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that size are needed to study the world of the infinitely small.
They are the supermicroscopes of our time.
Most of the particles created in these collisions live for only
an extremely short time-much less than a millionth of a
second-after which they disintegrate again into protons,
neutrons and electrons. In spite of their exceedingly short
lifetime, these particles can not only be detected and their
properties measured but are actually made to leave tracks
which can be photographed! These particle tracks are produced in so-called bubble chambers in a manner similar to
the way a jet plane makes a trail in the sky. The actual particles
are many orders of magnitude smaller than the bubbles making
up the tracks, but from the thickness and curvature of a track
physicists can identify the particle that caused it. The picture
shows such bubble chamber tracks. The points from
which several tracks emanate are points of particle collisions,
and the curves are caused by magnetic fields which the
experimenters use to identify the particles. The collisions of
particles are our main experimental method to study their
properties and interactions, and the beautiful lines, spirals and
curves traced by the particles in bubble chambers are thus of
paramount importance for modern physics.
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Suzuki has called the two pillars supporting the great edifice
of Buddhism. They are prajna, which is transcendental wisdom,
or intuitive intelligence, and
which is love or cornpassion.
Accordingly, the essential nature of all things is described
in Mahayana Buddhism not only by the abstract metaphysical
terms
and Void, but also by the term Dharmakaya,
the Body of Being, which describes reality as it appears to the
Buddhists religious consciousness. The Dharmakaya is similar
to the
in Hinduism. It pervades all material things in
the universe and is also reflected in the human mind as
the enlightened wisdom. It is thus spiritual and material at the
same time.
The emphasis on love and compassion as essential parts of
wisdom has found its strongest expression in the ideal of the
Bodhisattva, one of the characteristic developments of
Mahayana Buddhism. A Bodhisattva is a highly evolved human
being on the way to becoming a Buddha, who is not seeking enlightenment for himself alone, but has vowed to help all other
beings achieve Buddhahood before he enters into nirvana. The
origin of this idea lies in the decision of the Buddha-presented
in Buddhist tradition as a conscious and not at all easy
not simply to enter nirvana, but to return to the world in order
to show the path to salvation to his fellow human beings. The
Bodhisattva ideal is also consistent with the Buddhist doctrine
of non-ego, because if there is no separate individual self, the
idea of one individual entering nirvana alone obviously does
not make much sense.
The element of faith, finally, is emphasized in the so-called
Pure Land school of Mahayana Buddhism. The basis of this
school is the Buddhist doctrine that the original nature of all
human beings is that of a Buddha, and it holds that in order
to enter nirvana, or the Pure Land, all one has to do is to
have faith in ones original Buddha nature.
The culmination of Buddhist thought has been reached, according to many authors, in the so-called Avatamsaka school which
is based on the sutra of the same name. This sutra is regarded
as the core of Mahayana Buddhism and is praised by Suzuki
in the most enthusiastic words:
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When the Eastern mystics tell us that they experience all
things and events as manifestations of a basic oneness, this
does not mean that they pronounce all things to be equal.
They recognize the individuality of things, but at the same
time they are aware that all differences and contrasts are
relative within an all-embracing unity. Since in our normal state
of consciousness, this unity of all contrasts-and especially
the unity of opposites-is extremely hard to accept, it constitutes one of the most puzzling features of Eastern philosophy.
It is, however, an insight which lies at the very root of the
Eastern world view.
Opposites are abstract concepts belonging to the realm of
thought, and as such they are relative. By the very act of
focusing our attention on any one concept we create its
opposite. As Lao Tzu says, When all in the world understand
beauty to be beautiful, then ugliness exists; when all understand goodness to be good, then evil exists. The mystic
transcends this realm of intellectual concepts, and in transcending it he becomes aware of the relativity and polar relationship of all opposites. He realizes that good and bad,
pleasure and pain, life and death, are not absolute experiences
belonging to different categories, but are merely two sides of
the same reality; extreme parts of a single whole. The awareness
that all opposites are polar, and thus a unity, is seen as one of
the highest aims of man in the spiritual traditions of the East.
Be in truth eternal, beyond earthly opposites! is Krishnas
advice in the
and the same advice is given to
the followers of Buddhism. Thus D. T. Suzuki writes,
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worlds would
and
the Cosmic Dancer, is
perhaps the most perfect personification of the dynamic
universe. Through his dance,
sustains the manifold
phenomena in the world, unifying all things by immersing
them in his rhythm and making them participate in the
a magnificent image of the dynamic unity of the universe.
The general picture-emerging from Hinduism is one of an
organic, growing and rhythmically moving cosmos; of a
universe in which everything is fluid and ever-changing, all
static forms being
that is, existing only as illusory concepts. This last idea-the impermanence of all forms-is the
starting point of Buddhism. The Buddha taught that all compounded things are impermanent, and that all suffering in the
world arises from our trying to cling to fixed forms-objects,
people or ideas-instead of accepting the world as it moves
and changes. The dynamic world view lies thus at the very
root of Buddhism. In the words of S. Radhakrishnan:
A wonderful philosophy of dynamism was formulated by
Buddha 2,500 years ago . . . Impressed with the transitoriness of objects, the ceaseless mutation and transformation
of things, Buddha formulated a philosophy of change. He
reduces substances, souls, monads, things to forces,
movements, sequences and processes, and adopts a
dynamic conception of reality.
Buddhists call this world of ceaseless change
which means, literally, incessantly in motion; and they affirm
that there is nothing in it which is worth clinging to. So for the
Buddhists, an enlightened being is one who does not resist
the flow of life, but keeps moving with it. When the Chan
monk
was asked, What is the 7DR" he answered
simply, Walk on! Accordingly, Buddhists also call the Buddha
the
or the one who comes and goes thus. In
Chinese philosophy, the flowing and ever-changing reality is
called the 7DR and is seen as a cosmic process in which all
things are involved. Like the Buddhists, the Taoists say that one
should not resist the flow, but should adapt ones actions to it.
This, again, is characteristic of the sage-the enlightened
being. If the Buddha is one who comes and goes thus, the
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The subatomic world is one of rhythm, movement and continual change. It is not, however, arbitrary and chaotic, but
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particles of a given kind are completely identical; they have
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properties. Furthermore, all charged particles carry electric
charges exactly equal (or opposite) to that of the electron, or
charges of exactly twicethat amount. The same is true of other
quantities that are characteristic attributes of the particles;
they do not take arbitrary values but are restricted to a limited
number, which allows us to arrange the particles into a few
distinct groups, or families. This leads to the question of how
these definite patterns arise in the dynamic and ever-changing
particle world,
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is not a new phenomenon, but was already observed in the
world of atoms. Like subatomic particles, atoms of a given
kind are completely identical and the different kinds of atoms,
of chemical elements, have been arranged into several groups
in the periodic table. This classification is now well understood;
it is based on the number of protons and neutrons present in
the atomic nuclei and on the distribution of the electrons in
spherical orbits, or shells, around the nuclei. As discussed
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mutual distance of their orbits and the amount of rotation an
electron can have in a given orbit to a few
values
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It is surprising that most of these regularities can be represented in a very simple way if one assumes that all hadrons are
made of a small number of elementary entities which have so
far eluded direct observation. These entities have been given
the fanciful name quarks by Murray Cell-Mann who referred
his fellow physicists to the line in James Joyces Finnegans
Wake, Three quarks for Muster Mark, when he postulated
their existence. Cell-Mann succeeded in accounting for a
large number of
patterns, such as the octets and the
decuplet discussed above, by assigning appropriate quantum
numbers to his three quarks and their antiquarks, and then
putting these building blocks together in various combinations
to form baryons and mesons whose quantum numbers are
obtained simply by adding those of their constituent quarks.
In this sense, baryons can be said to consist of three quarks,
their antiparticles of the corresponding antiquarks, and
mesons of a quark plus an antiquark.
The simplicity and efficiency of this model is striking, but it
leads to severe difficulties if quarks are taken seriously as actual
physical constituents of hadrons. So far, no hadrons have ever
been broken up into their constituent quarks, in spite of
bombarding them with the highest energies available, which
means that quarks
have to be held together by extremely
strong binding forces. According to our present understanding
of particles and their interactions, these forces can only manifest
themselves through the exchange of other particles, and
consequently these other particles, too, would be present
inside each
If this were so, however, they would also
contribute to the
properties and thus destroy the
simple additive scheme of the quark model.
In other words, if quarks are held together by strong interaction forces, these must involve other particles and the quarks
must consequently show some kind of structure, just like all
the other strongly interacting particles. For the quark model,
however, it is essential to have pointlike, structureless quarks.
Because of this fundamental difficulty, it has so far not been
possible to formulate the quark model in a consistent dynamic
way which accounts for the symmetries and for the binding
forces.
On the experimental side, there has been a fierce but, so
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far, unsuccessful hunt for the quark over the past decade.
If single quarks exist, they should be quite conspicuous because
Cell-Manns model requires them to possess some very unusual
properties, like electric charges of
and
of that of the
electron, which do not appear anywhere in the particle world.
So far, no particles with these properties have been observed
in spite of the most intensive search. This persistent failure to
detect them experimentally, plus the serious theoretical objections to their existence, have made the reality of quarks
extremely doubtful.
On the other hand, the quark model continues to be very
successful in accounting for the regularities found in the
particle world, although it is no longer used in its original
simple form. In Cell-Manns original model, all hadrons could
be built from three kinds of quarks and their antiquarks, but in
the mean time physicists have had to postulate additional
quarks to account for the great variety of
patterns.
Cell-Mann himself recently proposed that each quark can
appear in three different varieties which he called-most
appropriately in a lecture in Paris-red, white, and blue quarks.
This increased the total number of quarks to nine, and since
then three more quarks have been postulated,* which allowed
one of the speakers at a recent physics conference to refer to
them facetiously as the twelve observed quarks.
The great number of regularities that can be successfully
described in terms of these twelve quarks is truly impressive.
There can be no doubt that hadrons exhibit quark symmetries,
even though our present understanding of particles and interactions precludes the existence of physical quarks. At present,
in the summer of 1974, the paradoxes surrounding the quark
model are becoming increasingly sharp. A great deal of experimental data support the quark model; others contradict it
violently. No one has ever seen a quark, and according to our
basic ideas about particle interactions quarks cannot exist. Yet,
hadrons very often behave exactly as if they consisted of
pointlike elementary constituents. This situation is strongly
reminiscent of the early days of atomic physics when equally
striking paradoxes led the physicists to a major breakthrough
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particle reactions, are essential features of the strong interactions and have to be accounted for in a quantum-relativistic
model of hadrons.
The framework which seems to be most appropriate for the
description of hadrons and their interactions is called S-matrix
theory. Its key concept, the S matrix, was originally proposed
by Heisenberg in 1943 and has been developed, over the past
two decades, into a complex mathematical structure which
seems to be ideally suited to describe the strong interactions.
The S matrix is a collection of probabilities for all possible
reactions involving hadrons. It derives its name from the fact
that one can imagine the whole assemblage of possible
reactions arranged in an infinite array of the kind mathematicians call a matrix. The letter S is a remainder of the
original name scattering matrix which refers to collision-or
scattering-processes, the majority of particle reactions.
In practice, of course, one is never interested in the entire
collection of
processes, but always in a few specific
reactions. Therefore, one never deals with the whole S matrix,
&
'
but only with those of its parts, or elements, which refer to the
processes under consideration. These are represented symbolically by diagrams like the one above which pictures one of
the simplest and most general particle reactions: two particles,
A DQG B, undergo a collision to emerge as two different particles,
C and D. More complicated processes involve a greater number
of particles and are represented by diagrams like the following.
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forces are associated with particles, but the concept of virtual
particles is not used. Instead, the relation between forces and
particles is based on a special property of the S matrix known
as crossing. To illustrate this property, consider the following
diagram picturing the interaction between a proton and a II -.
3
If this diagram is rotated through
and if we keep the
convention adopted previously,* that arrows pointing
P
wards indicate antiparticles, the new diagram will represent a
reaction between an antiproton
and a proton
which
emerge from it as a pair of pions, the
being the antiparticle of
in the original reaction.
the
The crossing property of the S matrix, now, refers to the
fact that both these processes are described by the same
S-matrix element. This means that the two diagrams represent
merely two different aspects, or channels, of the same
reaction.** Particle physicists are used to switching from one
channel to the other in their calculations, and instead of rotating
the diagrams they just read them upwards or across from the
*See
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concept of the Book of Changes. The eight
are
symbols standing for changing transitional states; they are
images that are constantly undergoing change. Attention
centers not on things in their state of being-as is chiefly
the case in the Occident-but upon their movements in
change. The eight
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is law implicit in it, but this law is the law to which parts
of wholes have to conform by virtue of their very existence
as parts of wholes . . . The most important thing about
parts is that they have to fit precisely into place with the
other parts in the whole organism which they
It is easy to see how such a view led the Chinese thinkers to
the idea which has only recently been developed in modern
physics, that self-consistency is the essence of all laws of
nature. The following passage by Chen Shun, an immediate
pupil of Chu Hsi who lived around A.D. 1200, gives a very
clear account of this idea in words which could be taken as
a perfect explanation of the notion of self-consistency in the
bootstrap philosophy:
is a natural and unescapable law of affairs and things . . .
The meaning of natural and unescapable is that (human)
affairs and (natural) things are made just exactly to fit into
place. The meaning of law is that the fitting into place
occurs without the slightest excess or deficiency . . . The
men of old, investigating things to the utmost, and searching
out
wanted to elucidate the natural unescapableness
of (human) affairs and (natural) things, and this simply
means that what they were looking for was all the exact
places where things precisely fit together. Just
In the Eastern view then, as in the view of modern physics,
everything in the universe is connected to everything else and
no part of it is fundamental. The properties of any part are
determined, not by some fundamental law, but by the properties
of all the other parts. Both physicists and mystics realize the
resulting impossibility of fully explaining any phenomenon, but
then they take different attitudes. Physicists, as discussed before,
are satisfied with an approximate understanding of nature. The
Eastern mystics, on the other hand, are not interested in
approximate, or relative knowledge. They are concerned with
absolute knowledge involving an understanding of the totality
of Life. Being well aware of the essential interrelationship of the
universe, they realize that to explain something means, ultimately, to show how it is connected to everything else. As this
is impossible, the Eastern mystics insist that no single phenomenon can be explained. Thus Ashvaghosha:
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