot has been published(Ref.
a d d i t i o n a ld i s c u s s i o no fp r o b l e ma r e a s .
216
may be expensive).
a r e v i e w o f h o t - w i r e anemometry
27).
T h i sr e f e r e n c ep r o v i d e s
NOMENCLATURE
constants
overheat
parameters,
1/2
a
a
En
En
R~
w i r e d iameter
wire voltage
K2
time-averaged,
heat-transfer coefficient
wire current
d i n Rw/d En
Tw
Kn
w i r el e n g t h
d Rn p/d Rn Tw
Mach number
d En k/d Rn Tw
"X
d i r e c t i o nc o s i n eo f
normal t o sound plane
wave f r o n t r e l a t i v e t o f l o w d i r e c t i o n
Nu
Nusselt number,
t o t a lp r e s s u r eb e h i n d
a normalshock
hd
k
staticpressure
resistance
Reynolds number, p u d h
correlation coefficient
fluctuations,
sensor s e n s i t i v i t y c o e f f i c i e n t
temperature
a x i a lv e l o c i t y
exponent i n e q u a t i o n 2
217
recovery factor,
vi scos i ty
dens i ty
'w r
r'T t
- Tr)
Tr
1'
( 7
fluctuating value
time
averaged
Subscripts
e
environment
t2
temperature
velocity
wire
sound
dens i ty
PU
mass flux
entropy
vorticity
218
A. REFERENCES
1.
1.
2.
" E f f e c to fT u r b u l e n c ei n
Wind Tunnel
"Advances i n HotWire
Anemometry, Proceedings o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Symposium onHotWire
Anemometry,"
L. M e l n i k and J. R.
E d i t e d by W.
68
1492, USAF O f f i c e o f
S c i e n t i f i c Research, J u l y , 1968.
3.
V. A.
Sandborn:
4.
V. A.
R. Westley:"Problems
March 1974.
NASA TH X-62,337,
Measurements I n Ground-Based F a c i l i t i e s
o fN o i s e
w i t h Forward-SpeedSimulation,"Appendlx
Research Aimed a t t h e D e s i g n
Report o f t h e M i n i l a w s
6.
L. S. G . Kovasznay:
Aero.
7.
Sci.,
L. S. G.
Vol.
M.
V.
W.
C.
C.
C.
Kovasznay:
"Turbulence
Horstman and W.
Sci.,Vol.
12.
i n Supersonic
andHot
C.
Rose:
"HotWire
June 1976.
December 1975.
"Aerodynamic NoiseinSupersonic
28, No.
AEDC-TR-71-143,
13.
Flow," Jour.Aero.Sci.,
9,
Wind Tunnels,"Jour.Aero.
September 1961.
M. C.
Jour.
1953.
J. Laufer:
1975.
November, 1956.
AGARDograph,
24,
NASA TM X-62,495,
11.
Sept.
Second
Wind Tunnels,''
Morkovin:"Fluctuations
Flows,''
9.
Working Group,'AGARD-AR-83,
8.
Sandborn:
Flow,"
5.
1972.
intheTestSectionofthe
Measurements a t
12 InchSupersonicTunnel
(D)
,'I
August 1971.
F i s c h e r and R. D. Wagner:
" T r a n s i t i o n andHot
A l A A Journal,Vol.
H i r e Measuremen.ts i n
14.
J. B. Anders, P. C.
Stainback, L. R.
and F l u c t u a t i n g D i s t u r b a n c e
1.
Keefe;
and
E. Beckwith:
Mea'surements i n t h e S e t t l i n g
"Sound
Chamber and
15.
R.
ICIASF
16.
P. C.
Stainback, e t a l :
Layer Transition
1974.
"ExperimentalStudiesofHypersonic
V.
Boundary
NASA LangleyResearchCenter,March
17.
M i k u l l a and C . C.
adiabaticHypersonic
Horstman:
NASA TN 0-7465,June
He1 iumFlow,"
in
NASA TN D-7453,
1974.
"TurbulenceStress
BoundaryLayer,"
Measurements i n a Non-
A l A A Journal,Vol.
December 1975.
18.
W.
C.
Rose:
"The
Behavior o f a CompressibleTurbulent
aShock-Wave-Induced
w.
C.
Rose and D. A.
1974.
20.
E.
Grandeand
Johnson:
A l A A Journal,Vol.
Interaction,"
G.
C.
Oates:
"Response o fM i n i a t u r eP r e s s u r eT r a n s d u c e r s
t oF l u c t u a t i o n si nS u p e r s o n i c
Flow,"
R.
in
AdversePressureGradient,''
Ames ResearchCenter,March
19.
BoundaryLayer
Instrumentation for A i r b r e a t h i n g
i n A s t r o n a u t i c s and Aeronautics,
1972.
D i g i t a l Time SeriesAnalysis,Wiley,
New York,
197222.
W.
Behrens:
"TotalTemperatureThermocoupleProbe
Temperature o f C i r c u l a rC y l i n d e r , "I n t .
Vol.
23.
C.
F. Dewey, J r . :
Mass Transfer,
ARS Journal,Vol.
E. L. Doughman:
August 1972.
"Development o f aHotWire
Turbulent Flows,"TheReview
220
J.Heatand
14, 1971.
Flows,"
24.
Based onRecovery
1961.
Anemometer forHypersonic
o f S c i e n t i f i cI n s t r u m e n t s ,V o l .
43, No. 8,
25.
R. F. Rosenberg:
SpecialCalibration
Method f o r HotWire
AerospaceResearchLaboratories,March
26.
R. H. K l r c h h o f f and R. R.
Anemometer,"
27.
Comte-Bellot,
Mechanics,Vol.
Probes,"
ARL 71-0038,
12, No.
"Hot-Wire Anemometry,"
USAF
1971.
S a f a r i k ," T u r b u l e n c ec a l i b r a t i o no f
A l A A Journal,Vol.
G.:
Anemometry Leading t o a
"Some AspectsonHotWire
5,
a Hot Wire
May 1974.
Annual Reviews o fF l u i d
22 1
APPEND I X I I
LASER
DOPPLER
VELOCIMETER
MEASUREMENTS
Thedevelopment
ofthelaser
was q u i c k l y f o l l o y e d b y i t s a p p l i c a t i o n
t h e measurement o f t h e v e l o c i t y o f
s h i f t i n thefrequency
weremeasuredby
a moving o b j e c t b y o b s e r v i n g t h e D o p p l e r
o f t h ei n c i d e n tl a s e rl i g h t .L i q u i d
1965, t h et e c h n i q u e
f r o ms m a l lp a r t i c l e se n t r a i n e di nt h ef l o w .I n
(Ref.2).Since
made i n seededgas
flowby
t h a tt i m ev e r ys i g n i f i c a n t
been a p p l i e d t o
Foreman,George
advanceshavebeen
t h et h e o r e t i c a lu n d e r s t a n d i n go ft h et e c h n i q u e ,
ments and signalprocessors.
flow v e l o c i t i e s
1) i n 1964, u t i l i z i n g D o p p l e rr a d i a t i o n
andmeasurementswere
andLewis
made b o t h i n
measurements o f mean v e l o c i t y , t u r b u l e n t i n t e n s i t y
d i r e c t i o n i n a v a r i e t y o f f l o wf i e l d s
and i n b o t h l i q u i d s
3).
L i t e r a t u r e on t h e s u b j e c t i s
andgases.
By 1970
measurementshadbeen
was r e f i n e d
and i n improved o p t i c a la r r a n g e -
The LaserDopplerVelocimeter
t h ev e l o c i t yr a n g eo v e rw h i c h
to
T h i sr a p i dr a t eo f
developmentcontinues.
now e x t e n s i v e ; a b i b l i o g r a p h y (Ref.
4) p u b l i s h e d
i n 1972 c o n t a i n s 190 r e f e r e n c e s .
Laservelocimeter
e.g.,
Refs.
systemshave
been operated i ns e v e r a lw i n dt u n n e l s ,
3 , 5, 6, 7, 8, and t h e i ru n i q u ec a p a b i l i t i e s ,e s p e c i a l l y
non-intrusivevelocity
and turbulencesurveysaroundmodels
shouldinsuretheircontinueddevelopment
present,the
for
i n t h et u n n e l ,
and a p p l i c a t i o n .A l t h o u g h
to the
measurements, t h i s c a p a b i l i t y
hasbeen
demonstrated and t h e i r a v a i l a b i l i t y t o
will probablylead
thewindtunneloperator
t o t h i s use.The
i n will be r e s t r i c t e d p r i m a r i l y t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n
application to basic facility flow calibration
discussionhere-
o f t h e LDV t e c h n i q u e f o r
measurementssuchas
v e l o c i t y (Mach number) d i s t r i b u t i o n , t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t y
mean
and f l o w a n g u l a r i t y .
B a s i cP r i n c i p l e s
C o n s i d e r a t i o n o f theadvantages
t e c h n i q u e sr e q u i r e
some d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e
The p r i n c i p l e o f t h e
b ya ni n t e r f e r e n c e - f r i n g e
equationsdiscussed
and disadvantages o f l a s e r v e l o c i m e t e r
system.
i nt h i sr e p o r t ,t h ef r i n g e
y i e l dt h e
same b a s i c
s i n c e it
a i d sv i s u a l i z a t i o no ft h ep h y s i c a lp r i n c i p l e si n v o l v e d .S e v e r a lo p t i c a l
arrangements a r ep o s s i b l e ,b u tc o n s i d e r a t i o n s
222
and
will be l i m i t e d t o t h e d u a l -
beam or d i f f e r e n t i a l - D o p p l e r systemmost
measure-
ments.
A.II.l, a l a s e r beam i s
For a single-component,dual-beamsystem,Fig.
two p a r a l l e l beams o f e q u a li n t e n s i t ys e p a r a t e db y
s e p a r a t e di n t o
A.
t h el e n s
wavefrontsinterfereconstructively
a l t e r n a t ed a r k
and b r i g h tr e g i o n s
them t o c r o s s a t t h e f o c a l p o i n t o f
volume i s formed.
where themeasuringorprobe
second l e n so n t o
I nt h i sr e g i o n ,t h e
and d e s t r u c t i v e l y to form s t a t i o n a r y ,
or f r i n g e s ,F i g .
throughthemeasuringvolumecausesvariations
s c a t t e r e db yt h ep a r t i c l e .
a distance
A p a r t i c l e moving
A.11.2.
intheintensityofthelight
The s c a t t e r e dl i g h ti sc o l l e c t e d
a p h o t o d e t e c t o r ,u s u a l l y
and focusedby
a p h o t o m u l t i p l i e rt u b e .
r
The r e c e i v i n g o p t i c s
themeasurinqvolumeasthelaser
If l o c a t e do nt h e
t h eo p p o s i t es i d e .
s c a t t e r e di nt h e
and t r a n s m i t t i n g o p t i c s o r
same s i d e ,t h e
may be l o c a t e d on
svstem u t i l i z e s l i g h t
backward d i r e c t i o n by p a r t i c l e s i n t h e f l o w ( b a c k s c a t t e r
I f l a s e r and r e c e i v i n g o p t i c s a r e
on o p p o s i t es i d e so ft h em e a s u r i n g
mode).
volume, t h e
system u t i l i z e s 1 i g h t s c a t t e r e d i n t h e f o r w a r d d i r e c t i o n ( f o r w a r d - s c a t t e r
Obviousoperationaladvantagesareassociatedwiththebackscatter
u l a r l yf o rw i n dt u n n e la p p l i c a t i o n .
h i g h e rw i t ht h ef o r w a r d - s c a t t e r
t h es i g n a l - t o - n o i s er a t i o
d i r e c t l yp r o p o r t i o n a lt ot h ev e l o c i t y
A.11.4,
i s significantly
system.
The p h o t o m u l t i p l i e rt u b eg e n e r a t e s
spacing,Fig.
mode, p a r t i c -
A.11.3,
i nt h ef o r w a r dd i r e c t i o n ,F i g .
mode).
an e l e c t r i c a l s i g n a l a t
a frequency
and i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e f r i n g e
a c c o r d i n qt ot h er e l a t i o n
where f di st h eD o p p l e rf r e q u e n c y ,
U t h ev e l o c i t y
f r i n g e s and p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e b i s e c t o r
component normal t o t h e
is the
f r i n g es p a c i n g .
The f r i n g e s p a c i n g
wavelength o ft h el a s e ra s
A.II.l and 2,
the
i.e.,
( I I .2)
&
Ream
Collecting
/ i\
L
I
Processor
imatomutiplier
Tube (Backscatter Mode)
Figure A . I 1 . 1 .
A-
Figure A. I I . 2
Forward
Scatter Scatter
Electrical
signal
Incident
Light
_c
Time
Figure A I I 3
LIGHT SCATTERED BY
A SMALL PARTICLE
Figure A. I I . 4
where X i s t h e w a v e l e n g t h o f t h e l a s e r
s e c t i n g beams.
From
and 0 i s t h e a n g l e
between t h e i n t e r -
t h e above r e l a t i o n s :
The measured v e l o c i t y i s t h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e o f t h e v e l o c i t y o f t h e p a r t i c l e
o f t h ef l u i d .
which i sn o tn e c e s s a r i l ye q u a lt ot h a t
l a g will be d i s c u s s e di n
more d e t a i ll a t e ri nt h i ss e c t i o n .
w i t hr e g a r dt of l o wd i r e c t i o n
The ambiguity
becomes a problem i n t u r b u l e n t f l o w s a t l o w ,
mean-component v e l o c i t y where f l o wr e v e r s a l
may be encountered,butcan
be
one of
overcome by i n t r o d u c i n g an a c o u s t o - o p t i cm o d u l a t o r( B r a g gc e l l )i n t o
t h et w op a r a l l e l a s e r
beams.
The Bragg c e l li n t r o d u c e s
frequencyshiftinto
one o f t h e
a s t a t i o n a r yf r i n g e
system.Zero
an a c c u r a t e l y known
i n a moving r a t h e rt h a n
beams, w h i c hr e s u l t s
p a r t i c l ev e l o c i t yt h e nc o r r e s p o n d st ot h e
f r e q u e n c ys h i f t ;h i g h e ro rl o w e rv e l o c i t i e sg e n e r a t eh i g h e ro rl o w e ro u t p u t
s i g n a lf r e q u e n c i e s .I nt h i s
and r e v e r s i n gf l o w s
manner t h ed i r e c t i o n a la m b i g u i t y
can be measured.
Formain-stream,empty-test-section
will n o tn o r m a l l y
measurements i n a w i n dt u n n e lt h ed i r e c t i o n a la m b i g u i t y
a problem,buttheBraggcell
can be e l i m i n a t e d
be
may s t i l l be u s e f u la th i g hf l o wv e l o c i t i e st o
d o w n - s h i f tt h es i g n a lf r e q u e n c yt o
'
by t h ee l e c t r o n i cs i g n a lp r o c e s s o r .
The measuring o r p r o b e
t h ec o n t o u r
where t h e l i g h t i n t e n s i t y
i n t e n s i t ya tt h ec e n t e r
t h e volume Fig. A.11.2
decreases t o l / e t i m e s t h e
o f theprobevolume,
Ref. 9.
maximum
The w i d t h and l e n g t h o f
may be d e f i n e d by
where do i s t h e d i a m e t e r o f t h e i n t e r s e c t i n g l a s e r
p o i n t o f t h et r a n s m i t t i n gl e n s .
initiallaser
beams a t t h e f o c a l
The focuseddiameter,do,isrelated
t ot h e
227
(I 1.6)
where F i st h et r a n s m i t t i n gl e n sf o c a ll e n g t h .O t h e rr e l a t i o n s
f o rt h ed i m e n s i o n so ft h ep r o b e
volume,dependinq
3 , 10, 1 1 ) .
geometricboundariesaredefined(Refs.
s t r a t e st h a t
a l a r g e ,o r i g i n a l( o r
f o c a l - l e n g t hl e n sy i e l dt h e
u s u a l l yd e t e r m i n e d
short-
or probe volume.The
focal
measuringvolume
i s a designproblemduringwhich
must be balanced.
The i n i t i a lr e s t r i c t i o n sa r e
by t h e minimum number o f f r i n g e s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e s i g n a l
measure thefrequencywithadequateaccuracy.Also,theDoppler
signalfrequency
p r o c e s s o r :t h i sf r e q u e n t l yi s
number of u s a b l e f r i n g e s
canbeas
Eq. (11.1).
8F s i n
TI
Eqs.
the
and t h e m x i -
The r e q u i r e d minimum
o
lw as e i g h t w i t h a countersystem,but
somewhat l a r g e r number i sn o r m a l l yp r e f e r r e d ,
as definedby
be measuredby
a f u n c t i o no ft h ef r i n g es p a c i n g
(I1 . 2 ) ,
a
be
d i v i d e d by t h e f r i n g e
0
(F)
i.e.,
(I 1.8)
Do
From t h e o p t i c a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n , F i g .
angle (8/2)
anda
where measurements a r e d e s i r e d .
c o n f l i c t i n gr e q u i r e m e n t s
spacing,bf,
from t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g l e n s t o t h e
by t h e d i s t a n c e
The s e l e c t i o n o f t h e
p r o c e s s o rt o
laser-beamdiameter
minimum sizemeasuring
l e n g t hi sa l s od e t e r m i n e d
point of the flow
expanded)
may be d e r i v e d
A.II.1,
i t may be n o t e dt h a tt h e
i s n o r m a l l y smal 1.
A i s t h e beam s e p a r a t i o nd i s t a n c ea tt h et r a n s m i t t i n gl e n s .
From
Eqs. (II.8) and (II . 9 ) . the number o f f r i n g e s can be expressed i n terms o f
Here
o n l yt h e
beam s e p a r a t i o nd i s t a n c e
Nfr
4
A
TI
228
Do
and t h e i n i t i a l
laser-beamdiameter.
(11.10)
A g a i nn o t et h a tt h e
number o f f r i n g e s
can be increased by r e d u c i n gt h e
b u tt h i si nt u r ni n c r e a s e st h ep r o b ed i a m e t e r .
beam separation, A , f o r a f i x e d t r a n s m i t t i n g l e n s f o c a l
i s aneffective
number of f r i n g e s .
means o fi n c r e a s i n gt h e
Based on thepreceedingequations,
dimensions o f t h e measuringvolume
and o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
maximum w i d t h o f t h e p r o b e
The l e n g t ho ft h ep r o b e
i s 7.7
1.5 m and
From Eq.' (11.6) t h e
3.818".
input
I f t h et r a n s m i t t i n gl e n sf o c a ll e n g t hi s
volume.
a velocimeter
system.ConsideranArgonlaserwith
beam diameter o f 1.5 mm.
i t i so fi n t e r e s tt oc a l c u l a t et h e
19.7 mm.
i s 84.
The
At a
v e l o c i t y o f 300m/sec.,
theDopplerfrequency
(Eq. ( 1 1 . 1 ) w i l l be 38.96 MHz.
Thissystem i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t y p i c a l , b u t
i t i l l u s t r a t e sa p p l i c a t i o no ft h e
system r e l a t i o n s h i p sd i s c u s s e dp r e v i o u s l y .
To t h i s p o i n t t h e
t h ef r i n g ep a t t e r n )
measurement of a s i n g l e v e l o c i t y
has been described.
component (normal t o
o f a single-
The f r i n g ep a t t e r n
+45
degrees t o t h e n o m i n a l t u n n e l c e n t e r l i n e .
From t h e t w o v e l o c i t y
measurements, t h ev e l o c i t yv e c t o ri nt h et u n n e lp l a n e
o ft h ei n t e r s e c t i n g
normal t o t h e b i s e c t o r
beams canbedetermined.Thus,
measured i n a d d i t i o n t o v e l o c i t y
flow a n g u l a r i t yc a n
be r e a l i z e d by u s i n g two p a i r s o f i n t e r s e c t i n g
two-componentmeasurements
beams normal t ot h a td e f i n e d
beam p a i r .S e p a r a t i o no ft h e
two measurementscan
a l a s e r beam i n t o two p a i r s o f
P o l a r i z e d f i l t e r s on t h e two p h o t o d e t e c t o r sa l l o w
v e n i e n tf o rt h i s
formed by two o ft h ef o u r
so eachphotodetector
beams a t t h e
i s p a r t i c u l a r l y con-
514.5 nm ( g r e e n )a r ea v a i l a b l e .O p t i c a lf i l t e r sa l l o ws e p a r a t i o n
s c a t t e r e dl i g h t
see o n l y
first
90" t o t h e o t h e r .
each d e t e c t o r t o
Two wavelengths o f l a s e r l i g h t
purposesince
bythe
be achieved by s p l i t t i n g
beams, each p a i r p o l a r i z e d
t h el i g h ts c a t t e r e df r o mt h ef r i n g e s
can
beams, u s u a l l yw i t ht h ep l a n e
d e f i n e d by t h e second p a i r o f
componentmeasurements.
be
and t u r b u l e n c ei n t e n s i t y .
O p t i c a la r r a n g e m e n t st oy i e l ds i m u l t a n e o u s
i n t e r s e c t i o np o i n t .
component
sees o n l y t h e l i g h t
o f the
of interest.
A t h i r d v e l o c i t y component, p a r a l l e l t o t h e b i s e c t o r o f t h e i n t e r s e c t i n g
beams, can a l s ob e
(Ref.
measured simultaneously.Forexample,Orloffand
12) havedescribedan
Logan
SignalProcessors
shown on F i g . A.11.4,
The o u t p u ts i g n a lf r o mt h ep h o t o m u l t i p l i e rt u b e ,
i s a f r e q u e n c y ' b u r s ta tt h eD o p p l e rf r e q u e n c yw i t ha m p l i t u d em o d u l a t e da c c o r d i n gt ot h ei n t e n s i t yd i s t r i b u t i o na c r o s st h ef r i n g e s .T h i sa m p l i t u d e - m o d u l a t e d
envelope i s commonly r e f e r r e d t o asthe"pedestal"
The number o f c y c l e s
of
and themodulationintensityaboutthepedestalenvelope
will v a r ya c c o r d i n gt ot h el o c a t i o na tw h i c ht h ep a r t i c l ec r o s s e st h ep r o b e
volume, t h e s i z e o f t h e p a r t i c l e
and t h e number o f p a r t i c l e s p r e s e n t a t
timewithintheprobevolume.Signalburstsofmeasurableamplitude
minimum r e q u i r e d number o f c y c l e s o c c u r a t
r e v e r s a l sd u r i n g
a s i n g l es i g n a lb u r s t
one
and t h e
random t i m ei n t e r v a l s ,
and phase
present .
Several methods f o rp r o c e s s i n gt h ed a t af r o mt h ep h o t o m u l t i p l i e r
used.
These
have been
include:
spectrumanalyzers
p h o t o nc o r r e l a t o r s
f i l t e r banks
O n l yt h el a s t
f r e q u e n c yt r a c k e r s
counters
twotypes
o f p r o c e s s o r sp r o d u c ee s s e n t i a l l yr e a l - t i m ev e l o c i t y
i n f o r m a t i o n d i r e c t l y and a r e c u r r e n t l y
The f r e q u e n c yt r a c k e r ,
used f o r m o s tw i n dt u n n e la p p l i c a t i o n s .
as t h e name implies,convertstheDoppler
f r e q u e n c yr e c e i v e df r o mt h ep h o t o d e t e c t o ri n t o
a p r o p o r t i o n a l ,a n a l o gv o l t a g e .
The t r a c k e r c i r c u i t i s
o rf r e q u e n c yl o c k e dl o o p s ,o r
a combination o ft h e
implementedusingphase
two.Bothtypes
o fl o o p sf u n c t i o n
outputfrequencyof
a voltage-controlledoscillator
frequencyconverter
(V/F)
t ot h ei n p u ts i g n a lf r e q u e n c y ,
by comparingthe
( V C O ) o r a v o lt a g e - t o -
and b o t h u t i l i z e t h e
differenceinfrequencytomodifyoradjusttheacinputvoltagetotheint e r n a lf r e q u e n c yg e n e r a t o r .
The dc v o l t a g e i s t h e np r o p o r t i o n a lt ot h ei n p u t
f r e q u e n c y .A l t e r n a t i v e l y ,t h ei n t e r n a l l y - g e n e r a t e df r e q u e n c yc a nb ec o n v e r t e d
to a digital signal
by means o f a counter.
Trackerprocessorsarecharacterizedbythe
capturebandwidth,dynamicrange
exceeds thecapturebandwidthorcapture
will l o s el o c k
and n o t t r a c k t h e p a r t i c l e o r o t h e r
range.
i s i n t e r r u p t e d bya
o u t p u tv o l t a g el e v e li sn o r m a l l yp l a c e di n
d u r i n gt h eh o l dp e r i o d ,t r a c k i n gi s
13.
I f t h es i g n a li sn o tr e c a p -
resumed.
sweepmode
t h es i g n a li sr e - a c q u i r e d .S i g n a l sc a n
d r o p - o u t ,t h el a s t
I f t h es i g n a lr e t u r n s
"hold".
t u r e dd u r i n gt h eh o l dp e r i o d ,t h es e a r c ho r
torecord
If t h e change i n v e l o c i t y
and s l e wr a t e .
from one p a r t i c l e t o t h e n e x t
range,thetracker
maximum frequencyrange,
isactivateduntil
be p r o v i d e dt oe x t e r n a ld a t a
mean v e l o c i t y and ac o r t u r b u l e n t f l u c t u a t i o n s i g n a l s ,
Dopplerfrequenciescan
bemeasured
be f o l l o w e d , and i n t h e s e a r c h
be as h i g h as 400 MHz/ms.
frequencyslewratecan
systems
e.g.,Ref.
Velocity
mode t h e
D a t a - v a l i d a t i o nf e a t u r e s
a r ea l s on o r m a l l yi n c o r p o r a t e d .F o r
example, one s y s t e mr e q u i r e st r a c k i n g
f o r 8 Dopplercycles
2 a d d i t i o n a lc y c l e sw i t h o u td r o p - o u ti n
o r d e rt o
and h o l d i n g f o r
be considered a v a l i dd a t ap o i n t .
d a t ar a t e s
Thus, f o rh e a v i l y
seeded f l o w s ,
The c o u n t e r o r b u r s t p r o c e s s o r f o r
laser-anemometer s i g n a l s a c c u r a t e l y
flow t o t r a v e l a c r o s s
measures t h et i m er e q u i r e df o r
a particleinthe
f i x e d number o f f r i n g e s i n t h e
measuringvolume,i.e.,
a known distance.
o l dl e v e ld e t e c t o rw h i c h ,
a directdigitaloutput.
by passing a l a s e rs i g n a lb u r s tt h r o u g h
a thresh-
when t h ea d j u s t a b l ea m p l i t u d e - t h r e s h o l di se x -
ceeded, enables a z e r o - c r o s s i n gd e t e c t o r
D o p p l e rs i g n a l s
may be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
as trackers,areavoided.Counterprocessorsare
n o r m a l l yc o n f i g u r e dt oy i e l d
A c o u n t e rf u n c t i o n s
and
suchas
a Schmidt t r i g g e r .
Those
above t h ea m p l i t u d e - t h r e s h o l dl e v e la r et h e nc o n v e r t e di n t o
a t r a i n o f square waves, w i t h a f r e q u e n c ye q u a lt ot h eo r i g i a n ls i g n a l
frequency.
Many e l e c t r o n i c f r e q u e n c y - c o u n t e r s f u n c t i o n
ofthe
unknown s i g n a l f o r
1.0 or IO seconds.The
by c o u n t i n g each c y c l e
an a c c u r a t e l y - f i x e dt i m ep e r i o d ,
suchas
0.1,
r e a d i n g sa r et h e nc o n v e r t e dt ot h es i g n a lf r e q u e n c y
23 1
i nh e r t z .S i n c et h e
from t h e passage o f
maximum number o f c y c l e s a v a i l a b l e
volume o f a LDV i s e x t r e m e l y s m a l l , t h e a c c u -
a particleacrossthemeasuring
r a c yo ft h ed i r e c tc o u n t i n gp r o c e d u r ew o u l d
be t o t a l l y inadequate.
t h i s problemcounterprocessorsareperiod
To a v o i d
measurement devices,i.e.,pulses
from an a c c u r a t e , h i g h - f r e q u e n c y o s c i l l a t o r o r c l o c k a r e a c c u m u l a t e d i n
r e g i s t e rd u r i n gt h et i m ei n t e r v a lc o r r e s p o n d i n gt o
a f i x e d number o f p u l s e s
from t h eS c h m i d tt r i g g e r .A l t e r n a t i v e l y ,t h et i m ei n t e r v a l s
t ov o l t a g ea m p l i t u d e sw h i c hc a n
f o rt h e
bemeasured
frequency,
e.g.,
canbe
digitally.
converted
The t i m er e s o l u t i o n
2 t o IO x 10-9 seconds,depending
n periodrangesfrom
upon t h e c l o c k
The
c o u n t e rp r o c e s s o ra l s on o r m a l l yi n c l u d e sc o m p u t a t i o n a lc a p a b i l i t i e st oc o n v e r t
theperiodinformationintoeitherfrequencyorvelocityunitsfordigital
display.
The computationtime
athighvelocities
i st y p i c a l l y
where theDopplerfrequency
a c q u i s i t i o n and c o m p u t a t i o nt i m ef o r
-6 sec.
Data
as 2 t o 3 x 10
a c q u i s i t i o nr a t e so f
t h e r e f o r et h e o r e t i c a l l yp o s s i b l e( b u tf a rf r o m
t i o no fp a r t i c l e s ,
Ref.
i s IO t o 20 MHz, t h e t o t a l
100,000 readings/secare
common) w i t h moderateconcentra-
14.
Counterprocessorsincludeseveraldata-validationfeaturestoallowthe
loss o f a b i t o r c y c l e d u r i n g
rejectionofnoisebursts,detectthe
i n gc y c l e ,r e j e c ts i g n a l sf r o ml a r g ep a r t i c l e s ,e t c .
u t i l i z e d t o rejectdata
c l o c kp u l s e sa r eg a t e di n t ob o t h
h i g hr e g i s t e ra c c u m u l a t e s
o f u s i n g two o r m r e r e g i s t e r s .
The
lw r e g i s t e r on t h e f i r s t c y c l e .
a h i g h and o
low r e g i s t e r a r e g a t e d o f f a f t e r
NL c y c l e s , w h i l e t h e
A comparaterthen
computes t h e r a t i o o f
NH c y c l e s .
t h e twotimeintervals,whichshould
e r r o ri sw i t h i np r e - s e tl i m i t s ,t h e
Asher(Ref.
The primarytechnique
( c y c l ea m p l i t u d eb e l o wt h r e s h o l d )c o n s i s t s
The c l o c k p u l s e s t o t h e
a process-
be e q u a l ,t ot h er a t i o
If the
measurement i s v a l i d a t e d .
14) demonstratestheadvantage
as 5/8 or 10/16 o v e re v e nr a t i o s .
NH/NL.
o f an odd r a t i o , NL/NH,
Odd r a t i o s suchas
A c o u n t e rp r o c e s s o ru s i n gt h r e ed i f f e r e n tr e g i s t e r s
such
5/8 a r e commonlyused.
hasbeen
used a t AEDC.
None o f thesesystemscompletelyrejectspurioussignals,buttheydogreatly
r e d u c et h ep r o b a b i l i t yo f
such d a t ab e i n gc o n s i d e r e dv a l i d .L a r g ep a r t i c l e s ,
which may be l a g g i n g t h e f l u i d f l o w t o
anexcessivedegree,can
i f t h et o t a li n p u ts i g n a la m p l i t u d e( p e d e s t a lp l u sD o p p l e rf r e q u e n c y )
be detected
exceeds
a p r e - s e t limit.
The a d j u s t a b l et h r e s h o l dl e v e l( r e q u i r e d
c r o s s i n gd e t e c t o r )c a nb e
to enable a zero-
used to r e j e c t s i g n a l s w i t h inadequate ~ i g n a 1 - t ~ -
n o i s er a t i o .S e t t i n gt h et h r e s h o l dl e v e lh i g h ,o nt h eo t h e r
t h ed a t aa c q u i r e d
to l a r g ep a r t i c l e s
hand, c a nb i a s
by r e j e c t i n gl o w - l e v e ls i g n a l s
fromsmall
particles.
Mostcounterprocessorsalsoincludefunctions
suchas
o fe i t h e rt h ed a t ar a t e( v a l i d a t e dd a t ap o i n t sp e r
outputcan
second) o r p e r c e n t o f t o t a l
An o u t p u t i s n o r m a l l yp r o v i d e dt o
d a t as i g n a l sp r o c e s s e dt h aat r ev a l i d a t e d .
i n d i c a t e eachtime
a d i g i t a li n d i c a t i o n
a new d a t ap o i n ti sv a l i d a t e d
A digital
andprocessed.
be made a v a i l a b l e t o a l l o w i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e d a t a d i r e c t l y i n t o
a computer o ro t h e rd i g i t a lr e c o r d i n g
system.
i s also
An a n a l o gv o l t a g eo u t p u t
normally available.
Due t ot h ed i f f e r e n c ei no p e r a t i n gp r i n c i p l e s ,t h ec o u n t e r
byslew
band
r a t eo rt r a c k i n gr a t ep e r f o r m a n c e .
noisepresent
i s b r o a d b a n d ,t h en o i s er e j e c t i o nc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
i s s u p e r i o rt ot h a to ft h ec o u n t e r .
thefrequency
i s i n h e r e n t l y narrow-band.
i n s t r u m e n tw
, h i l et h et r a c k e r
domain,
i s n o tl i m i t e d
Assuming t h e
of t h et r a c k e r
However, s i n c et h et r a c k e ro p e r a t e si n
i t i s responsivetoDopplerfrequencyspectrumbroadening
r e s u l t i n gf r o mt h ef i n i t ed u r a t i o no ft h es i g n a lb u r s t .T h i sb r o a d e n i n gi s
s i m i l a rt ot h em o d u l a t i o ns i d e b a n d sg e n e r a t e d
amplitudemodulated.
a l s og e n e r a t e s
when a c a r r i e r f r e q u e n c y
The presence o f m u l t i p l ep a r t i c l e si nt h ep r o b e
is
volume
phase reversalswhichcausespectrumbroadening.Sincethe
s t a n d a r dd e v i a t i o na b o u tt h e
r e l a t e dt ot h ec o r r e s p o n d i n gD o p p l e rf r e q u e n c yd e v i a t i o nt h r o u g h
s p e c t r a lb r o a d e n i n gc a ni n t e r f e r ew i t ht u r b u l e n c e
Eq.
(ll.l),
measurements.
P a r t i c l e S i z e and D i s t r i b u t i o n E f f e c t s
The s i z e ,s i z ed i s t r i b u t i o n ,c o n c e n t r a t i o n ,
ofthe'particlesin
and p h y s i c a lc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
a t r a n s o n i co rs u p e r s o n i ct u n n e lf l o wf i e l da r eo fg r e a t
i m p o r t a n c e ,w h e t h e rt h ep a r t i c l e sa r en a t u r a l l yp r e s e n ti nt h ef l o wo rt h e
f l o wi s
seeded.
cantvelocitylag
Lag e f f e c t s a r e
I nt h ep r e s e n c eo fv e l o c i t yg r a d i e n t so rt u r b u l e n c e ,
may e x i s t between t h e f l u i d m o t i o n
most s i g n i f i c a n t a t h i g hf r e q u e n c i e s
a signifi-
and t h e p a r t i c l e m o t i o n .
and i n r e g i o n s o f r a p i d
a s t a g n a t i o np o i n t .
i n t e r e s ti nf l o wf i e l ds u r v e y s ,w o u l dn o tn o r m a l l y
These environments,of
be encountered i n empty t e s t
o f t h e p a r t i c l e s to f o l l o w
s e c t i o n c a l i b r a t i o n measurements, b u t t h e a b i l i t y
r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l mean v e l o c i t y p e r t u r b a t i o n s and respond t o low-to-moderate
l e v e l so ft u r b u l e n c ea r eo fi n t e r e s t .
233
'
and thelower
by i n e r t i a o r l a g e f f e c t s .
may be determinedbythereduced
amount o f 1 i g h t s c a t t e r e d b y t h e p a r t i c l e w h i c h r e s u l t s i n
an unacceptably
lowsignal-to-noiseratio.
Flowseeding
may be r e q u i r e d t o o b t a i n
'anadequate
i f a t r a c k e rp r o c e s s o ri s
c o n t r o l l e ds i z e ,e s p e c i a l l y
number o f p a r t i c l e s o f
used.For
measurements
w i t h a counterprocessor,naturallyoccuringparticlesintheflow
u t i l i z e d , Refs- 6 and
7.
and r e s u l t i n
than one p a r t i c l e i n t h e m e a s u r i n g
time.
nomore
may be
These p a r t i c l e sa r en o r m a l l ys p a r s e l yc o n c e n t r a t e d
volume a t t h e
same
p a r t i c l es i z e
t u n n e la t
and i n c r e a s et h ed a t ar a t e .
Measurements i nt h e1 6 - f o o tt r a n s o n i c
NASA LangleyResearchCenterhave
seed theflow,
Ref.
5.
Seeding i n a continuouswindtunnel
inationproblemswhichencouragetheuse
o i l to
can c r e a t e contam-
o f measurement p r o c e d u r e s a p p l i c a b l e
t o unseeded flows.
The m o t i o n o f a s p h e r i c a l p a r t i c l e i n
Hinze (Ref.
IS).
16) alsoreviewed
So0 (Ref.
d e s c r i b i n gp a r t i c l em o t i o n .
a fluid flow
and
summarized
The completeequation,
dp2VT&
hasbeen
l t d t '
reviewedby
t h ee q u a t i o n s
as givenbyHinzeis:
%I+
Fe
t0
The s u b s c r i p t g r e f e r s t o t h e
formthetermonthe
dp i s t h e d i a m e t e r
q u i r e dt oa c c e l e r a t et h ep a r t i c l e .
f o r c e basedon
totheparticle;
oftheparticle
In this
gas andp
Stokes' law.
The f i r s t t e r mo nt h er i g h ti st h ed r a g
aroundtheparticle
causedby
for t h ep r e s s u r eg r a -
accelerationofthefluid.
The t h i r d term i s t h e f o r c e r e q u i r e d t o a c c e l e r a t e t h e a p p a r e n t
particlerelativetotheambientfluid.
234
mass o f t h e
The f o u r t ht e r m( d e s i g n a t e dt h e
t h ef l o wp a t t e r n
"Basset"term)accounts
from steadystate.
f o r c e s due t o g r a v i t y , L o r e n t z f o r c e
The Vastterm,
on a charged p a r t i c l e i n an e l e c t r i c
e q u a t i o n as g i v e n byHinzeabovebutemploys
a morecomplex
t o accommodate h i g h e rr e l a t i v eR e y n o l d s
According t o Hinze,the
Eq. (11.11)
f i e l d ,l a s e rp h o t o np r e s s u r e ,e t c .
drag(Oseen'slaw)
forthedeviationof
may beneglected
expressionfor
numbers*
second, t h i r d and f o u r t ht e r m s
if t h e d e n s i t y o f t h e f l u i d
on t h e r i g h t o f
i s significantly
l e s st h a nt h ed e n s i t yo ft h ep a r t i c l e ,w h i c hi sn o r m a l l yt r u e .I nt h er a n g e
o f speeds encountered i n t r a n s o n i c
a r en e g l i g i b l e
and s u p e r s o n i c t u n n e l s , g r a v i t y e f f e c t s
compared t ot h ed r a gf o r c e .R e t a i n i n go n l yt h eS t o k e s 'l a wd r a g
term on t h e r i g h t s i d e ,
Eq.
(11.11)
may be w r i t t e n
( I 1.12)
by So0 (Ref.
T h i sd i f f e r e n t i a le q u a t i o n ,w h i c ha g r e e sw i t ht h a tg i v e n
16), may b et r a n s f o r m e di n t ot h es t a n d a r dt r a n s f e rf u n c t i o n
where S i st h eL a p l a c eo p e r a t o r , a n d
form
i st h et i m ec o n s t a n td e f i n e d
by
(11.14)
The s t e a d ys t a t es i n u s o i d a la m p l i t u d e
r e s p e c t t o t h e gas may beexpressed
j w f o r S, where j =
and phaseresponse
i n thefrequency
domainby
substituting
6.
Herew i st h ef r e q u e n c yo f
gas m o t i o ni nr a d i a n sp e r
second.
The phaseangle,
4, bywhichtheparticlelagsthefluidmotionis
(11.16)
235
The aboveequations
18) and o t h e r s .
and Meyers(Ref.
19) and
(II. 14)
t o Eq.
20) use a t i m e c o n s t a n t e x p r e s s i o n s i m i l a r
YantaandGates(Ref.
e x c e p tt h a t
based o n S t o k e s ' l a w a g r e e w i t h t h o s e g i v e n b y F e l l e r
a c o r r e c t i o nt e r mi sa p p l i e dt ot h eS t o k e s 'd r a gc o e f f i c i e n tt o
range o f f l o w c o n d i t i o n s where t h e Knudsen
extend i t s a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o t h e
a.
number (Kn = - ) becomes appreciable.Epstein(Ref.
21) d e r i v e d a c o r r e c t i o n
dP
t e r mt oS t o k e s 'l a wf r o mt h ek i n e t i ct h e o r yv i e w p o i n t ,a si sd i s c u s s e db y
HappelandBrenner(Ref.
evolved.
22), butvariousforms
One o ft h es i m p l e rf o r m s ,
i n a timeconstantexpressed
and e m p i r i c a lc o n s t a n t sh a v e
usedbyYanta
and Gates(Ref.
as
201, results
and .9 i s t h e mean f r e e p a t h .
Knudsen number i s t o i n c r e a s et h e
( l l . l 7 ) ,t h ee f f e c to fi n c r e a s i n g
timeconstant.
p a t ht op a r t i c l ed i a m e t e ro f
s i g n i f i c a n tf o r
0.1.
Sincethetimeconstantincreasecan
low d e n s i t yf l o w s ,
Eq.
g a t i n gp a r t i c l er e s p o n s ei nt h e s e
law t o be v a l i d .
thelimitations
(11.17)
cases.
i s more a c c u r a t ef o ri n v e s t i -
it i sa p p r o p r i a t e
Thus, a t t h i s p o i n t ,
be
t o d i s c u s s some o f
on t h e u s e o f S t o k e s ' l a w f o r p a r t i c l e d r a g i n c o m p r e s s i b l e
flows.
A more d e t a i l e d d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t e x p r e s s i o n f o r l a r g e - d i f f e r e n t i a l
Walsh(Ref.
24) has
compared
normalshocks
i ns u p e r s o n i cf l o w
He concludesthattheuse
r e s u l t s compared t o t h e
r e s u l t so b t a i n e du s i n gS t o k e s d
' r a gc o e f -
numbers.
Flow f i e l ds t u d i e si n c l u d e d
365 sec".
o f S t o k e s 'l a wg e n e r a l l yy i e l d sc o n s e r v a t i v e
more a c c u r a t e d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t e x p r e s s i o n s ,
microns and v e l o c i t yg r a d i e n t s
decreasesasthe
f o r a widerange
and v e l o c i t y g r a d i e n t s u p t o
and i t
10% for p a r t i c l ed i a m e t e r sl e s s
o v e r p r e d i c t st h ev e l o c i t yl a gb yl e s st h a n
than
morecomplexexpressionswhichaccount
o f d i f f e r e n t i a l Reynolds and
Mach
Mach
up t o
333 sec'l.
T h i so v e r p r e d i c t i o n
i n i t i a l gas v e l o c i t yi n c r e a s e s ,t h ev e l o c i t yg r a d i e n t
creases, and t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e
decreases.Consideringotheruncertainties,
de-
suchasthe
shape o f t h e p a r t i c l e , t h e
considered t o beadequate
use o f S t o k e s ' d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t i s
for t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y ; t h e e x c e p t i o n b e i n g
l o wd e n s i t yf l o w s
The t i m ec o n s t a n td e f i n e db y
Eq.
i s recommended.
(11.14)
f o r s t u d y i n gt h ep a r t i c l el a gp r o b l e m .
definethefrequencyresponse
i s an e x t r e m e l yu s e f u lq u a n t i t y
to
it canbeused
domain, t h e
o f t h ep a r t i c l e .I nt h et i m e
a measure o f p a r t i c l e t r a n s i e n t
timeconstantis
(I1.151,
A s i n Eq.
response.
A s t e p change i n
v a l u e i n onetime
f o r example, i s reduced t o I / e o f i t s i n i t i a l
2
be
c o n s t a n t ,I / ei nt w ot i m ec o n s t a n t s ,e t c .
The r e l a x a t i o n 1 ength can also
v e l o c i t yl a g ,
d e t e r m i n e db yt h ep r o d u c to ft h et i m ec o n s t a n t
and t h e gas v e l o c i t y
As before,
will reduce t o l / e o f i t s i n i t i a l
i n onerelaxationlengththeparticlelag
v e l o c i t y ,e t c .
A c c o r d i n gt o
Eq.
s e n t sf l u i dm o t i o ni n
( I l . l h ) ,t h ef i d e l i t yw i t hw h i c hp a r t i c l em o t i o nr e p r e a specificflowcondition(test
beimprovedbyreducingtheparticlediameter
and density.Diameterreduction
i sp a r t i c u l a r l ye f f e c t i v es i n c et h et i m ec o n s t a n ti n c r e a s e sa c c o r d i n gt o
t e r squared.
is limited
As d i s c u s s e dp r e v i o u s l y ,
bythe
however, t h e minimum p a r t i c l ed i a m e t e r
minimum a c c e p t a b l e s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o .
An average p a r t i c l e d e n s i t y t o
c o n d i t i o n st y p i c a lo ft h o s ee n c o u n t e r e di nt r a n s o n i c
S e e d i n ga g e n t si n c l u d ed i o c t y lp h t h a l a t e
l a t e x (Ref.
diame-
19).
(DOP),
and supersonicwindtunnels.
siliconeoil,
and p o l y s t y r e n e
A r e v i e wo ft h es e v e r a lt y p e so fg e n e r a t o r sf o ri n t r o d u c i n g
s e e d i n gp a r t i c l e so fc o n t r o l l e ds i z ei sg i v e n
by Mazumder, B l e v i n s and K i r s c h
(Ref.25).Forseedinghightemperature
gas f l o w s ,p a r t i c l e sw i t hh l a h e rm e l t i n g
p o i n t sa r en e c e s s a r y .Z i r c o n i u md i o x i d e
Ref. 26.
To d e m o n s t r a t e t h e e f f e c t s o f p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r s , t h e f r e q u e n c y
of p a r t i c l e s w i t h
Io
pm i s shown i n F i g .
40 C e l s i u s( I 0 4
ofusing
OF).
A.11.5
been
response
0.5 pm t o
Theseresponsedata
c l e a r l yd e m o n s t r a t et h ed e s i r a b i l i t y
p a r t i c l e s w i t h a diameter of approximately
0 . 5 urn.
The timeconstants
A.11.6
as a f u n c t i o n
237
N.
1.0
0.5
0.1
Figure A . 1 1 . 5
EFFECT OF FARTICLE
DIAMETER
ON FREQUENCY
PXSXINSE
of p a r t i c l ed i a m e t e r
thisFigure
does n o t change s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h
tempera-
Machnumber.
effectwouldbeapparent
flow,
More
i n accord-
(11.17).
ance w i t h Eq.
Various criteria
may bechosen
todefinetherequireddegree
made when t h e p a r t i c l e l a g s t h e f l u i d m o t i o n b y
e -
f0.95
0.0523
T
no more than
5%, i.e.,
I nF i g s .
andMach
A.11.6
and 7,
it
o rl e s sa r er e q u i r e df o r
Urn
measurements up t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y
10kHz,
arenecessarytoextendaccurate
0.5 pm
and t h a td i a m e t e r sl e s st h a n
These g u i d e l i n e s
f l o w c o n d i t i o n s and t h e d e f i n i t i o n of anaccept-
a b l e amount o f p a r t i c l e l a g , b u t t h e y a r e i n g e n e r a l
c l u s i o n so fs e v e r a li n v e s t i g a t i o n s ,
basedupon
agreement w i t h t h e
bothexperimental
27) s t a t et h a tf o r
and Stevenson(Ref.
con-
and a n a l y t i c a l
a p a r t i c l et of o l l o w
transonicflowswithreasonableaccuracy,thediametershould
Asher(Ref.
A.11.7
m
o
t i o nI.n
Fig.
1 gm/cm3.
a p a r t i c l ed e n s i t yo f
i s d e m o n s t r a t e dt h a td i a m e t e r so ft h eo r d e ro f
r e s u l t s .P e d i g o
more than 5%
limit w i t h o u t r e a l i z i n g
limit i s shown as a f u n c t i o n o f p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r
a r e o b v i o u s l y dependenton
(11.18)
/V
'
95 i s t h e upperfrequency
t h i sf r e q u e n c y
of f l d e l i t y
I f it i s assumed t h a t adequatemeasurementscanbe
offrequencyresponse.
1 vm.
From
t u r e ,t h et i m ec o n s t a n t
where f o
t o 3.0,.
be lessthan
19)
and
Seasholtz
(Ref. 29) r e a c h s i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n s f o r r a t h e r w i d e l y v a r y i n g f l o w c o n d i t i o n s .
With r e g a r d to t u r b u l e n c e measurements i n boundarylayers,Yanta(Ref.
f o u n dt h a t
mean v e l o c i t y and t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n
w i t h b o t h 1 pm and 5 pm d i o c t y l p h t h a l a t e p a r t i c l e s
ment.Thesemeasurementswere
made i n aMach
v o r t i c e s andmustrespond
3 f l o wc h a n n e lo p e r a t i n ga to n e
w i t hr e s p e c t
A h o t ' w i r e mustrespond
t o a f i x e d( E u l e r i a n )
p a r t i c l e s canbeused
i nt u r b u l e n t
v o r t e xm o t i o n ,t h ep a r t i c l e sa r e
t o changes i n v e l o c i t y i n
w i t h theflow(Lagrangian).
boundary
moving w i t h t h e
a frame o f r e f e r e n c e
moving
t o changes i n v e l o c i t y
frame o f reference.
forturbulence
measurements
were i n v e r y c l o s e a g r e e -
atmospherestagnationpressure.Yantapointsoutthat
l a y e r flow, dominatedby
30)
As
a
consequence,
larger
measurements w i t h o u t p a r t i c l e l a g e f f e c t s .
239
h)
&
l x
l x
l x
lx
30
Parkj.de Diameter, p m
Figure A . 11.6
TIMECONSTANTAS
A FUNCTION
OF PARTICLEDIAMETER FOR
VARIOUS MACH NUMBERS,PARTICLE
D E N S I T Y = 1 gm/cc
0.1
10
1.0
P a r t i c l e Diameter,
Pm
F i g u r e A. I I .7 MAXIMUMFREQUENCYFOR
NO
MORE THAN 5% ATTENUATION
OF S I N U S O I D A LV E L O C I T Y
V A R I A T I O N SP, A R T I C L E
D E N S I T Y = 1 gm/cc
--
DataAnalysis
and Accuracy
The d a t a n o r m a l l y o b t a i n e d w i t h
a l a s e rv e l o c i m e t e ri n c l u d et h e
v e l o c i t y and t h et u r b u l e n c ei n t e n s i t yi n
By
be
o f t h et u r b u l e n c ec a na l s o
s p e c i a la n a l y t i c a lt e c h n i q u e s ,t h es p e c t r u m
derived
mean
An i n d i v i d u a l measurement o b t a i n e df r o mt h ev e l o c i m e t e r ,
r e p r e s e n tt h e
Ui,
i s taken t o
passage o f an i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e t h r o u g h t h e m e a s u r i n g
( i n d i v i d u a lr e a l i z a t i o n )s i n c et h i s
counter-typeprocessors.
occu'rence i s t y p i c a l o f
volume
high-speedflows
and
mean v e l o c i t y due t o t u r b u l e n c e ,n o i s e
andsystem
resolution.
The a c q u i s i t i o n
o f a l a r g e number o f measurements a r e t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y t o i m p r o v e t h e
accuracy o f b o t h t h e
a l a r g e number o f i n d i v i d u a l
measure-
ments i s
c ui
-
i= 1
N
(11.19)
9
U. i s
I
a s i n g l e v e l o c i t y measurement.
The s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f t h e v e l o c i t y p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n
is
( 1 I. 20)
If t h e e f f e c t s o f broadening o f theDopplerfrequencyspectrum
due t o
o r , i n general,
f i n i t e sample l e n g t h andphase
r e v e r s a l s( t r a c k e rp r o c e s s o r )
apparentvelocityfluctuations
due: t o n o i s e , e t c . , a r e n e g l i g i b l y s m a l l ,
thestandardvelocitydeviationisequaltothe
root-mean-squareturbulence
velocity
cu = u '
where U
= U
u ' , a n dt h et u r b u l e n c ei n t e n s i t yi s
( I 1.21)
U'
24 1
31% for the turbulence componentand from 0.1% to about 12% for the
mean velocity component. The larger errors are associated withhigh turbulence
intensities. The largest bias
that more high velocity particles will be measured than low velocity particles.
This bias occurs because the individual measurements are not randomly
distributed.
flow, the rate at which particles pass through the measuring volumeis weighted
T h i s form o f statistical bias is discussed
linearly with velocity, Fig. A . 1 1 . 8 .
by Barnett and Bentley (Ref. 33) and by HcLaughl in and Tiederman (Ref. 34).
1
ui
( I I .22)
i=l
Barnett and Bentley derive the correction to the biased (arithmetic] meanin
terms of the turbulence intensity as
N
( I 1.23)
242
Individual Measurements
or v e l o c i t y b i a s i n g has a l s o
The work t o d a t e o n i n d i v i d u a l r e a l i z a t i o n
been r e s t r i c t e d t o c o n s t a n t - d e n s i t y , v e l o c i t y - f l u c t u a t i o n f l o w s
l e n t boundarylayers.Thiswork
Furtherstudyis
suchasturbu-
assumes u n i f o r md e n s i t yo fs c a t t e r i n gp a r t i c l e s .
needed o f o t h e r f l o w f i e l d s
where theunsteadinessisdominated
byunsteadyshocks,acousticsources,etc.Insuchcases,significantdensity
v a r i a t i o n so c c u r ,
and d e n s i t y and v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n s
e m p t y - t e s t - s e c t i o ns u r v e y so f
mean v e l o c i t y i n
may be c o r r e l a t e d .F o r
w i n dt u n n e l s ,t u r b u l e n c ei ss u f -
f i c i e n t l y low t h a t t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f v e l o c i t y b i a s i n g t o t h e t o t a l
ment e r r o r wouldappear
Yanta(Ref.
d e t e r m i n i n gt h e
measure-
t o be minor.
f u n c t i o no ft h et u r b u l e n c ei n t e n -
For example,
sity.
(11.24)
When Z i s t h e
number o f s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o
dence l e v e l (1.645,
1.96 and2.58
a d e s i r e dc o n f i -
1imits,
"
r e s p e c t i v e l y ) , AU/U
istheerrorinthe
intensity.
The c o n f i d e n c e l i m i t s f o r t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f t h e v e l o c i t y p r o b abilitydistribution(the
rms t u r b u l e n c e ,u l )i sg i v e n
by
22
N =
(11.25)
~(Au'/u')~
WhereAu'
istheerrorinmagnitudeoftheturbulence,
and Z and N a r e a s
previously defined.
I nt h e
case o f w i n d t u n n e l c a l i b r a t i o n s , t h e
be s u f f i c i e n t l y l o n g t o
averagethelowestfrequency
unsteadiness.Therefore,therequired
t o morethan
10 seconds,which
component o f t u n n e l f l o w
may be o f t h e
t i m er e q u i r e dt oo b t a i nt h en e c e s s a r y
244
measurement periodshould
one
same o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e a s t h e
number o f l a s e r v e l o c i m e t e r
measurements,
dependingonthedatarate.
Some measurements i n t h e
s e v e r a lm i n u t e sp e rs t a t i o n .
An e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e
agreementbetween
laservelocimeter
and c o n v e n t i o n a l ,
(5) f o u n dt h a tf r e e s t r e a mv e l o c i t i e s
tunnels.Meyers,et.al.,inRef.
4.9
ured i n t h e
m (16-foot)LangleyTransonicTunnel
meas-
'
compared t o t h e t u n n e l
c a l i b r a t i o n measurements w i t h i n 22%;where
t h e u n c e r t a i n t y of t h e v e l o c i t y
be +I%.
based o nt h et u n n e lc a l i b r a t i o ni ss t a t e dt o
from 10 t o 15 m i c r o n s ,t h ea u t h o r sd i d
used t o seed t h e f l o w r a n g e d i n s i z e
notconsiderparticlelagto
ficantlag
be a problem i n t h e t e s t s e c t i o n ; a l t h o u g h s i g n i -
was p r e s e n t i n t h e f l o w a c c e l e r a t i n g s e c t i o n o f t h e t u n n e l .
Measurements i n t h e
0.6 t o 1.5 a r er e p o r t e d
rangefrom
by Smith e t a l . i n
e s t i m a t ef o rt h ec o n v e n t i o n a lc a l i b r a t i o nd a t a
p e r c e n ta t
Mach0.6
t o 0.5
v e l o c i t y measurement ( a t t h e
2.7 percent.Comparison
at
basedon
(8).
Ref.
The e r r o r
rangesfromapproximatelytwo
Mach 1.5.
p e r c e n ta t
ofcenterlinecalibrationdata,
only at
A l t h o u g ht h ep a r t i c l e s
f l u l t i p l e - p o i n ta x i a ls u r v e y s
pressuremeasurements,wereobtained
w i t h a single-point,pressure-calibration,
same p o i n t o nt h et u n n e lc e n t e r l i n e )o f
o ft h ea x i a ld i s t r i b u t i o n so b t a i n e d
2.5 t o
bybothtechniques
A t Mach 0.8,
t h ed i f f e r e n c e s
216rnps,
and t h e u n c e r t a i n t y
bands overlapped.
I n t e r e s t i n g l y ,a l l
1.4
a mean
o f t h ev e l o c i t i e s
meas-
from
u r e dw i t ht h el a s e rv e l o c i m e t e rw e r eh i g h e rt h a nt h ev e l o c i t i e sd e t e r m i n e d
pressure and temperature measurements.
d i f f e r e n c e ,b u to b v i o u s l yp a r t i c l el a g
No e x p l a n a t i o n was o f f e r e df o rt h e
was n o t a f a c t o r .
made w i t h n a t u r a l l y - p r e s e n t , l i g h t - s c a t t e r i n g p a r t i c l e s i n t h e f l o w .
F l o w a n g u l a r i t y measurements were a l s o made w i t h t h e
velocimeter,whichdemonstratedtheabilityto
w i t hd e v i a t i o n sr a n g i n gf r o m
a f u n c t i o no ft h e
angularity data
2.015degree
rms d e v i a t i o n s o f t h e
2-component l a s e r
make a n g u l a r i t y measurements
t o 2.25 degrees.
The d e v i a t i o n s a r e
component v e l o c i t i e s .
werepresentedforcomparison.
No conventional
This test demonstrated the capability for measuring the flaw angularity
andan
average o f t h e f l o w f l u c t u a t i o n s i n b o t h m a g n i t u d e
The two t e s t sd e s c r i b e ds h o u l d
demonstrationsonly
and s h o u l d n o t
and d i r e c t i o n .
be regarded as o p e r a t i o n a l f e a s i b i l i t y
be regardedasthebestaccuracycurrently
a v a i l a b l e .F u r t h e r ,s i n c et h el a s e rv e l o c i m e t e rd a t aa r e
compared t o conven-
t i o n a l c a l i b r a t i o n d a t a w i t h a s t a t e d a c c u r a c y o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50.5 t o +2.0
percent, an a b s o l u t e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e l a s e r v e l o c i m e t e r a c c u r a c y c a n n o t
be
made f r o m t h e s e r e s u l t s .
ofthe
Johnson(Ref.
agreementbetween
and by c o n v e n t i o n a lP i t o t
flow v e l o c i t y measurements b yt h el a s e rv e l o c i m e t e r
and s t a t i c probes.
ments a r e somewhat l i m i t e d i n
These f r e e s t r e a mv e l o c i t y
measure-
from boundarylayer
scope s i n c et h e ya r eo b t a i n e d
v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e measurements; nevertheless,agreementwithin
0.5% i s demonstra-
ted.
The l a s e r v e l o c i m e t e r y i e l d s
a d i r e c t measurement o f f l o w v e l o c i t y , w h i l e
t h e Mach number i s r e q u i r e d f o r c a l i b r a t i o n
ment, thestagnationtemperature,
t i o n ,t h el o c a ls t a t i ct e m p e r a t u r e
A second measure-
o f windtunnels.
i s thereforerequired.Usingtheenergy
canthen
equa-
.be determinedfromthemeasured
velocity
Where Tw i st h et e s ts e c t i o nt e m p e r a t u r ec o r r e s p o n d i n gt o
Vm,
To i st h es t a g -
i st h es p e c i f i ch e a ta tc o n s t a n tp r e s s u r e ,
R i st h e
P
heats.
The l o c a l Mach number
gas c o n s t a n t , and y i s t h e r a t i o o f s p e c i f i c
nationtemperature,
am
"W
"m
( I I .28)
246
A.II.9
shown i n F i g .
From thesedata,
measurements o f b o t h v e l o c i t y
i sn o tb e l i e v e dt o
40 Celsius.
f o r a s t a g n a t i o nt e m p e r a t u r eo f
a v e l o c i t y measurement accuracyofabout
Thisaccuracy
and s t a g n a t i o n
o f +_O.OOl
0.1% i n t h e t r a n s o n i c
requires
speed range.
be w i t h i nt h es t a t e - o f - t h e - a r ta tp r e s e n t .
Conclusions
The advantages and disadvantages of t h e l a s e r v e l o c i m e t e r
may besummarized
as f o l l o w s :
Advantages
1.
flow,
No p r o b eo ro t h e rd e v i c ei n t r o d u c e di n t ot h e
i .e
., non-
pertubing.
2.
measurement o fv e l o c it y and ve l o c i t y f l u c t u a -
P r o v i d e sd i r e c t ,l i n e a r
ti ns;no
calibrationrequired.
3.
Ab l i t y t o measure r e v e r s i n g f l o w s .
4.
5.
components.
vo ume.
6.
Ca
be r e a l i z e d as an i n h e r e n t l yd i g i t a li n s t r u m e n t .
D isadvantages
1.
Complex, expensiveequipmentrequired
2.
Measurement o f h i g h - v e l o c i t y f l o w s i n l a r g e t u n n e l s w i t h
an a i r t e s t
medium p r e s e n t ss p e c i a lp r o b l e m sw i t hr e g a r dt os i n g l e - t o - n o i s er a t i o ,
frequencyresponse,
and s e n s i t i v i t y o f equipment t o t u n n e l v i b r a t i o n ,
temperature,etc.
3.
Furtherdevelopment
needed t o i m p r o v es i g n a lp r o c e s s o r ,p a r t i c u l a r l y
withregardtodatavalidationfeatures,rejection
of l a r g e p a r t i c l e s ,
etc.
4.
5.
Signal-to-noise ratio
may p r e c l u d e a c c u r a t e t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t y
measurements a t lowlevels,i.e.,
6.
change.
techniques.
7.
Takes e x c e s s i v e t i m e t o
make t h e s u r v e y s r e q u i r e d f o r w i n d t u n n e l
calibration.
247
.WO
.018
,016
To = 3UK
.014
.012
-"
aTo
.010
1/OK
0.08
.006
0.04
.002
0
0
Mach No.
Figure A. I I -9
248
Nomenclature
aaD
=P
DO
sf trreaeecaomuvsetliocc i t y
specificheatatconstantpressure
i n i t i a l diameter o f l a s e r
beam
d0
diameter o f l a s e r beams a t t h e f o c a l p o i n t o f t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g l e n s
particle. diameter
Fe
fd
fo. 95
f o c a ll e n g t ho ft k a n s m i t t i n gl e n s
(Eq.
body f o r c e so np a r t i c l e
Dopp 1 er frequency
11.11)
, Hz
frequency a t which p a r t i c l e m o t i o n i s a t t e n u a t e d
s t a t es i n u s o i d a lf l u i dm o t i o n
5% r e l a t i v e t o s t e a d y
m
Knudsen number
Cunningham c o n s t a n t (Eq.
mean f r e e p a t h
llV
l e n g t h o f measuringvolume
Machnumber
sample s i z e
Nf
r
number o f f r i n g e s i n
NH
NL
R
S
TO
I I . 17)
measu'r i n g volume
number o f p u l s e s c o u n t e d i n t h e h i g h . r e g i s t e r
number o f pulsescounted
inthe
o f a counterprocessor
low r e g i s t e r o f a counterprocessor
constant
gas
Lap1
opera
ace
tor
stagnationtemperature
249
TP
t i m e c o n s t a n t d e f i n l n g p a r t i c l e response to v a r i a t i o n s i n f l u i d o
l
fw
v e l o c i t y , seconds
To3
freestream
temperature
time,seconds
t'
dumny v a r i a b l e (Eq.
v e l o c i t y component n o m 1 to f r i n g e p a t t e r n and t o b i s e c t o r o f
theangleformedby
two I n t e r s e c t i n g l a s e r beams
-U
uC
11.11)
mean v e l o c i t y
mean v e l o c i t y , c o r r e c t e d
for v e l o c i t y b i a s
U'
rms t u r b u l e n c e v e l o c i t y
Au I
error i n magnitude o f t u r b u l e n c e v e l o c i t y
f
lw v e l o c i t y
gas o
9
""
particle velocity
number o f s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a d e s i r e d c o n f i d e n c e
l e v e l (Eq. I I .24).
Greek
Y
r a t i o of s p e c i f f c h e a t s
beam s e p a r a t i o n d i s t a n c e a t t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g o p t i c s
bf
f r i n g es p a c i n gi nm e a s u r i n g
volume
wavelength o f l a s e r l i g h t
intersectionto
formthe
v i s c o s i t y o f gas
density of
pP
a
250
gas
density of particle
standard deviation of v e l o c i t y p r o b a b i l i t y - d i s t r i b u t i o n - f u n c t i o n
.-;
.
.. .
I
25 1
REFERENCES
1.
2.
" L o c a l i z e dF l u i dF l o w
Measurements w i t h .an
Vo1. 4 pp 176-178, 1964.
. .
3.
4.
5.
"BibliographyonLaser
U. S . Army
1975.
6.
7.
Lo, C . F: "TransonicFlowField
Measurements Using a LaserVelocimeter,"
Proceedings o f t h e M i n n e s o t a
Symposium onLaser Anemometry, U n i v e r s i t y
o f Minnesota, 1975.
a.
A E D C - ~ ~ - 7 -11 65,
,
9.
10.
Yanta, W.
TR 73-94,
J.
I'
T r o l i n g e r ,J .
D .: " L a s e rI n s t r u m e n t a t i o nf o rF l o wF i e l dD i a g n o s t i c s , "
AGARDograph No. 186, 1974.
11.
" I n v e s t i g a t i o n on C a l i b r a t i o n so fB a s i cP a r a m e t e r sf o r
Meyers,J.
F.:
NASA TN 0-6125, 1971.
t h e A p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e LaserDopplerVelocimeter,
12.
Orloff,Ki
and
Logan,
S. E.: llCofocal
Backscatter
Laser
Velocimeter
w i t h On-Axis S e n s i t i v i t y , ' 'A p p l i e dO p t i c s ,
\ I . 12, No. 10, 1973.
13.
Fridman,
J.
D.
Young, R. M.; Seavey, R. E. and O r l o f f , K. L.:
"Modular
HighAccuracyTrackers
f o r DualChannel
LaserDopplerVelocimeter,''Pro-.
ceedings o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f
Minnesota Symposium onLaser Anemometry,
14.
1975.
Asher,J.
A.:
"LaserVelocimeter
SystemDevelopmentand
Testinq."
Progress i nA s t r o n a u t i c s and Aeronautics, V.34 pp 141-166, Massachusetts
I n s t i t u t e o f Technology, 1974.
1516.
T_u_rbglence,- A n . - I n t r o d u c t i o n t o i t s
Hfnze, J. D.:
pp. 354-355, McGraw H i 1 1, New York, 1959.
Soo, S. L.:
Co.,
17.
F l u i d Dynamics o M
f ultiphase
Walthan, Mass., 1967.
Mechanismand
Systems,
Theory,
B l i a s d e lP
l ublishing
Base, T. E.:
"The M o t i o no fA e r o s o lP a r t i c l e si n
a Computed Turbulent
F ~ O Model
W
t o DeterminetheAccuracyof
a L.D.V.
System,"
Proceedings
of the Minnesota Symposium on Laser Anemometry, U n i v e r s i t y o f Minnesota,
1975.
18.
F e l l e r , W.
W.
andMeyers,
J. F.:
"Development of a C o n t r o l l a b l e P a r t i c l e
Generator f o r LV Seeding i n Hypersonic Wind Tunnels,"Proceedingsof
Minnesota Symposium onLaser Anemometry, U n I v e r s i t y o f Mfnnesota, 1975.
19.
20.
21.
Epstein, P. S.:
22.
Physical Review,V.23
o f a LaserDopplerVelocimeter
Albuquerque, N.M.,
1971.
(1324) p. 710.
N.
23
Walsh, M. J.,
Speed Flows,"
24.
Walsh, M. J . :" I n f l u e n c eo f
Drag C o e f f i c i e n tE q u a t i o n s on P a r t i c l e
Motion Calculations," Proceedings of the tlinnesota
Symposium on Laser
Anemometry, U n i v e r s i t y o f Minnesota, 1975.
25.
Mazumder, M. K.; B l e v i n s , C. W
. and Kirsch, K. J . : I'Wind TunnelFlow
Seeding f o r LaserVelocImeterApplications,"ProceedingsoftheMinnesota
Symposium asLaserAnemmetry,UniversityofMinnesota,
1975.
26.
27
28.
H a e r t i g , J . , InformalPresentation,Proceedingsofthe
Workshop onLaserDopplerVelocimetry,PurdueUniversity,
Second I n t e r n a t i o n a l
1974.
253
29
30
1974.
31.
George, W
. K., "The Measurement of Turbulence Intensities Using Real-Time
Laser Doppler Velocimetry," Proceedingsof the Second International Workshop on Laser Velocimetry, Purdue University,1974.
32.
Flack, R.D.
and Thompson, H. D., "The LVD's Potential in Understanding
Turbulent Structure,'' Proceedings of the Minnesota Symposium
on Laser
Anemometry, University of Minnesota, 1975.
33.
34. McLaughlin, D.
35
Yanta, W. J. and Smith, R . A., "Measurement of Turbulence Transport Properties with a Laser Doppler Velocimeter,''AlAA Paper No. 73-169, Jan. 1973.
36.
38.
39.
254
APPENDIX 1 1 1
EFFECTS OF VIBRATION OF A CYLINDRICAL PROBE
Intheprocessofcollectingmaterialforwritingabout
pressure measurements, t h eq u e s t i o na r o s e
a f f e c t e db yv i b r a t i o no f
a probe.
causedbyunsteadycross-flow
1).
(Ref.
mean s t a t i c
The problem o f e r r o r i n
measured pressure
The f o l l o w i n gd i s c u s s i o ni st a k e nf r o mt h i sr e f e r e n c e .
Some i n s i g h t i n t o t h e p r o b l e m o f
a probe i n an unsteadycross-flow
can be o b t a i n e d by use o f an i d e a l i z e d f l o w
model t h a ti g n o r e sv i s c o s i t y .
Consider a c y l i n d r i c a l p r e s s u r e p r o b e o f d i a m e t e r d , s u b j e c t e d t o
see Fig. A.III.1.
u n s t e a d yc r o s s - v e l o c i t yV n ( t ) ,
a x i a lv e l o c i t yU ( t )
i s neglected.
a uniform,
Any c o u p l i n ge f f e c to ft h e
Assuming t h ef l o wt o
be i r r o t a t i o n a l ,t h e
a p p r o p r i a t ep o t e n t i a lf u n c t i o ni s :
(r +
= Vn
The unsteadyform
p (r,
d2
r)
COS
of the
n, t )
n.
Bernou l l i equat i o n g i v e s :
p (vn2
Pt(t) = "
2
- v 2, +
n
a4
at
where,
P ( t )i st h ep r e s s u r ew h i c hw o u l d
have o c c u r r e da t
theprobe
P (Tl,t)
absence o f
A t t h es u r f a c eo ft h ep r o b e
( i . e . ,t h e' t r u e 'p r e s s u r e ) .
t h ep r e s s u r ee q u a t i o n
r = 0 i nt h e
( r = d/2)
becomes:
Pt(d = 1
2 P 'n
The f i r s t t e r mo nt h er i g h t
t i o nf o rs t e a d yp o t e n t i a lf l o w .
(1
4 Sin2n ) + p t n d Cos n
hand s i d ei sr e c o g n i z e d
as t h ep r e s s u r ed i s t r i b u -
The second t e r ma r i s e sf r o mu n s t e a d i n e s s .
For a p r e s s u r ep r o b ew h i c hr e g i s t e r st h ee x a c tc i r c u m f e r e n t i a la v e r a g e
P(n,t),
(e.g.,by
(111.1)
means o f a c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l s l i t ) t h e e r r o r
will be:
of
P,(t)
Pt(t)
.where P,(t)
$P
vn 2
= measured unsteady s t a t i c p r e s s u r e .
I nt h i si d e a ls i t u a t i o nt h ep a r to ft h ep r e s s u r ed i s t r i b u t i o na s s o c i a t e d
Vn does n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e e r r o r .
withtheaccelerationterm
A realprobe
will n o tt a k e
Pt(t) =
1 p Vn2
P(n).
K p ind
(in
cm ( 1 / 8i n . )d i a m e t e rp r o b ew i t h
wVn).
a s i n g l e row o f o r i f i c e s
c a l i b r a t i o n s . B yu s i n g
on e i t h e r t h e t o p
(Ill-I)
Eq.
o f 5% and V
5% of t h e V n e r r o r a t
t ot h eq u e s t i o n n a i r e ,
e r r o r becomes
N e v e r t h e l e s s ,f o r
an averaginginaccuracy
K p i n d i s lessthan
Based onresponses
\in
I f we regard Vn as s i n u s o i d a l ,t h e
i n c r e a s i n g l yi m p o r t a n w
t i t hf r e q u e n c y
m/sec (10 f t / s e c ) ,
an
K ( < 1 )r e p r e s e n t st h ef r a c t i o n a li n a c c u r a c y
R o u g h l ys p e a k i n g ,t h ec o e f f i c i e n t
o ft h ea v e r a g eo v e r
therefore,
in
may a r i s e .
a d d i t i o n a le r r o rp r o p o r t i o n a lt o
P,(t)
P(rl);
an exactaverageover
a 0.318
n
100 Hz.
3.05
many i n v e s t i g a t o r s havelocated
or sideof
a l o n gp i p ef o rt u n n e l
w i t h 11 = 0 ( o r i f i c e s on e i t h e r t o p
a n da s s u m i n gt h ep i p eo s c i l l a t e ss i n u s o i d a l l y ,
o r bottom)
one can e s t i m a t e t h e e r r o r i n
measured, mean s t a t i cp r e s s u r e ,i . e . ,
P(0, t )
P (t) =
t
T1
Taking a timeaverageover
P,(O)
p Vn
(t)
( I 11.2)
one c y c l e r e s u l t s i n
2 T
p \ip(t)d.
V 2(t) dt +
O n
T
0
i n ( t d) t ,
( I 11.3)
where T = p e r i o d o f o s c i l l a t i o n .
Before we canproceed
must be assumed.
256
any f u r t h e r , a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f r e q u e n c y
For c a l c u l a t i o np u r p o s e s
we here assumea
and amplitude
frequency o f 100Hz.
'8
Vn
' .
in =
= Aw coswt
D =
-AU
2 srnwt.
a*.
6.89 = -
2 2
2wt) d t - P A w
(111.4)
It may be noted from Eq. ( 1 11-41 that the required amplitude increases as
error is
Figure A. I I I . 1
I Goingthroughthe
an a m p l i t u d e o f
s t a t i cp r e s s u r et o
same p r o c e d u r e w i t h
cm (0.145 i n . ) i s p r e d i c t e d t o
cause t h e measured,
2
(0.001 p s i ) .S i n c el a r g et e n s i o n
or
be low by 6.89 N/m
on s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s u r v e y p i p e s t o m i n i -
it appears u n l i k e l y t h a t p i p e v i b r a t i o n i s
e r r o r .A l t h o u g ht h i sc o n c l u s i o ni s
analysis,
90" ( o r i f i c e s o n s i d e o f p i p e ) ,
0.368
compressionloadsareusuallyplaced
mize sag,
n =
it i sc o n s i d e r e dt o
estimateof
based on
an
a s i g n i f i c a n ts o u r c eo f
i n v i s c i d ,i n c o m p r e s s i b l e
be c o n s e r v a t i v e( i . e . ,g i v e s
A) because o f t h e n e g l e c t o f
a lower bound
pneumatic damping i n t u b i n g w h i c h
connect o r i f i c e s w i t h p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s .
A.III
1.
REFERENCES
APPENOIX I V :
TABLE I
Faci 1i t y
Organlratlon
& ion
Locat
Re/m x
@ H
1.0
4' T r i s o n l c
26" Transonic
16-Inch
.Supersonic W
High Speed WT
Continuous
Supersonic WT
Pilot
WT
Supersonic WT
Supersonlc
Tunnel No. 1
T r l s o n l c G.F.
Mach
3 Hi-Re
12" T r ison i c
24.6
B 1owdown
31
Farm1nadale.N.Y.
ETH Zurich,
Swltz.
NLR Amsterdam,
Hol land
II
- 0.95
I . 2-2 (2.5)
II
1.2
II
Aero. Res. U n i t
Pretoria, S.Afr.
Cont
Cont.
10.40 m s q .
1.6 x 2.0 m2
I
I
1935
( F i r s t . Cont. S.W.1
1959
Bd
2
10.27 x 0.27 m
1.0
14.1
Cont.
1956
21
Bd
v m uIe
2
1.2 x 1.2 m
n . s Y 1 . 7 nl2
1963
2
0.38 x 0.33 m
1956
0.38 x 0.38 m:
0.61 x 0.61 m
N.A.
4.0
5.0
- 1.2
- 4.76
2.97 - 3.0:
-
2.5
2.1
- 3.5
o*6 - 4*2
2.0
- 7.5
3.5 - 19
7
Run Tlme
1.5
o.36
1957
0.66 m Octagon
92
(H = 1.2)
50
30
1.25
0.5
60.7
nsert.5-1.2
1.2
5.8
II
U.S. Army
Aberdeen, Md.
USAF-FDL
10.3
WPAB, Ohio
USAF
ARL
WPAFB , Ohio
Sandia Albuquerque, N.M.
NASA Lewis R.C.
Cleveland,Ohio
.37
Productlon Testlng
Began
54
(M = 1.25)
h
3.3
33
Cont
71
Cont.
27
359
Bd
16.4
Bd
15
(M = 2.0)
- 11
12 - 30
.. . ....
1960
1970
0.305 x2
0.305 m
1956
FACILITIES RESPONDING TO
OUESTIONNAIRE
APPENDIX I V :
TABLE I
Organlzatlon
Location
Faci I i t v
BAC
Preston, Eng.
I .2 m HSWT
NAE
S u c t l a n W . T . d a
Tr i sonic
II
t3lowdown Wf
30" x 16"
0.4
0.1
0.4
4.0
4.4
0.15
0.95
1.2
II
HRN-PDT
,.
Cross-Sect ion
1960
Suction
1.22 x 1.22 m
2
0.76 x 0.41 m
1.52 x 1.52 m
Bd
1964
Bd
2
0.38 x 1.52 m
1969
341
Cont.
0.34 m Octagon
1974
( M = 0.9)
11.8 - 16.1
Cont.
2
2.0 x 2.92 m
1946
74
15.1
13.45
Production Testlng
Began
Tvne
21
2.0
Re/m x
@ M = 1.0
1.37 x 1.37 m
6" x 28"
II
Unitary
Plan Wl
I 6 l Transonic
T
I
11
0.2
I
II
Pressure Tun.
0.2
Northrop
0.20
Hawthorne, Ca. 11.5
P i c a t i n n y Arsen0.2
a l , Dover, N.J.
1.20
1.2
1.47
II
8 ' Transonic
2 ' Trisonic
High Speed
Subsonlc WT
0.3
I'
Transonic Wl
Transon ic
DynamicsTun.
1.3
1.3
1.3
3.0
0.76
I2
1.3
0.28
13.8
15.3
49
(M = 0.6)
11.12
12.96. .
".
15.2 x 72.4cm
Bd
98.4
,
'4.88 m x 4.88m
(1.05-2.53)
air
(8.04-19.7)Freon
2.86 2.6 - 28 (k1.5)
4.63 1.6
20("2.3)2.29
32.8
Cont.
Conto
0.61 m corner
f i1 l e t s
1.22 x 1.22In2
1952
1948
1974
1960
1955
Cont.
A.72 m Oct.
1950
Cont.
2
'2.16 x 2.16 rn
1952
Bd
0.61 m
sq.
1962
N.A.
APPENDIX I V :
F A C I L I T I E S RESPONDING TO OUESTIONNAIRE
TABLE I
TY Pe
Productlon Testing
Began
Cross-Section
2
Bd
0.42 x 0.41 m
Bd
2
0.71 x 0.51 m
lndraft
1956
N.A.
1973
7
Polysonic \-IT
Tunnel A
ryz;
kcDonnel1-Doug 1as
U I S . Mo.
,G;:z
Bd
10.66
m sq.
1965
Cont.
11.02 m sq.
1958
ac.AEDC/ARO
II
Tunnel D
Ludwi eg
be
Tu
P i l o t HlRT
echn ion
Transon i c
2
!18*6x23*2 cm 1N.A.
Induction
0.8 x 0.6 m2
1968
i
I Bd
0 . 3 0 m Sa.
1960
40 x 50 cm S W l
2
0.4 x 0.5 m
1968
ockwel I I n t .
1 Sequndo. Ca.
? 3 k n ic
Transonic W
24' x 23'
SWr
1
2.13
I Bd
1958
m SQ.
bedford, Eng.
II
Cont.
0.69x0.76
"
. ,.. .
1959
m2
"
.. .
~~
(Research Only)
WT
30 cm
~~
APPENnlX I V :
FACILITIES RESPONDING TO
OUESTIONNAIRE
TABLE I
Re/m x
Organization
& Location
Faci 1 it y
@ M = 1.0
Cross-Section
Type
Bd
0.305x0.406m2
Production Testing
Began
1964
1956
WRE Salisbury,
s. Aust.
15-lnch SWT
Transon
wT
ic
WT
WT9
ARLMe1 bourne,
V o l v oT r o l l h a t t e n
Sweden
Aust.
II
1.4
I1
s3 Bd W l
0.4
2.8
Boe ing
Tranyznlc WT
Lockheed
Triqn,nic
HS
- TWT
6.56
1.5
1.4
23
1.4
3.2
4*0
(M = 1.5)
29
55
(M = 1.2)
19.7 - 45.9
II
0.
B u f f a l o , N.Y.
(M = 2.8)
16.4 - 65.6
--
0.2
w-r
5.0
o,5
0.4
I1
Lockheed
Saugus, C a l i f .
Hawker-Siddeley
Hatfield.Enaland
3.3
3.28
Boe ing
Boe ing
Supersonic WF. Seattle, Wash.
2D-TWT
- o.38
1.0
2.8
0.2
0.5
1.25
b9
26.25
77.1
5.0
1.1
1-34
Cont.
0.38x0.38
1957
Bd
17.8x15.2
2
cm
1966
Cont.
0.81x0.53
Bd
0.5x0.5
Bd
0.5 x0.5
Bd
1.22x1.22
rn
14.8
10.2
1.3
28
67.9
11.5
18
42
2
2
2
2
m
0.305x0.91
Bd
2.44 m x 3.668
0.61 m corner
tr I l e t
2
1.22x1.22 m
Cont.
1.11
Bd
0.76x0.61
Cont.
Cont. 6' low
Re; Interm. 2.44 m Sq.
2
m
V a r i a b l e Dia,
0.81m-l.52m
.
1952
1962
1957
1965
1944
1
9
h
0
1954
1956
zg'"
Tube,
1957
1966
APPENDIX
IV:
RESPONDING TO OUESTIONNAIRE
FACILITIES
TABLE I
Re/rn x
@ M = 1.0
Organization
Faci 1 i ty
(M = 1.5)
0.47
23.6
Cont.
3.51x0.46
20'' SGrr
VoughtCorp.
10.5
High Speed W
l Dal las. Texas
Pro ulsion LIT Fac
Aerodyn. WT
AED!/ARO
Tulla- 10.2
1T
,ho-.
Aerodyn. WT
II
0.1
4T
1.6
Propu 1 s ion Vf
It
0.2
-16T
Propulsion W
l
II
16s
14" Trisonic
1.5
1.5
17
1.3,
1.3
7.0
&
1.6
4.75
1 1 I Transonic
LIT
2' Transonic
22.5
II
Injector-Driw In
II
Transonic W
l
9' x 7' Super
II
sonic WT
8 ' x 7' Super
I1
sonic WT
0.2
0.98
- 23
(M = 2.0)
1.3 - 8.4
1.3
2.1
12
- 1.4
- 1.4
2.45
2.5
3.5
10.305 m Sq.
Cont.
1.22 rn Sq.
1968
Cont.
4.88
1957
Cont.
5.4
1953
6.7
12
16.7
1946
4.11x4.18 m
32
Cont.
3.35 m
Sq.
1956
23.5
Cont.
0.61 rn Sq.
1951
Con t
Cont.
167
71.7
- . 17.
.
3.44 m Sq.
Cont.
(M = 2.5)
1956
16.5
(M = 2.0)
7
I961
0.356 rn Sq.
Cont.
I
rn sq.
4-tuLa3.q-
Bd
0 - 1.0,
1.2. 1.4
1.55
1950
1
0.4
Cont.
Huntsvi 1 le,Ala.
12' Pressure NASA Ames RC
0.wr
Moffett Field,Ca.
14' Transonic
w-r
rn
Production
5.0
W
T
w-r
Testing
Cross-Section
Began
Type
, .. .
Con t .
1956
Pilot Model
.. ..
1956
1956
APPENDIX
IV: FACILITIES
RESPONDING
TABLE I
Faci 1 i t y
61 x
61
sonic WT
Organitat ion
& Locat ion
Super-NASA
Ames
f eFt ti e l d ,
RC MofCa.
II
CWT
Supersonic
Tunnel No. 1
Supersonic
Tunnel No. 2
Boundary Layer
1
NSWC Hypersonic Tunnel
Uaval Surf.Weapon
Zntr.,Silver Spg.
II
II
II
Aero.Res.lnst.
Tunnel FFA-Sb (FFA)Stockholrn,Sb
Transon ic TunII
n e l FFA-HT
I
I
Tr isonic Tonne;
=FA-TVM 500
II
Tunnel FFA-S5
II
II
6-Ft TWT
x 4-Ft*
'*
TWT
Royal Airc.Est.
Bedford.Enqland
DFVLR
Gottingen,W.Ger.
TO OUESTIONNAIRE
APPENDIX IV:
I
I
0 . 6 rn Sq.
1966
0.5 rn Sq.(M>I
0.6x0.34 rn2
0.25-0.50 m
0.81 m D l a .
1970
APPENO I X IV
TABLE I I :
Facllf t y
TEST
SECTION
CHARACTERISTICS
Cross-Section
90 SW
1.27cm,
300 Top & Bot.
Perforated
NAL (India)
1.22 m Sq.
GAC (NY)
0.66 m Octagon
Slotted
~
ETH (Swi t z )
(Cont Id)
Porosltv
20% sw
lot o -2O
EJector Flaps
12% & 6%
0. oso
-Ejector Flaps
12% T E B
0.13'
l O % T &B
0.22O
6%TsB
Venting of Plenum
Chamber
WallAnqle
~~
Sol i d
0.4 m Sq.
NLR (HST
.Hal land)
1.6 x2
NLR (CSST)
0.27 x.27
NLR (PT)
2
0.55 x 0.42 m
NLR (SST)
2
1.2 x 1.2 m
U . S . Army
(SSTl)
0.38x0.33
WPAFB (TGF)
0.38 x 0.38 mL
2
m
Slotted
(T & B)
Solid
5 cm,40cm
I
I
2
m
Slotted
(T & B)
'
Sol i d
~
t-
WPAFB (M3HR)
20.3 x 20.3cm2
Sand i a (TWT)
0.305 x 0.305 m2
Solid
12%
O0
'EJectorFlaps
I
I
2.44 x
1.83 m2
3.05 x 3.05 m2
ARU (SWT)
0.45x0.'45
Perforated
0.318 cm,
30'
'
6%
lo
EJectorFlaps
6%
O0
Aux i 1 i a r y Pumps
I
~
Perforated
0'.'6O T E B
l A u x i l i a r y Pumps
APPENDIX IV
TABLE I I :
(Cont'd)
Wall Anqle
Fac i
BAC (HSWT)
lJAE (Su
WT)
1.22 x 1.22 m
Perforated
0.76 x 0.41 m
Slotted
1.6 cm,
90'
0.58 cm,
19%
4.7 cm
O0
Perforated
(T
B)
0.38
9RA (TWT)
2.44 x 2.74 m2
1.27
P e r f o r a t e d cm,
4 f M (SWT)
0.305 x 0.406 m2
Solid
1-52 m
1.27cm,
Perforated
E j e c t o rF l a p s
lo
-0.5'
NAE (2DT)
Venting o f Plenum
Chamber
to-.25'
E j e c t o r F 1 aps
90'
20.5%
T E B
O0
'
0
9
22.5%
O0
9ux i 1 i a r y Pumps
22%
O0
E j e c t o rF l a p s
O0
E j e c t o r F 1 aps
0.185 cm,
90'
0.5'
Volvo (WTl)
Volvo (Wr9)
Boeing (SWT)
Boe 1 ng
(2D-TWT)
2
0.5 x 0.5 m
1 0.5
1
x 0.5 m2
1.22 x 1.22 m2
0.305
2
0.91 m
I
1
Slotted
(T G B)
?
I
4%T&B
0.21O
E l e c t o rF l a p s
Sol i d
Sol i d
Perforated
(T & B)
1.03 cm, 90
34.1% T&B
O0
E j e c t o rF l a p s
APPENDIX IV
TABLE I I :
Faci 1 it y
Cross-Section
2.44
(TWT)
Lockheed (TWT)
x 3*66
p;fleTscorner
1.22x1.22
m2
Hawker
(Cont'd)
TEST
SECTION
CHARACTERISTICS
HoleSize/Angle o r
Wall Type Slot Width/Soaciu PorQsjtv
Slotted
7.45 cm,70.41 cm 11% 3.5%
tJithinsertsTdB
47.31 cm SW
'*''
cm* 'O0
Perforated
S l o t t e d T&B 2.54 cm, 10.80 cm
Perf. InsertsO.10 cm, goo
3.9%
1.22 x 1.22 m
4.72 m Octagon
Slotted
2.16 x 2.16 mz
Slotted
LRC(1/3mTCT)
0.34 m Octagon
Slotted
to 1.727 cm 14 cm
LRC
(HST)
2.0 x 2 . 9 2 m
Slotted
I . 37 x 1.37 m
Solid
Slotted
NC ( 2 l TWT)
0.61 m Sq.
(''I'
Tbn)
-0.17'
Ejector Flaps
Ejector Flaps
Sol i d
'0
3-6% T&E
4.8%
12.5%
TL R
Slotted
Holes
10.61 m Dia.
0.42 x 0.41 m
Solid
Perforated
I
0.48 cm,
30'
O0
A u x i l i a r y Pumps &
Ejector Flaps
O0
F i x e dS l o t s
t o +lo E j e c t o r F l a p s
-2/3'
10%
'
IO0 10'
0.25
SW
o-,,h~TFR F i x e d E j e c t o r S l o t s
Ejector Flaps or
0.083'
Vent Ins t o Atm.
0-125;
Auxi I i a r y Pumps
0.75'
0,083'
no
TF.R
PA
A u x i l i a r y Pumps
0.067' SW
0.167OT~B
Tapered fromzero
PA(HSSWT)
Ejector Flaps
'-0.75'
3%
4.4%
LRC (UPWT)
O0
22%
Venting o f Plenum
Chamber
WallAnqle
8%
NA
I
Va 1ve Cont r o 1 s
Diffuser Pumping
h,
4
0
APPENDIX I V
TABLE I I :
Faci 1 i t y
Cross-Section
0.71 x 0.51 m
L-G (CFF)
(Cont I d )
Perforated
1
UM (4" x 5"
10.2 x 12.7 cm
MD (PSWT)
Venting of Plenum
C harnber
Mal 1 Anqle
Wall Type
0- 10%
0.25'
T&B
E j e c t o rF l a p s
+.3O
EjectorFlaps
Sol i d
1.22 m Sq.
Perforated
0.635 cm, 90
23
oo
Perforated
25
-0.75'
Perforated
.305 cm, 3
0'
0- 10%
Perforated
to
to
Auxi 1 i a r y Pumps
Oo
Sol i d
AEDC (Tunnel
0.305
o
l
AEDC ( P i l o t
Sol i d
m Sq.
2
H I RT)
18.6 x 23.2 cm
Techn i o n
(TIWT)
0.8 x 0.6 rn
Techn ion
n0.3 m
Techn ion
0.4 x 0.5 m
RI ( T U )
2.13 m Sq.
+0.5'
E j e cF
t ol a
r ps
Sol i d
Perforated
0.635 cm, 90
19.7%
Perforated
1.27 cm, 90
22.7%
Perforated
JPL (SWT)
21% TbB
E j e c t o r F l a p s and/
o r Exhaust t o A t m .
Sol i d
Sq.
&haAm"
O0
0.51 x 0.46 m
Sol i d
O0
O0 to 0*670
E j e c t o r F I.aps
A u x i l i a r y Pumps E
V e n t i n g t o Atm.
APPENDIX IV
TABLE I t :
Facl 1 i t y
VC
(HSWT)
TEST
SECTION
CHARACTERISTICS
HoleSize/Angle 01
Wall Type S l o t Width/SDacint
Cross-Section
1.22 m S q .
Perforated
3.305 m , Sq.
Perforated
AEDC (Am-4T)
1.22 m Sq.
Perforated
Perforated
(Cont'd)
1.04
cm,
I
I
90'
0.318 cm,
30'
1.27
cm,
30'
1.905
cm,
30'
0.356 m Sq.
3.44 m
T&B
Q-h'
cw
Ejector Flaps
6% and
-0.67'
t o 0.5'
Ejector Flaps
0 -10%
10%
1 t o 0.55'
T&B
-1'
6%
&
EjectorFlaps &
Aux I l l a r y Pumps
Ejector Flaps E
t o O.jOT&B Auxi 1 i a r y Pumps
4.11 x 4.18 m
Auxi 1 i a r y Pumps
Sol i d
Sq.
3.35 m Sq.
0.61 m S q .
ARC ( I -D TWT)
0.152 m Dia.
2.74 x 2.13 m2
80.33:
22.5%
03.4%
'lottedb l . 7 4 cm,
26.4
cm
w i t hi n s e r t
v,
Venting of Plenum
Chamber
Sol i d
NASA Marshall
(14'' TWT)
WallAnqle
Porositv
5.6%
).18O
5.8%
1.19O
22% w i t h
Throttle
-Bars
- bo
Sol i d
T&B
sw
t o 0.35'
EjectorFlaps
Ejector Flaps &
A u x i l i a r y Pumps
Ejector Flaps
Sol i d
'lotted
T&B11.03 cm,
28
cm
with insert
5.1%
O0
Auxi 1 i a r y Pumps
4
N
APPEND I X I V
TABLE I I :
TEST
SECT
(Cont I d )
ION CHARACTERISTICs
Venting o f Plenum
Faci 1 1 t y
I NSWC
(ST # I )
NSWC(ST #2)
Cross-Section
I 0.4
m Sq.
TransonicJozzle
0.4 m Sq.
used i n ST.I#l
1
I
Solid
Sol i d
0.86'
NSWC (HyT)
0.41 x 0.41 m
FFA-Sb
0.92 x 0.90 m
FFA-HT
0.89 x 0.89 mL
Octaaona 1
Slotted
3.4 cm, 37 cm
FFA-TVM 500
0.5 m Sq.
Perforated
0.5 cm,
30'
FFA-SS
0.46 x 0.48 m2
Slotted
isavail
I 2.5
Slotted
cm, 30 cm
6% TES
F
Eljaepcst o r
0.15'
O0
9.2%
'
E j e c t o rF l a p s
6%
4% T&B
Sol i d
-6'
t o 00
0
'
Perforatedl 1 cm, 3
9.75%
6%
DFVLR (TT
W
Flaps
-0.2'
t o 0.45'
A u x i l i a r y Pumps
-0.4'
t o 0.9
Ejector
Ejector
0.15'
Slotted
Auxi 1 i a r y Pumps
0'
t o 0.5'
Flaps
Auxi 1 i a r y Pumps
Exhausted t o
0.6
m Sq.
- P e r f o r a t e d 0.6
cm, 30'
6%
APPENDIX IV
(Cont'd)
TABLE I I : TEST
SECTION
CHARACTER
Facll I t y
Cross-section
0.5 m sq. (M > 1 )
DFVLR (T-s WT) 0.6 x 0.34 rn2
HoleSite/Angle
Wail Type Slot Width/-
Slotted
DFVLR
(HGK)
0.25
0.50 m
x 0.30 .m
so, id
NASA Marshal 1
(HRNTT)
0.81 m D i a .
Perf.
ISTICS
or
Porosftv
10%
Wall Anqlc
0.05'
t o 0.1'
00
Venting o f Plenum
Chamber
Exhausted t o Atm.
Ejector Flaps
2. Gobwnmmr Accr*on
1. Rmort No.
No.
NASA CR-2920
4. Title rd Subtitle
5. Rem13 Date
November 197 7
Tunnels"
6. F'erformingOrgmnization Coda
Ad&-
Vought Corporation
Dallas, Texas
"11.
No.
Contract or Grant
No.
NAS 2-8606
13. Type of Repon and Period Covered
12. Spotnoring A p n c v
Nlnu md
Address
Contractor Report
16. Abstraa
State-of-the art instrumentation and procedures for calibrating transonic (0.6 C M < 1.4) and
supersonic (M 5 3.5) wind tunnels are reviewed and evaluated. Major emphasis is given to
transonic tunnels. Background information was obtained via a literature search, personal contacts
and a questionnaire which was sent to 106 domestic and foreign facilities. Completed questionnaires were received for 88 tunnels dnd included government, industry and university-owned
facilities.
Continuous, blowdown and intermittent tunnels are considered. The required measurements of
pressure, temperature, flow angularity, noise and humidity are discussed, and the effects of
measurement uncertainties are summarized. Included is a comprehensive review of instrumentation
currently used to calibrate empty-tunnel flow conditions. The recent results of relevant research
are noted and reconmendations for achieving improved data accuracy are made where appropriate. lt
is concluded, for general testing purposes, that satisfactory calibration measurements can be
achieved in both transonic and supersonic tunnels. The goal of calibrating transonic tunnels to
within 0.001 in centerline Mach number appears to be feasible with existing instrumentation.
provided correct calibration procedures are carefully followed. A comparable accuracy can be
achieved off-centerline with carefully designed, conventional probes, except near Mach 1. In the
range 0.95
M < 1.05, the laser Doppler velocimeter appears to offer the most promise for improved
calibration accuracy off-centerline.
With regard to procedures. tunnel operators are cautioned to: (1) verify by measurements that
expansions from a settling chamber to a test section are indeed isentropic, and (2) obtain calibrations over the entire range of reynolds number and humidity levels. Also, it is suggested that
calibration data should include off-centerline measurements of Mach number and flow angularity.
Finally, three problem areas for transonic tunnels are identified and discussed, viz. (1) the
lack of standard criteria for flow uniformity and unsteadiness, (2) the undesirable noise
generated by ventilated walls, and (3) wall interference.
UNCLASSIFIED-UNLIMITED
I
19. Scurity Clrit. (of this v t t
UNCLASSIFIED
STAR Category 09
21. NO. of p.pa
287
22. Rice'
$9.25
*U.S.
GOVEKtB.!ENT
- 735-078143