Reference (in APA format)

Purpose (rationale for conducting

the study, previous work conducted
in this area, purpose of study)

Smith, J., Hand, L., & Dowrick, P. W.

(2014). Video Feedforward for Rapid
Learning of a Picture-Based
Communication System. Journal Of
Autism And Developmental Disorders,
44(4), 926-936

The purpose of this study was to see

the effectiveness of using video selfmodeling (VSM) to teach children with
Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) and
a man with Down syndrome how to use
a picture exchange communication
system (PECS). Previous research had
qualified video modeling as an
evidence-based intervention and this
study was conducted to see the
success rate of VSM versus studies on
other types of video modeling in
teaching communication strategies.
Functional communication is essential
for a higher quality of life, making the
rationale behind this study incredibly
valid. The three participants were nonverbal with no set system of
communication before the study, as the
teaching of other communication
systems had previously not been
successful. This study was conducted
to see if VSM would present the
methodology behind the PECS in a
way that was more successful than
previous attempts of teaching
communication systems.

Buggey, T., & Ogle, L. (2013). The Use

of Self-Modeling to Promote Social
Interactions among Young Children.
Focus On Autism And Other
Developmental Disabilities, 28(4), 202211.

One of the largest common

discrepancies between students with
normal development and students with
ASDs is social and communicative
functioning. Research has proven that
interventions in social and
communicative functioning for children
with ASDs should be implemented as
early as possible, ideally preschool or
prior. Various forms of video modeling
have been common interventions for
teaching young children with ASDs
these social and communicative skills.
Partly based on Bandura's theory of the
correlation between self-efficacy and
success, research points to video selfmodeling (VSM) as an effective way to
motivate younger children with ASDs in
learning and displaying appropriate
social and communicative skills by
allowing them to watch themselves
succeed in these behaviors on video.
This study was created to support this
hypothesis. The purpose of the study
was to use VSM to model appropriate
free-play between children of typical
development and children with ASDs to
increase positive and appropriate social
and communicative interactions in the
children with ASDs. Other purposes of
this study were to see whether or not
problems in social and communicative
development in children with ASDs are
seen early on as a result of age or prediagnosed disability and if the use of
VSM to teach appropriate social and
communicative interactions was

Krumeich, K. L. (2013). The impact of

video self-modeling on middle school
students with autism spectrum
disorders (Order No. 3554244).
Available from ProQuest Dissertations
& Theses Global. (1316620114).
Retrieved from http://libezproxy.tamu.edu:2048/login?
url=http://search.proquest.com/docview
/1316620114?accountid=7082

The purpose of this study was to find

effective ways to better equip students
with Autism Spectrum Disorders
(ASDs) with communication and social
skills as they transition from a self
contained classroom to a general
education classroom. Several school
districts in central Florida with a large
number of students with ASDs took
note of behavioral problems that arose
when trying to transition students with
ASDs from self contained to general
education classrooms. Research had
been conducted that supported the use
of both visual stimulants and guided
practice as tools to increase academic
engagement and appropriate behaviors
in students with ASDs. These two
findings were the basis of deciding to
experiment with video self-modeling
(VSM) as an intervention for teaching
student with ASDs communication and
social skills, as it is a combination of
guided practice and visual stimulation.
The study looked at how appropriate
hand-raising to initiate academic
communication was affected by using
VSM among students with ASDs in a
contained classroom.

Williamson, R. L., Casey, L. B.,

Robertson, J. S., & Buggey, T. (2013).
Video Self-Modeling in Children with
Autism: A Pilot Study Validating
Prerequisite Skills and Extending the
Utilization of VSM across Skill Sets.
Assistive Technology, 25(2), 63-71

The focus of this study was to

determine if VSM could be used to
increase the instances of self-initiated
greetings by students with autism. Very
often, the students that were chosen
for some of the previous studies had a
certain set of prerequisite skills that the
authors believed would give a better
determination of the results in using
VSM. These prerequisite skills were to
be able to actively watch a video, be
able to use verbal communication, to
be able to imitate others by watching,
and the ability to recognize themselves.
These skills were very important in the
participants because if a student is
unable to communicate verbally, for
example, it is not going to be possible
for them to self-initiate a greeting
without some type of AAC device.
However, the students selected for this
study had very little verbal
communication. This allowed for the
authors to be able to track more
noticeable changes. Several studies
have been conducted on the subject of
VSM previously and mainly focused on
modify inappropriate behaviors,
moderate some of the effects of mental
illness, increase responsive behaviors
for students with autism, and increase
social communication. All of these were
able to be taught to students with
autism through the use of VSM.

Wilson, K. w. (2013). Incorporating

Video Modeling Into a School-Based
Intervention for Students With Autism
Spectrum Disorders. Language,
Speech & Hearing Services In Schools,
44(1), 105-117.

The purpose of this study or tutorial is

to give step by step instructions for
using video modeling and video self
modeling (VSM) by school-basedspeech-language pathologists (SLPs)
who serve students with Autism
Spectrum Disorder (ASD). This tutorial
was done because many SLPs said
that they felt underprepared when
working with students who were
diagnosed as having ASD. Many SLPs
and other professionals also claimed
they did not have time to do research.
Because of these claims this tutorial
was created to benefit SLPs and other
professionals when working with
students who have ASD using
evidenced based practices.

Gelbar N, Anderson C, McCarthy S,

Buggey T. (2012). Video Self-Modeling
as an Intervention Strategy for
Individuals with Autism Spectrum
Disorders. Psychology In The School's
[serial online]. January 1,
2012;49(1):15-22. Available from:
ERIC, Ipswich, MA. Accessed
December 3, 2015.

This article focuses on video self

modeling (VSM). This article gives an
overview of VSM for students with
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).The
purpose of this articles is to show
whether or not VSM is an effective
intervention for students with ASD. This
article shows different ways of how
VSM can be utilized for students have
ASD. This article also provides a review
of VSM in the four major areas that is
said VSM helps students with ASD.
These four major areas are
communication, social skills, behavior,
and task instruction.

Hart, J. E., & Whalon, K. J. (2012).

Using Video Self-Modeling via iPads to
Increase Academic Responding of an
Adolescent with Autism Spectrum
Disorder and Intellectual Disability.
Education And Training In Autism And
Developmental Disabilities, 47(4), 438446.

The purpose of this study was to

provide further evidence as to whether
video self-modeling (VSM) can be a
helpful intervention to students who are
on the Autism Spectrum. Few studies
have been previously conducted on this
topic. However, these studies are often
only conducted with one student and
there were few students who were
chosen to participate that were over the
age of 12. VSM has been looked into
as a way to engage students with ASD
in discussions about academic content.
This study examines the effects of VSM
and how it can be beneficial as an
intervention method in social
communication, functional, behavioral,
and vocational needs.

Shukla-Mehta, S., Miller, T., & Callahan, The purpose of this study is to
K. J. (2010). Evaluating the
determine how video instruction affects
Effectiveness of Video Instruction on
students ability to acquire social and
Social and Communication Skills
communication skills. The focus is on
Training for Children with Autism
students with Autism Spectrum
Spectrum Disorders: A Review of the
Disorders (ASD) to determine if video
Literature. Focus On Autism And Other instruction statistics are consistent for
Developmental Disabilities, 25(1), 23- any student as well as solidify this
36.
practice as evidence-based. This study
has increased interest due to the fact
that video instruction for students with
special needs is becoming a common
application in the classroom.

Bellini, S., & Akullian, J. (2007). A Meta- The purpose of this study was to
Analysis of Video Modeling and Video provide a synthesis of outcomes on
Self-Modeling Interventions for Children previous existing studies on video
and Adolescents With Autism Spectrum modeling The studies were on children
Disorders. Exceptional Children, 73(3), and adolescents with Autism Spectrum
264-287.
Disorder (ASD). The meta-analysis
examined the effects of intervention,
maintenance, and generalization of
video modeling and Video-self
modeling (VSM) interventions. These
were examined across three dependent
variables: social-communication skills,
functional skills, and behavioral
functioning. One last purpose for this
study was to see if video modeling
interventions met the criteria for
evidenced based practices.

Bellini, S., Akullian, J., & Hopf, A.

(2007). Increasing Social Engagement
in Young Children With Autism
Spectrum Disorders Using Video SelfModeling. School Psychology Review,
36(1), 80-90.

The purpose of this article is focusing

on the examination of the benefits of a
video self-modeling (VSM) intervention
in increasing the social engagement of
preschool aged children with autism
spectrum disorders (ASD). Research of
this subject is becoming more prevalent
to address social, communication, and
behavioral functioning of children with
weak social skills, specifically ASD.
This study is different than the rest in
that it measures social interactions with
same-aged peers rather than in a
clinical setting with adults. This is an
emerging study do to rising number of
students diagnosed with ASD.

Methods (who participated in the

study, where the study took place,
skill being measured, identifying
intervention, how data were
collected)
The participants of this study were two
boys diagnosed with ASDs (ages 9-11)
and one adult diagnosed with Down
syndrome (aged 36). All participants
were non-verbal with receptive
language abilities ranging from very
little to being able to follow three and
four step instructions. The study took
place in the homes of the participants
(the family homes of the two boys with
ASDs and the residential facility of the
man with Down syndrome). Data was
collected through creating three to five
baselines of the target behaviors for
each participant, then observing each
participant with the applied intervention
and basing the results on the
baselines. There were three different
target behaviors for each participant.
Participant one's target behavior was to
select a card, then select the item that
matched the card. Participant two's
target behaviors were measured in two
stages: giving the communicative
partner the correct card in exchange for
the item in their hand, then selecting a
card and moving out of his chair to
hand the communicative partner the
card. Participant three's target
behaviors were to locate his folder
containing the PECS, place a card on
the "I want" word strip, and then give
the completed word strip to the
communicative partner. The
intervention used was watching VSM
videos tailored to each participant's
target behaviors on laptops before

Results (findings with respect to

acquisition, generalization and
maintenance, Did the intervention
work?)
After the implementation of VSM, all
three participants displayed a major
increase in correct target behaviors
compared to the baseline. Participant
one increased from 0% correct in his
baseline to 50% correct with prompting
after watching the VSM video once. He
achieved complete mastery of the
target behavior after watching the video
three times, as well as was able to
generalize the target behavior to
people he had not met before. The
second participant had a baseline of
0% correct and did not show much
improvement in the acquired skill of
using PECS based off of viewing VSM
weekly. The intervention was increased
to daily, and the participant increased
from 0% correct, to 50% correct, to
80% correct when generalizing the
target behaviors to unfamiliar
communicative partner. The third
participant increased accuracy in using
the PECS from VSM from a baseline of
50% correct to 80% correct, and finally
to 100% correct. Mastery of the
targeted behaviors took participants
between one and four weeks, with two
to nine viewings of the self-modeled
video each. One of the participants had
to go overseas unexpectedly in the
middle of the study and was not able to
review the self-modeled videos, which
resulted in a decrease in percent
correct after his return. This could be
used as evidence that the maintenance
of this intervention should occur at least

The participants in this study were four The results of this study did not find
typically developing children between much correlation between the
two and three years of age and two
frequency of appropriate interactions
children that had been diagnosed with between children with ASDs and
ASDs. The study took place in a
typically developing children and
playground and classroom that was
exposure to these appropriate
modeled after an early-intervention
interactions via VSM. Each child was
classroom and was a part of a larger
fairly consistent in the number of
institution in the southeastern area of interactions they initiated and
the United States. The institute served participated in from their baseline,
children from birth to five years old, and which implies that children under the
most classrooms were fairly evenly
age of four do not respond well to the
divided between children with and
intervention of VSM to learn social and
without disabilities. Data were
communicative skills. This study
collected through event recording by
concludes that while self-recognition
two researches that intently observed and the ability to recognize that play is
the children on the playground and in not always real occurs at around two
the classroom. The skill measured was years of age, other skills might need to
the frequency of appropriate
be developed before children can learn
communication, interaction, and/or play social and communication cues from
between the children with ASDs and
VSM. The researchers acknowledge
the children that were typically
that while VSM might not be the most
developing. The intervention included effective strategy to teach social and
showing the children a two and a half to communicative skills to children with
three minute video of VSM displaying ASDs under the age of four, this study
the children communicating,
focused on the teaching of behavioral
interacting, and/or playing together
aspects and the findings cannot be
appropriately. The videos included
generalized across topics of teaching.
various types of interaction initiation
The use of typically developing
(gestural or verbal), followed by the
students in this study helped the
successful interaction between the two conductors to infer that some
students.
developmental criteria might need to be
acquired before VSM can be
successfully used as an intervention to
teach social and communication skills.

The participants of this study were

three middle school teachers from the
central Florida area and their students
with ASDs. The teachers were required
to have taught students with ASDs for
at least one year, as well as had to
have experience with VSM, either
through direct implementation or
observation. Data was collected from
the participants through observations,
interviews, and reviewing records. This
study took place in middle schools in
the central Florida area. Each
classroom was self contained and
included at least one student with ASD.
The teachers in this study were
focusing on target behaviors that would
benefit the students behavior and
communication skills in general
education classrooms, such as
appropriate hand raising to initiate
academic responses and express
wants and needs. The interventions
used were filming the student
performing the correct target behaviors
(the actual videoing of the video selfmodeling) and then having the students
review the behaviors through watching
the video self-modeling. The filming of
the correct target behavior incorporated
the research-based intervention of
guided practice, while viewing the video
self-modeling incorporated the
evidence-based practice of visual
stimulation.

The students with ASDs that took part

in the study were overall very receptive
to VSM. The intervention had
significant impacts academically,
socially, and communicatively. For the
sake of this search, I will only discuss
the communicative impacts that the
VSM intervention had on students with
ASDs. Though all students were not
able to acquire the skill by the end of
the first observation, each student was
able to raise their hand correctly and at
appropriate times either independently
or with minimal support by the end of
the third observation. This extended
guided practice and use of visual
stimulants allowed for all students with
ASDs to acquire the targeted skill. The
students were able to generalize this
behavior beyond indicating that they
had a response or question related to
academic content to all types of
communication (asking to go to the
bathroom, expressing a need for
materials, etc.). In order to maintain this
behavior, the teachers would need to
regularly integrate VSM into their
classroom. The students would need
regular reminders of the expected
behaviors, which could effectively be
done through the continued use of
VSM.

The chosen participants for this study Before the implementation of the VSM
were three middle school aged children method, nearly no self-initiated
with autism, who were located in a
greetings were initiated by any of the
large school near a large city in the
three participants. Only Katarina was
Southern part of the United States. Two recorded as using a greeting when
of the students were in 6th grade and entering the classroom. However, at the
the other was in 8th grade at the time end of the implementation, only
that the study was conducted. These
Samuel continued to consistently selfthree students that were chosen all
initiate greetings with others. Katarina
were receiving special education
and Brandon did not initiate any
services and were placed in selfgreetings after the removal of the
contained classrooms. All of the
intervention. It was noted that no
students chosen were of the same race attempts at communication were made
and came from similar economic
during the observation periods and
backgrounds and had very little to no
Brandon did not attempt to use his big
verbal communication. The video
mac button that he uses as an AAC
models shown to the students were of device to communicate to greet the
a student entering a classroom and
others. It appears that while this
self-initiating a greeting. The video then intervention showed some success, it
showed the same student entering a
did not have a high success rate overall
lunch room and greeting those that he within this group of students.
sits down with. Each participant of the
study was then prompted to vocalize or
use their AAC to greet the others by
saying "good morning", "hi/hello", or
some variation of those. Data was
collected through a number of
observations ranging from a 15-21 day
span. The first student "Samuel" was
observed nine times, the second
"Katarina" was observed 15 times, and
the third "Brandon" was observed 18
times. All of their observations were
then documented to track progressions.

This tutorial looks at other reviews and The results show that video modeling
meta-analyses that have been done
and VSM are both beneficial for school
over the past 10 years. The reviews
based SLPs to use. SLPs have a lot of
and meta-analyses were on empirically requirements they have to meet when
supported considerations for schoolimplementing an intervention and video
based SLPs who may use video
modeling seems to meet all of these
modeling or VSM when working with
challenges. Video modeling is
students who have ASD. This study
evidenced based, it requires very little
focuses on five phases when
training for professionals to implement,
implementing video modeling and video it can be used on a regular basis in
self modeling. The fives phases are
many different settings, with different
preparation, recording of the video
materials, and with many different
model, implementation of the video
people, students with ASD find video
modeling intervention, monitoring of the modeling fun and interesting and this
student's responses to the intervention, can limit the number of behavior
and planning of the next steps.
problems, and video modeling in very
Preparations allows the SLPs to see if cost effective to implement. This tutorial
video modeling is appropriate for the
highlights that video modeling is a great
student with ASD. It also allows time to tool to be used in different setting with
see what skill needs to be worked on in different people. Students with ASD
the video model and the setting that the can take the skills they have learned in
video modeling should occur. The
video modeling and apply them in their
second phase is recording of the video other classes with other teachers and
modeling. In this phase, equipment
students. This tutorial also shows that
needs to be chosen, how the video will school-based SLPs who use video
be played needs to be decided, and the modeling can have a greater chance of
quality of the video needs to be
making a lasting change on an
reviewed. The third stage is the
individual with ASD in regards to social
implementation of the video modeling skills, communication skills, adaptive
intervention. This phase decisions need skills, self regulatory skills, and plays
to be made of when and how many
skills.
times the video needs to be used and
who will be implementing the video. In
the monitoring of student's response to
the video modeling intervention phase,
it needs to be decided how data will be
collected and involving evaluating

This article reviews other articles that This article shows that VSM is good
talk about VSM as an intervention.This strategy to use for individuals with ASD
article was written in 2012 and looks
and to use it in conjunction with other
back at other reviews of VSM from
interventions. It shows that VSM can
previous years. In this articles, it shows help reduce problem behaviors in some
the relative effectiveness of VSM in
students, but not all. This could be
contrast with other video modeling
because ASD is such a broad spectrum
strategies. When reviewing the other
and two individuals are alike. Because
articles it looks across the four major
it is such a broad spectrum this would
categories, language and
explain why not all students will
communication, social skills
respond to using VSM. The article also
interventions, behavior modification,
says that VSM should be used as a
and task instruction. These four
continuum of interventions.
categories were looked at assessing
the current evidence base that supports
VSM as an evidence-based practice
that targets specific problem behaviors
and increasing skills in students with
ASD.

This study was conducted in 2012 by At the completion of the study, it was
the examining a 16 year old male in the determined that the use of VSM did
10th grade, who has ASD and a
increase the number of correct
moderate intellectual disability. The
responses for a student with ASD. The
student often became uncomfortable
teacher was able to share that the
when asked direct questions during
implementation of VSM was easy to do
class discussion and would engage in and was not seen as a distraction to
repetitive behaviors. The target
other students in the classroom. The
behavior that was being worked toward percentage of the student's prompted
with this study was the increasing of the correct responses increased from 4%
student's unprompted correct
to 42% over the course of 5 weeks.
responses in classroom discussion.
The data collected over the course of
The study took place in a southwest
those five weeks also displayed that
high school during science instruction while the amount of correct responses
time in a resource classroom. The
increased, the student still needed to
student was given a video iPad, which be prompted by the teacher through
delivered the science related VSM .
direct questioning to contribute to class
Data was collected over the course of 5 discussion. The amount of repetitive
weeks in 20 different instructional
behaviors that were a result of the
sessions. Before a lesson, the student student being directly questioned also
would watch a VSM done by his
decreased with the use of the iPad. A
teacher to give him an introduction to functional relationship between the use
what would be discussed in the lesson. of the VSM on the iPad and the
Then, the student would be verbally
number of correct responses was
prompted by the teacher to answer
established. With the continuation of
questions over what he had seen in the the VSM for the student and possibly
video.
some one-on-one work with the
resource paraeducator before lessons,
it was decided that the student could
have even more success.

The focus of this study was on based

video instruction between 1980 and
2008. Resources such as through
EBSCO database searches, previously
identified studies, as well as direct
communication with related authors
were utilized. The study provided 5
guidelines for specifying inclusion and
exclusion criteria. The first of which
mentions the variables; including
prompts, excluding prompts, a
multielement intervention package, and
a comparison with an alternate
strategy. Secondly, all participants had
to be diagnosed with ASD. Third, the
video intervention had to target
social/communication responses.
Forth, researchers had to use a
research design that allowed for
evaluation of the intervention outcome.
Lastly, the articles were restricted to
peer-reviewed English journals. 26
studies were taken with a total of 104
participants ranging from 2.5-15 years
of age. 11 studies were conducted in
regular school settings, 4 in a home
setting, 5 in a clinical setting, 1 in a
residential program, 1 in the universitybased preschool-program, and the
remaining 4 in any two including
school, clinical, home, community, or
university-based pre-school.

Video Modeling (VM) was first

conducted with additional intervention
components, such as prompts. 3 of the
4 outcomes were interpreted in that the
participants acquired and maintained
the target responses. Due to the fact
that the children liked the videos and
they were short, it may have caused
better attention. Since no other
variables were given during the study, it
can be concluded that there was a
direct correlation between watching the
video clips and the acquisition of target
skills. VM with additional intervention
components was tested next. This
included instructional prompts; tangible,
edible, verbal reinforces, redirection, or
a review of video content. In the study,
intervention involved direct instruction
to teach target responses over a span
of 5 weeks, with a new target skill each
week. Participants showed an increase
in prosocial behavior, and even higher
gains were shown during play activities.
Either video or in-vivo instruction may
have been the cause of the acquisition.
For that reason, this study was not
clear if VM was more effective. VM as a
component of a multielement
intervention package was the next
study. In 6 of the 8 studies, additional
components were added when VM
alone did not result in target behaviors.
When skills instruction and error
correction procedures were
incorporated it was described as VM
and Reinforcement. At this point any

The study was done by examining

The meta-analysis showed that nine of
several previous articles between the the studies have intervention fidelity.
years of 1980 to 2005. The articles
The meta-analysis also determined that
were found using two different
video modeling and video-self modeling
databases, Educational Resources
help improve conversation skills. The
Information Center (ERIC) and
meta-analysis shows that both VSM
PsychINFO. In order to see if the
and video modeling are effective
articles were relevant and qualified they interventions strategies for several
checked to see if the article met the
things. These include addressing
inclusion criteria. After searching the
social-communication skills, behavioral
databases 29 articles met the criteria functioning, and functioning skills in
for the study. Each of the 29 articles
both children and adolescents. The
was reviewed by two authors to
results also showed that skills obtained
determine inclusion eligibility/ In order through video modeling and video-self
to be eligible it had to meet some
modeling are able to be maintained
criteria. The criteria included that the
over time and children and adolescents
student must have been identified with can use these skills in various settings
having Autism Spectrum Disorder. The and with a variety of people. The metastudy had to use outcome measures
analysis showed that the interventions
that focused on behavioral functioning, were completed successfully in a
social-communication skills, or
variety of settings. The results also
functional skills; if the study was on
showed that video modeling and VSM
academic outcomes it was excluded.
are short interventions that are effective
The study must have evaluated the
for children with ASD. The results also
effectiveness of video modeling or VSM showed that further research needs to
interventions by themselves, or
be done to examine the social validity
together with other forms of
of video modeling and VSM
interventions. The studies had to use a interventions.
single-subject research design that
shows experimental control. The
studies had to show data using graphs
to display the information that showed
individual data points. They only
included studies that were published in
peer reviewed journals. Finally, only
studies that were published in English
could be used for this study. After

The participants consisted of 2

preschool-aged students, both
diagnosed with ASD. Roger was 4 year
and 4 months, while Dylan was 5 years
and 1 month old. They were described
as socially withdrawn and limited to
verbal and nonverbal interactions with
their peers. The intervention took place
in their preschool classroom alongside
5 other peers. Unprompted social
interaction with peers was being tested.
This can be seen in activity or play
sequence with a peer, not parallel play.
Examples of desired behavior includes
sharing toys, objects, and play items.
An example of an interaction that did
not count was playing with play dough
next to their peers since there is no
actual interaction between the
students. Negative interactions were
not counted such as taking an object
from a peer, pushing, and kicking were
also not counted. Video footage was
taken 2 weeks before collecting
baseline data. The participants were
given hidden support by being
prompted to facilitate social interactions
with their peers. Upon editing, the
teacher took out undesired behaviors
from the footage and only portrayed the
desired skills. The effectiveness of the
intervention was determined by visual
observations of representative data,
calculated by the percentage of nonoverlapping data points (PND) as well
as the computation of effect sizes (ES).
Data were collected by two graduate

According to the data, Rogers mean

percentage of social engagement
during baseline was 3%. Throughout
the intervention phase, his engagement
increased to 43%. The next day, it
dropped back to 3%, noting that Roger
was consumed in individual play.
During the next observational period,
his percentage returned to previous
levels, at 53%. Treatment PND was
calculated at 80% while the ES was
rated at 8.38. This data shows positive
correlation with the VSM intervention
and the amount of unprompted social
engagement. Maintenance PND was
calculated at 100%, which explains how
he was able to maintain his level of
social interactions even when the
intervention was removed. Dylans
mean percentage of social engagement
was 6% at baseline before decreasing
to 0% during the first day of the
intervention phase. Later, it increased
to 24%, showing increasing
performance trends. Treatment PND
was 80% and ES was 4.24, also
indicating that the treatment was
effective for Dylan as well. His
maintenance PND was calculated at
100%, just like Roger. The teacher
noted how Dylan enjoyed watching the
videos, while Roger initially did not
enjoy watching the videos. With each
passing week, his attention to the
videos seemed to increase, showing
his progression of tolerance.

Discussion (Did the results confirm

the hypothesis? How?, explanation
of results, limitations of study,
teaching implications)
The results of the study confirm that
VSM is an effective and rapid strategy
in teaching children with ASDs effective
modes of communication, such as
PECS. Though the participants
belonged to different age,
developmental disability, and ability
groups, they all reached criterion in the
mastery of their target skills after being
exposed to VSM of that certain target
skill. All participants had been
previously exposed to the traditional
teaching of PECS prior to this study
with no success. Despite previous
failed exposure, each participant was
able to independently master their
target skills in the use of PECS after
exposure to VSM. This provides valid
evidence for the use of VSM to
increase communication skills among
students with ASDs. This being said, it
is crucial to recognize the fact that this
study covered a very narrow population
of students with ASDs. Though the
interventions worked with the two
participants with ASDs, VSM might not
be as highly successful among different
students with ASDs from various
demographics. This taken into
consideration, evidence still points to
the fact that the use of VSM among
students with ASDs is an intervention
that will most likely rapidly produce
highly proficient communicative results.
VSM could be used regularly in any
classroom, not just those with students
with ASDs, to model and establish

The results did not support the

hypothesis, as there was really no
correlation between the use of VSM to
model appropriate social and
communication skills and the frequency
of interactions between the two groups
of children. Though early social and
communication intervention is
supported in children with ASDs, this
study provided some evidence that
developmental factors in all children
might be necessary in order for VSM to
be effective in teaching various
behavioral skills. The limitations of this
study include a low sample size and a
narrow range of dependent variables,
which makes the study difficult to
generalize among different behaviors.
The results of this study implicate that
though VSM may be an effective
intervention for older children with
ASDs in acquiring social and
communication skills, certain traits
must be developed before any child
can successfully learn behavioral skills
through VSM. This is important for
teachers to remember when
considering VSM as an intervention to
teach children with ASDs various social
and communication skills, as they may
not yet have the needed developmental
traits in order to respond well to VSM,
either because of age or slow
development.

The results of this study confirmed that

VSM is an effective intervention for
students with ASDs in increasing
appropriate communication. Having the
student practice the correct target
behavior when filming and then later
reviewing the correct target behavior by
watching the video incorporated the
previously researched strategies of
guided practice and using visual
stimulants. The study proved the
effectiveness of this by measuring the
increase of appropriate/correct hand
raising. By the end of the third
observation, all students with ASDs
were raising their hands correctly, at
appropriate times, and had generalized
the skill to all areas of communication
(not just academic). The main limitation
of the study is the narrow participant
group. Due to the fact that all
participants in this study were from one
specific geographical area, it is difficult
to determine if the results could be
generalized across the entire United
States. However, the results of the
study still make a strong case for using
VSM in classrooms with students with
ASDs. Using VSM in any classroom
would help increase student
communication through guided practice
during filming and teaching effective
communication through the visual
stimulation of watching the selfmodeled video. Through VSM, students
would be able to practice and visualize
correctly performed communication

This study proved to have some overall

very interesting results. Samuel made
the most progress, while Katharina and
Brandon were recorded to have made
none. While these results may show
that VSM was not an effective
intervention for communication with
these students, it does not prove that
VSM can not be effective for other
students who have autism. The findings
from this study did help give some
insight into appropriate prerequisite
skills for using the video self-modeling
strategy. Students who are on the
autism spectrum have a wide variety of
symptoms that fall on a wide range.
Each child functions differently and this
study helped to shed some light on the
idea that this type of intervention is not
the best for everyone.

The results of this tutorial do support

the hypothesis. According to previous
reviews and studies video modeling is a
cost effective intervention that
increases child independent, can be
easily individualized, implemented
consistently, and can be used across
different people and settings. This
hypothesis directly lines up with the
results of this tutorial. In regards to this
specific article, it does not really use
any statistic to support that video
modeling is effective for school based
SLPs to use. The tutorial refers to other
articles, but does explicitly show the
statistics of how video modeling is
beneficial for school based SLPs to
use. However, the tutorial does provide
some explanation of what to do if a
student is not responding to the video
modeling.

The results in this article do support the

hypothesis partially. The hypothesis
stated that using VSM should increase
the student's self efficacy when working
on a target behavior and people learn
best from models that closely resemble
themselves. The result of this review
showed that individuals with ASD do
benefit from using VSM, but some
individuals do not.This is because is
ASD is a very broad spectrum and not
all students will react the same way to
it. Further research needs to be done
because things are always evolving
with ASD. Because not all students
responded positively to VSM further
research needs to be done comparing
student who responded positively and
students who did not respond positively
to the intervention. More research also
needs to be done on comparing VSM
to other video modeling technique. It
would also be good to compare using
VSM with individuals of ASD and VSM
with their typical peers.
The results of the study did confirm that
the implementation of video selfmodeling can be successful when
introduced to students with ASD and
intellectual disabilities. While the
student's overall amount of correct
responses at baseline increased
slightly from only 4% to 6%, his amount
of questions that he failed to respond to
completely decreased from 32% to
28%. There was also a notice of
increased spontaneous responses from
the student in classroom discussions.
Though the study was only conducted
through the testing of one student, it
can be assumed that VSM would work
for generally all students on the ASD
spectrum or for students with
intellectual disabilities.This study
contributes to the fact that technology
such as iPads, iPods, and computers
can be effective sources of
interventions for generally all students.
These types of technology not only can
be used for academic interventions, but
for behavioral and social skills as well.

Some results of the study showed a lot

of inadequate findings since some of
the variables overlapped, causing
unclear results. However, the
hypothesis was proven since there
seemed to be a direct correlation
between video modeling and
acquisition of a skill. Instructional
prompts, reinforcers, and error
correction appears to be more effective
for higher rates of acquisition and
maintenance. It is important to evaluate
the students skills to determine the
content of the video. Children who have
higher attention skills benefit greater.
Keeping the video short and replaying it
was valued. The presenter was not an
effective variable. After reading the
article, it can be determined that further
studies could be taken with additional
variables that were secluded. From the
video, one could determine that
teachers should implement video
modeling alongside instructional
prompts to increase retention of the
skill.

The results did support the hypothesis

that video modeling and VSM are
effective intervention based strategies.
Before the meta-analysis was
conducted video modeling and VSM
were said to be effective strategies. By
comparing the articles in the metaanalysis it showed that video modeling
and VSM are both effective strategies
for individuals with ASD. However,
there are some limitations to this. Most
of the articles used interventions that
used video modeling and VSM in
conjunction with other forms of
therapeutic strategies. In order to show
that video modeling and video self
modeling are effective more studies
need to be done on the interventions by
themselves. Although 23 articles were
used, there was still a small sample
size of only 73. Because of this small
sample size it limited the differences
between video modeling and VSM.
Even with these limitations, video
modeling and VSM still provide teacher
and clinicians with options to design
social, communication, and behavioral
interventions for children with ASD.

The primary purpose of this study was

to examine the possibility of VSM
interventions as a common practice to
increase social interactions of young
children with ASD. After viewing the
data, it can be determined that the
hypothesis was supported. VSM
intervention increased social
engagement between peers in a
natural setting as well as maintained
this skill even after the intervention was
taken away. However, this study was
short in that it did not include other
interventions that could be used along
side such as prompting and
reinforcement for the successful
completion of the target behavior. This
study did not take into account teacher
fidelity; even though the teacher may
have meant the best, there may have
been subconscious attention to social
interactions throughout the day. Also,
the maintenance study took place of a
2-week time span, which is relatively
short. It would have provided better
data to see the intervention over a
longer time span for the maintenance
and baseline interventions. There is
room for future research to be
conducted regarding the effectiveness
of VSM. Given that teachers have the
technology provided to them, this
strategy would be a beneficial one to
use especially if paired with other
intervention strategies.