EE742

Chapter9:FrequencyStabilityand
Control
Fall2011

Meetingdemandwithgeneration
Largeandslowchanges(24hr)inpowerdemandaremetby
unitcommitment
Mediumandrelativelyfastchanges(30min)inpowerdemand
aremetbyeconomicdispatch.
Smallandfastchanges(seconds)aremetbyautomatic
generationandcontrol(AGC)tomaintain
Frequency
Tielinepowerexchange
Powerallocationamongthegeneratingunits

Generationcharacteristic=sumofspeeddroopcharacteristics.

Turbinegeneratorcharacteristics
Thesystemhastheabilitytocompensateforpowerimbalance
atthecostoffrequencydeviation.
Alargeinterconnectedsystemhasanalmostflatcharacteristic
(i.e.,alargedeviationinpowerdemandresultsisaverysmall
frequencydeviation).
Theturbinegeneratorcharacteristicshasbothalowerlimitand
anupperlimit(seecurvebelow).
Theunitthatreachesitslimit(i.e.,withnospinningreserve)
doesnotcontributetoanincreaseinpowerdemand.

Influenceofturbineupperlimitandspinning
reserveallocationongenerationcharacteristic
Thegenerationcharacteristiccanbecomenonlinear(orpiece
wiselinear)ifsomeofthegeneratorsreachedthemaximum
powerlimits

Systemfrequencypowercharacteristics
Inasystemwithalargenumberofgenerator,thepiecewise
linearcurveappearssmooth(seefigurebelow).
Linearapproximation:
atmaximumpower,thedroopT tendtoinfinity.
Loadvariationwithfrequency:
KL:frequencysensitivitycoefficientofpowerdemand

Increaseinsystemdemand
Anincreaseinsystemdemandiscompensatedby
Anincreaseinturbinegeneration(attheexpenseofa
reductioninfrequency)
Adecreaseinsystemload(duetodropinfrequency)

Stiffness exactvalue
difficulttodetermine

Example0
Anisolatedandunregulated60Hzpowersystemconsistsoftwo
generatingunitthatserveaload.Assumeabaseof500MVAand
thefrequencysensitivitycoefficientsofthegeneratingunitsand
loadare:K1 =100pu,K2 =50pu,KL =1.8pu.Nowasuddenincrease
inpowerdemandofP=0.2pu occurs.Determinethesystem
operatingfrequencyandthepowercontributionfromeachunit.

f=P/(K1 +K2 +KL )=0.00131pu (i.e.,f=59.92Hz)

P1= K1 f=0.131pu (=65.7MW)
P2= K2 f=0.0658pu (=32.9MW)
PL= KL f=0.0023pu (=1.2MW)

Primaryfrequencycontrol
Primaryfrequencycontrolistheactionofturbinegovernors
duetofrequencychangeswithoutchangingPref setting.
Astheloadincreases,spinningreserveisreleasedfromfast
regulatingunitswhichhavespeeddroopcharacteristicswith
deadzones(seeexamplesbelow)

Unitswithlargerdeadzones
areactivatedonlyduring
largedisturbances

Secondarycontrol
Toreturntotheinitialfrequency,thegenerationcharacteristic
muchbeshiftedbychangingPref settingintheturbine
governingsystem.
Inanisolatedpowersystem,automaticsecondarycontrolcan
beimplementedinsomeunits(byaddingasupplementary
controlloopasshownbelow)inadecentralizedway.
Inaninterconnectedsystemwithanumberofcontrolareas,
centralizedsecondarycontrolisnecessary.

AGC
Inaninterconnectedsystem,eachcontrolareahasitsown
centralregulatortomaintainfrequencyatthescheduledlevel,
andbalancebetweengeneratedpower,areademand,andtie
lineinterchangepower.
frequencybiasfactor
AreaControlError(ACE)
Participatingfactors:

AGC
ZeroingAGCcanbeachievedintwoways:
Zeroingbotherrors(moredesirableoutcome)
Achievingacompromisebetweentheerrors
inthelattercasewhichmayhappenofthecontrolarea
exhausteditsreserves,themissingpowermustcomefromthe
neighboringnetwork(aviolationofthenoninterventionrule).
Topreventpowerswingsbetweencontrolareas,scheduled
changesintielinepowerflow,rampingthatlastaround10min
isoftenused.

AGCasamultilevelcontrol
Synchronousclocksbasedonsystemfrequencytendtobuildan
errorduetofrequencydeviations.Theseerrorsareeliminated
occasionally(onceamonth)bychangingthefrequencyreference
value.
Tertiarycontrolis
associatedwith
generatorscheduling
viaeconomicdispatch

Exampleoffrequencyrecoveryfollowingageneratoroutage

Sampleoffrequencydeviationsinalocalsystem

Responseofapowersystemtopowerimbalance

Considerthesystembelowwithtwoidenticalgenerators.The
disturbanceconsistsofthedisconnectionofonegenerator.
Refertothepredisturbanceequivalentcircuitintheleftfigure.

StageI:rotorswings
Effectofdisconnectionofoneofthegenerators:
Systemreactanceincreases
Mechanicalpowerdrops

Xs: measure of electrical distance of system w.r.t disturbance

Xd+XT: measure of electrical distance of remaining gen. w.r.t disturbance

StageII:frequencydrop
Theshareofanygeneratorinmeetingthepowerimbalance
dependssolelyonitsinertia,andnotonitselectricaldistance.
Afterfewrotorswings,allgeneratorswillslowdownatthesame
rate.Ingeneral,
Hence,
For the case of the network to the left,

StageIII:Primarycontrol
Theoperatingfrequencyofthesystemisdeterminedatthe
intersectionpointof
and

Importanceofspinningreserve
Spinningreservecoefficient:
(R numberofunitsoperating
belowtheirlimits)
Ifallunitshavethesamedroop,
then,
and
frequencydrop:

The smaller the spinning

reserve, the bigger the
drop in frequency.

With no spinning reserves,

FrequencyCollapse
Forlargefrequencydeviations,thelinearityofgenerator
frequencypowercharacteristicisnolongervalid.
Intheleftfigurebelow,points isstable,whilepoint uisunstable
(shadedareiscalledareaofrepulsion).
Intherightfigure,thesystemwasoperatingwithlowsinning
reservewhenalossofageneratoroccurs.Thesystemtrajectory
enterstheareaofrepulsionthusresultinginfrequencycollapse.

Underfrequencyloadshedding
Inaninterconnectedsystemwithashortageintielinecapacity,
theonlywaytopreventfrequencycollapsefollowingalarge
disturbanceistoemployautomaticloadsheddingusing under
frequencyrelays.
Loadsheddingisimplementedinstagesstartingwiththeleast
importantload.
Firstshedactivatedatpoint3,followedbythesecondshedat
point4

StageIV:Secondarycontrol
Inthisfinalstage,theAGCisactivatedtocorrectthetielineflow
andfrequencydeviation.
Inanislandedsystem(withnotielines),thecentralregulators
transmitscontrolsignalstoparticipatinggeneratingunitsto
increasetheiroutputpower(i.e.,shiftthegeneratorcurve
upwardinincrements) seefigurebelow.

StageIV:Secondarycontrol
Inreality,theinertiawithinthepowerregulationprocess
ensuressmoothchangesinpower(insteadofzigzag lines).

1: slow frequency control

2: fast frequency control

StageIV:secondarycontrol
attheendofStageIII,eachgeneratorcontributestothepower
imbalance.InStageIV,thecontributiontopowerimbalanceismade
onlybythoseunitsparticipatingincentralcontrol.
Importanceofspinningreserveisillustratedinthefigurebelowfor
differentspinningreservecoefficients(r).Inhere,thedisturbance
consistsofloosinggenerationequalto10%oftheloaddemand.
Incases1&2,thefrequencyreturnstoitsreferencevalue
Incases3&4,thefrequencycollapses.

1:
2:
3:
4:

r = 16%
r = 14%
r = 12%
r = 8%

EnergybalanceoverstagesI,II,IIIandIV
Initially,theenergyshortfallisproducedbyconvertingthekinetic
energyoftherotatingmassestoelectricenergy(areas1&2).
Thereductionofkineticenergycausesadropinfrequencywhich
activatestheturbinegovernorprimarycontrolsothatthe
mechanicalenergyisincreasedbutatalowerfrequency(area3).
Secondarycontrolfurtherincreasesthemechanicalenergyto
generatetheadditionalrequiredelectricenergyandtoincrease the
kineticenergyoftherotatingmasses(area4).
Variation of mechanical power
provided by the system

Variation of electric power

of the load (due to frequency
deviation)

Interconnectedsystemsandtielineoscillations
Considertwosystems(A&B).Assumptions:
Ptie isflowingfromAtoB(i.e.,PTB <PLB)
PowerimbalancePo occursinsystemB.
TheinfluenceoftheAGCduringthefirstthreestagesisignored.

StageIofthedynamicsmaybeobtainedbyusingtheequalarea
criterionwithsystemAactingastheinfinitebusbar.

Interconnectedsystemsandtielineoscillations
Initialoperatingpoint1(operatingatnegativepoweranglew.t.System
A)
SystemBlosesgenerationequaltoPo.Thisforcesthesystemtomove
frompoint1to2thento3.Kineticenergyinbothsystemsisusedto
coverthelostgeneration.
SinceMA >>MB,thelostpoweralmostentirelycomesfromthetieline.

Interconnectedsystemsandtielineoscillations
Thefrequencydropisdeterminedby

where
TheAGCofbothsystemswillnowinterveneinstageIV:
with
Hence,

whereKRA andKRB areestimatesofKfA andKfB.

Ifthen

Example(9.2)

Slope of PTA: 6000 MW/Hz

Slope of PTB: 800 MW/Hz
(inverted and shifted)

Caseofinsufficientregulatingpower
IftheavailableregulationpowerinsystemBislessthanthe
generationloss,thensystemAmustintervenetocoverpartofthe
lostpower;hence,itscentralregulatorissubjecttotwoerror
signals:
withthetielinepowersatisfyingthepowerbalanceofsystemB

Thefinalsteadystateerrorsignalsaregivenby

Since,
and

The variation in tie-line power interchange is similar to example 2, except that

it settles down to 800 MW (instead of zero MW).
Since KRA < KTA, the regulator of the system A will decrease its generation,
thus increasing the frequency error while the tie line error is not allowed to
increase.

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