Int. J. Impact Engng Vol. 8, No. 3, pp.

241-264, 1989
Printed in Great Britain

0734-743X/89 $3.00+0.00
1989 Pergamon Press pie

THE AXIAL CRUSHING OF THIN PVC TUBES A N D FRUSTA

OF SQUARE CROSS-SECTION
A. G. MAMALIS,* D. E. MANOLAKOS* and G. L. VIEGELAHNt
* Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Greece and
tDepartment of Mechanical Engineering and Engineering Mechanics, Michigan Technological University,
Houghton, Michigan, U.S.A.
(Received 23 June 1988; and in revised form 24 February 1989)

Summary--Investigations have been carried out to determine the deformation modes and
load-compression characteristics of tapered, thin-walled truncated frusta and tubes of square
cross-section of rigid polyvinylchloride (PVC). The latter were fabricated from sheet material and
bent and seam welded; they constitute potential absorbers of energy.
A theoretical model for predicting the mean loads in the plastic post-buckling range is developed
on the basis of an inextensional folding mechanism and the notion of stationary and travelling
plastic hinges. The analytical results are compared with experimental ones and show good
agreement.

NOTATION
a
bt
h
H
I
L
m
Mp
n
P
P
Pmax
Pv
r
t
tI
W
x
Y
0
~b

side length of square base of frustum (see also Fig. 2a)

width of connecting strip
height of lobe (see Fig. 2a)
height of a trapezoidal side of shell (see Fig. lb)
length of inclined hinge lines (see Fig. 2a for 11 and 12)
axial length of shell
number of semi-wavelengths of plate
full plastic bending moment per unit length
number of connecting strips
axial load
mean post-buckling collapse load
initial peak load
end yield load
radius of curvature of shell
wall thickness of shell
thickness of connecting strip
plastic work dissipated
length (see Fig. 2a)
yield stress of material
deflection or shell shortening or load advance
angle (see Fig. la for angles 0 and 01)
angle (see Fig. la for angles th, ~bo and ~bl)

INTRODUCTION

The development and detail design of mechanical devices for dissipating kinetic energy in
a controlled manner has become increasingly important to the engineer. Although energy
dissipating systems usually operate under dynamic loading, in some cases, e.g. when
thin-walled structures are subjected to axial collapse, their deformation mechanics are
similar to those when quasi-static loading conditions are encountered. Theoretical models
developed for the latter case may, therefore, be used for calculating buckling loads when
impact loading is considered, whilst quasi-static experiments are preferred by many
researchers, thus providing a useful link between impact energy absorption and the wider
aspects of structural behaviour of materials. Theoretical and experimental investigations
into the quasi-static axial plastic collapse of thin-walled tubes and frusta, with and without
discontinuities in the form of axial grooves, have been reported by the authors in a series
241

A.G. MAMALISet al.

242

of papers, of which [1-4] are typical, in order to examine their behaviour as energy
absorbers in crashworthy situations; see also [5].
In this paper we report on our investigation into studying the axial load and the energy
absorption characteristics of non-circular shapes such as square thin-walled tubes, both
straight and tapered, in the form of square frusta and pyramids [6-9]. The square shells
were made of non-metallic polyvinylchloride (PVC). Our results include failure modes and
buckling load characteristics for both the straight square tubes and the frusta.
An inextensional collapse mechanism taking into account stationary and the travelling
plastic hinges has been developed to explain theoretically cracking in the shells.
Theoretically predicted results will be compared with experimental ones and shown to
be in good agreement.

THE MODELLING OF PLASTIC COLLAPSE

(a) lnextensional collapse
The geometrical characteristics of a square frustum are shown in Fig. 1(a). Consider the
buckling of a trapezoidal inclined side plate of the frustum of height H, see Fig. 1(b). We
suppose the side to be subject to in-plane loading and neglect all bending effects. Let the
plate buckle into (n + 1) pieces, also termed plastic semi-wavelengths--horizontal plastic
hinge line formed between adjacent pairs. The length of each lobe h, see Fig. 2(a), is
assumed constant along the frustum inclined length, and thus we have

h=H/m.

(1)

The assumption of equal-height layers is well justified from experimental observations on

the collapse of axially compressed PVC square frusta.
If the two idealized rectangular plates with dimensions a~ x H and a, 1 x H, see Fig.
1(b), are considered to plastically collapse under the in-plane (slant) loading, they develop
a number of plastic waves of semi-lengths m I = H/a~ and m, = H/a,+~ respectively.
Therefore the actual number of semi-wavelengths m of the tapered plate, which will be an
integer, is bracketed between two extreme values:
m, < m < m l .

(2)

A collapsing shell contains two sorts of plastic hinge, horizontal hinge lines in the shell
surface and inclined hinges which oscillate about a seam or slant ridge; see Fig. 2(a).
Consider the formation of a lobe in the surface, say number i, see Fig. 2(a). The horizontal
hinge lines form at the upper and lower ends of the lobe and at the mid-distance (half of
the plastic semi-wavelength); the hinges incline maximally at about ___45 to the horizontal
ones once developed. As crushing progresses, flat plates of material above and below the
horizontal hinge fold progressively, i.e. starting from the top, about horizontal hinges. (In
most of the tapered shells we have examined, deformation progressed from the narrow
end of the shell towards the large lower end; see below.) Two horizontal hinges on opposite
sides of the lobe move outwards, decreasing their length (by bending rapidly at some
points), while hinges on adjacent sides move inwards, increasing theirs. The total length
of the horizontal hinge of course remains constant and equal to the initial circumference
of the tapered shell at this level; thus, inextensibility of the mid-surface is maintained and
does not depend on the deflection occurring.
Taking into account the following assumptions, previously made for the inextensional
model of collapse, see also Refs [2, 5], namely that
- - t h e material is rigid-perfectly plastic with infinite ductility,
--strains due to direct and shear stresses are neglected only when the vertical action of
the load P is considered,
- - t h e compression is frictionless, so that both ends of the shell are free to deform or
change shape according to the deformation mode,

The axial crushing of thin PVC tubes and frusta

243

al

--I

L
-r

. . . . .

Plate
ap H

Actuot
plate

nl

Prate

Onl

-I
Qn+l

(o)

Cbl

FIG. 1. (a) A schematic diagram of axial load on a square frustum. (b) A trapezoidal side of the
square frustum.

- - the developed theoretical model is based upon the terminal collapse mode and not upon
the history of plastic developments,
the plastic work dissipated in the various hinge lines may be calculated as follows.
(i) Stationary horizontal hinoe lines. At the upper hinge line, see Fig. 2(a), a part of its
length, 2(a~ + 2x), is inclined inwards through an angle of (n/2 - dp) radians, and a length
2 ( a i - 2x) rotates outwards through an angle (1r/2 + ~b). Thus, the corresponding plastic
work done is
W,u=

Mp{2(a,+2x)(2-c~)+

2 ( a ~ - 2 x ) ( 2 + ~b)}

= 2Mp(Itai- 4~bx),

(3)

where Mp = Yt2/4 is the full plastic bending moment per unit length for the given shell
thickness.
Similarly, at the lower hinge, part of a unit equal to 2(a~ + 1 + 2x) rotates inwards through
(1t/2 + ~b) radians and a length of 2(a~ + 1 - 2x) rotates outwards through (n/2 - c~) radians.
The work dissipated in this hinge line is
Wll = 2Mp(~Zai+ x q- 44)x).

(4)

At the mid-surface hinge line, any hinge rotates through an angle of rc radians, absorbing
plastic work

W~m=4Mp~(a' +2~+x)= 2MpTr(a~+ ai+ ,).

(5)

The total plastic work dissipated in the stationary horizontal hinge lines is
W l = Wlu + Wll + Wlm = 4rr(al +

ai+l)Mp.

(6)

244

MAMALS
et
I al.

A.G.

IncLined
hinge. /

p end

Startof,.,/I~'~
~-~-,.~r

,~

J~"

T~

Horizontal.

Botomend
i

2cm

(a)

/'

///is/

//
A2 A3
(ii)

Ci)

12

(iii)
(b)

FIG. 2. (a) Assumed deformation mode for the inextensional collapse of a lobe in a square frustum
(see specimen 5D); experimentally obtained regions for stationary and travelling hinges'are indicated
by solid lines; idealized plastic hinge lines are shown by dotted lines for the PVC specimens listed
in Table 2; see also photographs in Fig. 8. (b) Simplified travelling hinge, showing formation of
stationary horizontal hinges in the inextensional collapse of square frusta.

The axial crushing of thin PVC tubes and frusta

245

(ii) Inclined hinge lines. Assuming that eight hinge lines of length (11 + 12) (see Fig. 2a)
rotate through an angle of r~ radians, the corresponding plastic work dissipated is
W2 = 8n(l 1 + 12)Mp.

(7)

where l~ = 2(1 + cos O)x2 and l~ = 2(1 - cos O)x2.

(iii) Flattening of the initial corners of the frustum. The original dihedral angle of the
frustum 4~o is (see Fig. la)
~bo = arccos(-cot z 0),
and therefore the initial corners of the frustum when plastically flattened bend through an
angle of ( ~ - ~bo), dissipating the following amount of plastic work:
W3 = 4Mp(4x)(rc - ~bo)= 16Mpx(n - 40).

(8)

The total internal work dissipated at stationary hinge lines as described above is thus

Wi = W1 + W2+ I413=4Mp{n[ai+a,+l +2(ll +12)+4x]-4XdPo }.

(9)

If the external work done is We per lobe i then

We= P~6,

(10)

where 6 is the load advance a n d / ~ is the crushing force. Equating equations (9) and (10)
yields to an expression for the mean post-buckling load per lobe when only the stationary
plastic hinges are considered of
/~ = 4Mp {r~[a~ +
T

ai+l

+2(lx+12)+4x]

4X~bo}.

(11)

(iv) Travelling hinges. Consider now the travelling hinge mechanism and the travelling
regions shown in Fig. 2(b). As the inclined plastic hinge NN' travels to OO' after an
increment of load displacement it causes the element of area dS of the material to be bent
to a radius of curvature r and then unbent. The incremental plastic work done in these
travelling hinges, when moved through the infinitesimal area dS, is [6]
dW4 = 2 dS Mp.
r

(12)

Assuming the radius of curvature r to be constant through the formation of lobe i and
integrating equation 02) yield
W4 = 2 -S Mp,

(13)

where

S=2(~:x)=hx.

(14)

Combining equations (13) and (14), we obtain

W4= 2 hX Mp.

(15)

Thus, the total internal plastic work when considering also the travelling hinge motion is

W~= W~ + W 3 + W4=4M~rt(a,+a,+~)+ 16Mpx(rc-dpo)+2hXMp.

(16)

Taking into account the formation of the curvatures (see also [3]), the external plastic
work done We is
We = Pi{hk -- 2r(1 + sin 4~)},
(17)
where hk is the axial height of each lobe.

246

A . G . MAMALIS et al.

The mean axial crushing load for a collapsing layer is now determined by assuming that
the work done by loading is completely absorbed in the plastic hinges, i.e. We -- Wi; thus
~ { hk -- 2r(1 + sin 4)} = 4 MpTr(a, + a, +1) + 16Mpx(n - 40) + 2hx Mp
r
or

2Mphx
_ 4Mp{Tr(a, + a,+ 1) + 4x(z - 40)} +
h k - 2r(1 + sin 4)
r{h k - 2r(1 + sin 4)}"

(18)

Differentiating equation (18) with respect to r, the radius r* that makes/~ a minimum
can be obtained as
r* = - 1 +_x f l + ABhk/2(1 + sin 4),

(19)

A
where
A = 4Mp{n(ai + ai+l) + 4x(n - 4o)}

and

(20)
B = 2mphx.

Concerning also the bending of the joint of a strip of thickness tl and width bl, an
additional amount of plastic work is required for plastically deforming the joint shapes
during the formation of lobe i; this amount is
W5 = 2baMplzr.

(21)

Taking this plastic work into account, equations (11) and (12) reduce, respectively, to
/~=4Mp { [
~-

blMp,-]

~z a i + a i + l + 2 ( l l + 1 2 ) + 4 x +

2MpJ-4X4o~

(22)

and
2Mphx
/~ = 4Mp{n(a, + a,+ 1 + b l M p , / 2 M p ) + 4x(n - 4o)} -t
h, - 2r(1 + sin 4)
r{h k - 2r(1 + sin 4)}

(23)

changing correspondingly the amount A into

A = 4Mp{rr(a, + a,+ 1 + blMpa/ZMp) + 4x(lt - 4o)}.

(24)

For axially compressed thin-walled tubes of square cross-section, by following the same
analysis as above but substituting 4 = 0 for the semi-apical angle, we arrive at the well
known expression for the mean post-buckling load necessary to cause the plastic collapse
of a tube (see I-6]). Actual experimental observations concerning buckling modes from
axially collapsing square tubes are presented below for comparison with idealized patterns
of horizontal plastic hinges and inclined ones at _+45 respectively, as assumed in Fig. 3.
Thus, we finally obtain for the mean post-buckling load P:
(i) taking into account only stationary hinge lines,
/5 = {2nhMp(5 + 2x/~ ) + 8nbtMp,)/6

(25)

and
(ii) including the travelling hinge mechanism,
p

lOrchMp + 8rcbxMpl

h - 4r

t-

h2Mp
r(h - 4r)'

(26)

where the radius of curvature r is given by

r=

2ABh

8A

(27)

The axial crushing of thin PVC tubes and frusta

I-

247

,I

45
Inctined
hinge "
lines

Top

- - '

~Horizontal
hinge
lines

\\_,

Bottom

,2m,

FIG. 3. Assumed deformation mode for the inextensional collapse of a lobe in a square tube (see
specimen 1A); experimentally obtained regions for stationary and travelling hinges are indicated
by solid lines; idealized plastic hinge lines are shown by dotted lines for the PVC specimenslisted
in Table 1; see also the photographs in Figs 11 and 13.

and
A= 10nhMp+ 8~rblMpx and

B = h2Mp.

(28)

(b) Extensible collapse

During the formation of the first ring of convolution when square frusta with relatively
large semi-apical angle ~b were collapsed, all four sides of the lobe move outwards (see
Fig. 4), with a corresponding increase of the initial dimensions. This type of deformation
may be characterized as 'extensible', and for analysing it the theoretical model for conical
shells outlined in Ref. [7] may be modified and employed for this particular geometry.
The assumed deformation mode for this case is clearly shown in Fig. 4. Each formed
lobe of the square frustum is approximately equivalent to the lobe of a circular frustum,
assuming that the periphery of the lobe cross-section remains the same, i.e. nd = 4al (Fig.
4), and that the semi-apical angle tp does as well. Equation (25) of Ref. [7] suitably modified
can be used to calculate the mean post-buckling load for the first lobe, where no
circumferential hinge line is formed at the upper narrow end of the frustum; the modified
expression for the present case is then
P = 3.8Ytl"Sa 's

+ 5.7Yt 2 tan 4~,

where d = 4 a l / r q see also Fig. 4.

I J:4o,/+_~/ )
8

xz C ~

d2(x~+x2] sinq~
i

O#
(ii}

(i)

FIG. 4. Assumeddeformation mode for the extensiblecollapse of a square frustum formingexternal

convolutions.

(29)

248

A . G . MAMALISet al.

E
E
0.06

(R

0.05

1 Clealis ecl

rigid- per f ectly-ptastic

mctt er ia[

0.04

0.03
toJ

0.02
0.01

0.1
'
Naturol

0'2.

0.3
'

O.Z~
'

tensil.e strain

FIG. 5. Tensile stress-strain curve for PVC.

EXPERIMENTAL

The axial compression of thin-walled square tubes and frusta was performed between
the parallel steel platens on an MTS universal testing machine. All tests were carried out
at a crosshead speed of 10 mm min -1, which corresponds to an overall quasi-static
compression strain rate of about 10- 3 s- 1. The test material used was commercial rigid
polyvinylchloride (PVC), whose stress-strain curve was obtained from a quasi-static tension
test, as shown in Fig. 5. If the latter is modelled in a manner corresponding to a
rigid-perfectly plastic material, we may assume that the initial yield stress is 0.05 kN mm- 2.
The specimens were fabricated from sheets which were cut and bent carefully and then
axially joined in the middle of one face by gluing a narrow PVC strip of 0.79 mm thickness
and 5 mm width over it (this did not appear to interfere with deformation mode imposed).
Square tubes 1D and 2 were joined in the same way, but along two opposite sides of the
shell; this assured symmetry in strength about the axis. The initial axial length L of the
specimens was kept constant, and the semi-apical angles of the frusta ranged between 5
and 16, the last ones corresponding to a kind of square pyramid. All specimens were
freely and axially compressed in a 'dry' condition.
A series of photographs were taken showing characteristic stages of the progressive
crumpling and the terminal mode of deformation observed. Load-deflection curves were
also obtained using an autographic recorder. After immersing the deformed specimens in
boiling water for some seconds they recovered their original length, showing very clearly
the hinge lines developed during the compression. Experimental and theoretical results
pertaining to loading conditions and deformation characteristics of the collapsed tubes
and frusta are tabulated in Tables 1 and 2 respectively.
RESULTS

AND

DISCUSSION

(a) Deformation modes

Photographs of axially collapsed square tubes and frusta showing the deformation
characteristics during progressive stages of buckling are shown in Figs 6-10. Terminal top,
bottom and side views of buckled specimens, as well as completely recovered shells showing
the plastic deformation zones developed, are presented in Figs 11-14.
The majority of the collapsed specimens appeared to show similar deformation
characteristics during the crumpling process. The main failure mode was of the 'symmetrical

57.8
58.4
56.4
55.6
55.9

1A
1B
1C
ID
2D

58.2
58.4
57.2
57.6
57.6

Seam
~t2

1
1
1
2
2

n = number of connecting strips

bey = ~(4~t -F nbltl)

Y = 0.062 k N ram-2 (mean compressive yield stress)

a~ = (51 q_ ~X2)/2

Face
~

Spec.
No.

Side dimen. (mm)

58.0
58.5
56.8
56.6
56,8

(ram)

Ga

Mean
side

1.42
1.40
0.76
0.79
0.81

Thickness
t
(mm)
126.8
125.8
127.6
126.8
127.4

Length
L
(mm)

T A B L E 1. P V C

0.024
0.024
0.013
0.014
0.014

t/~

SQUARE TUBES

5.60
5.76
1.53
1.61
1.43

Pmax

Initial
peak
load

2.40
2.18
0.71
0.63
0.63

Exper.

2.17
2.08
0.65
0.66
0.68

Theor.

Mean
post-buckling
load

Buckling load (kN)

0.116
0.106
0.065
0.054
0.053

Exper.

P/Pv b

0.105
0.101
0.069
0.057
0.057

Theor.

t~
4~

"~

36.7
13.6
12.1
36.2
35.9
34.3
12.6
12.3
33.7
3.3
6.4
36.2

2A
3A
4A
2B
3B
4B
3C
4(2
2D
3D
4D
5D

35.9
12.4
11.7
34.9
35.9
34.3
12.6
12.3
34.3
3.8
6.8
35.6

Seam

a~ = (~t, + ~n+1)/2 at a face dimension

Face

Bottom dimen, cq (mm)

Spec.
No.

56.6
59.4
57.0
53.2
56.1
55.5
57.1
56.2
55.9
54.6
58.4
58.4

Face
59.2
58.3
58.8
58.3
56.1
55.5
58.4
58.1
56.5
54.0
57.4
57.8

Seam

Top dimens ctn+ 1 (mm)

46.7
36.5
34.6
44.7
46.0
44.9
34.9
34.3
44.8
29.0
32.4
47.3

Mean
dimen,
cta
1.42
1.45
0.74
1.45
0.79
0.79
1.50
0.81
0.76
0.76
1.52
1.52

Thickness
t
(mm)

TABLE 2. PVC SQUARE FRUSTA

126.0
127.9
127.8
126.4
127.2
133.5
124.7
128.0
127.0
126.4
126.9
126.4

Length
L
(mm)
7
14
14
7
7
7
14
14
7
16
16
7

Semiapical
angle
q5 ()
0.030
0.040
0.021
0.032
0.017
0.018
0.043
0.024
0.017
0.026
0.047
0.032

t/~

5.38
4.40
1.47
5.52
1.38
1.25
4.71
1.44
1.47
0.53
6.23
5.76

Pma~

Peak load

2.05
2.22
0.71
2.05
0.53
0.40
2.14
0.64
0.53
0.62
4.80
2.14

Mean
post-buckling
load, P

Buckling load, kN

>

1.60
1.78
0.58
0.49

2.05
1.87
0.45
0.45
0.51
0.62
0.36
0.31

~Exp.
/~ (Theor.

p~Exp.
(Theor.

Euler
buckling

~Exp.
P(Theor.

~Exp.
P(Theor.

/~Exp.
(Theor.

xp.
P (Theor.

4A

2B

3B

4B

3C

4C

2D

3D

5D

~Exp.
P(Theor.

1.96
1.96

0.55
0.49

~Exp.
/~(Theor.

4D

2.13
1.69

~Exp.
/5 (Theor.

3A

~E

1.96
1.69

~Exp.
/~(Theor.

2A

S~c. No.

2.30
2.31

0.58
0.40

0.69
0.76

0.58
0.53

2.18
2.05

0.50
0.58

2.22
2.05

0.71
0.58

1.96
1.87

2.00
1.96

2.70
2.67

0.62
0.49

not fully
formed

0.63
0.62

2.27
2.33

0.69
0.69

2.33
2.32

0.71
0.67

2.14
2.05

2.65
2.23

Various levels of fold

TABLE 2 (continued)

0.58
0.58

0.65
0.72

2.32
2.41

0.72
0.76

2.18
2.20

0.68
0.68

not fully
formed

0.89
0.86

2.49
2.40

0.77
0.79

g~

('3

CIQ

,..]

252

A . G . MAMALIS et al.

too

ol

.J

<1

Hinge
Lines

2cm
i

(a)

/,
-"v

.#
r

\
\
\

"\

\\ \
(b)

/
,/

/
2era

FIG. 6. (a) Buckling modes for PVC square tube 1C; see Table 1 for details. 1-5: views of
progressive collapse; 6: the 'as recovered' side view; 7: a top view; 8: a bottom view; 9: a side
view. (b) Assumed deformation mode for sp. 1C--experimentally obtained regions for stationary
and travelling hinges (solid lines); idealized plastic hinge lines (dotted lines), which are regular
hexagons.

The axial crushing of thin PVC tubes and frusta

253

Hinge
Lines
EE 100]
o-,

IO

II

12

2cm
I

FIG. 7. Bucklingmodes for a PVC 7 square frustum specimen 2D; see Table 2 for details. 1-8:
views of progressive collapse; 9: the 'as recovered' side view; 10: a top view; 11: a bottom view;
12: a side view.

type'; see Refs [8, 9-1. According to this mechanism of deformation, a collapsing tube
contains two sorts of hinge, namely fixed horizontal and inclined travelling hinges; see
Figs 2 and 3, and the recovered specimens in Figs 13 and 14. Two horizontal hinges are
formed on opposite sides of the lobe and move outwards, decreasing their initial length;
simultaneously, hinges on adjacent sides of a lobe move inwards, increasing their length.
Subsequently, groups of similar lobes are formed at ~/2 to a previous one and so on. The
phenomenon is repeated in the same way up to full compression of the shell. The inclined
travelling hinges start at the corner of the tube and finally sweep across the axial length
to finish at + 4 5 to the horizontal ones. Figure 2(a) and (b) show the area in which the
inclined hinges are bent and unbent in travelling through the whole surface, eventually
leaving the region fiat. In frusta, first buckling always appears near to the narrower end
of the shell.

254

A.G. MAMALISet

al.

'hinge
tines
mm

&L

12

13
2cm
I

10

11

14
I

FIG. 8. Buckling modes for PVC 7 square frustum specimen 5D; see Table 2 for details and Fig.
2(a) for deformation model. 1-10: views of progressive collapse; 11: the 'as recovered' side view;
12: a top view; 13: a bottom view; 14: a side view.

The 'symmetry' described above did not appear for specimens 2D (see the crumpling
stages in Fig. 7), and 2B (see the terminal views in Fig. 12a). In this 'asymmetric' type of
failure (see also Refs [8, 9]), first buckling seems to be of an 'overall' kind, occurring at
various positions simultaneously; see 1 of Fig. 7 (specimen 2D). The buckling process is
then centered at a point not close to the narrow end of the shell, and has the first 'asymmetric'
lobes inclined at different directions on each side. In the case of specimen 4B in Fig. 12(c),
the 'asymmetrical' type of collapse was reduced to Euler buckling.
The developments of the specimens (see Figs 2a, 3, 6b, 9b and 10b) show clearly the
formation of hinge lines and verify the 'symmetrical' or 'asymmetrical' character of the
buckling mechanisms. F r o m these forms as developed we may confidently assume that for
shells of small semi-apical angle the wavelength is almost constant for all lobes. For greater
angles, however, the wavelength increases from the narrower to the wider end of the shell.
This non-constancy seems not to be evidently significant, and it is not greatly affected by

The axial crushing of thin PVC tubes and frusta

255

E
E
._1

<3

6
Hinge
Lines

,oo]
OJ
7

I0

II

II

12

13

14

2cm
I

(a)

nd
Start of

Bo'ttom end

2 cm

(b)
FIG. 9. (a) Buckling modes for a PVC 16 square frustum specimen 3D; see Table 2 for details.
1: initial (undeformed) specimen; 2-10: views of progressive collapse; 11: the 'as recovered' side
view; 12: a top view; 13: a bottom view; 14: a side view. (b) Assumed deformation mode for
specimen 3 ~ x p e r i m e n t a l l y obtained regions for stationary and travetlifig hinges are shown by
solid lines; idealized plastic hinge lines are shown by dotted lines.

256

A.G. MAMALISet al.

.__.Hinge
tines

"EE I 1
<:]

o-

II

I0
2cm

(a

end

2cm

(b)
FIG. 10. (a) Buckling modes for PVC 16 square frustum, specimen 4D; see Table 2 for details.
1-7: views of progressive collapse; 8: the 'as recovered' side view; 9: a top view; 10: a bottom
view; 11: a side view. (b) Assumed deformation mode for specimen 4D----experimentally obtained
regions for stationary and travelling hinges are indicated by solid lines; idealized plastic hinge lines
are shown by dotted lines.

The axial crushing of thin PVC tubes and frusta

257

sp. IA

sp. IB

sp. ID

sp. 2

2cm
I

FIG. 11. Terminal buckling modes for PVC square tubes; see Table 1 for details. 1: a top view;
2: a bottom view; 3: a side view.

the connecting strip; thus the assumption that the wave-lengths are constant for the
theoretical analysis can be considered as valid.
In square pyramids, i.e. frusta with ~b= 16 (specimens 3D and 4D), the first set of lobes
all move outwards and follow the extensible type of failure; see Figs 9(a) and 10(a) and
the deformation model in Fig. 4.
As the semi-apical angle q5 increases, some of the wider lobes formed gradually overlap
the shorter ones and often touch the upper platen of the testing machine; refer to similar
remarks on the plastic collapse of circular frusta of small semi-apical angles reported in
Ref. I-3].
All specimens, and especially those of greater semi-apical angles, showed severe
deformation at the joints, so that fractures in the joint strip appeared, indicating a weak
joint. Some elastic recovery was observed immediately after removal of the load.
In square tubes, first buckling occurs at their mid-height and then gradually spreads
from both sides of the lobe.
A slight upwards rise in some of the flattened lobes and of folding onto the ones lying
above is apparent in many of the square tubes tested, owing to the small t/ct ratio (see

258

A . G . MAMALISet al.

Table 1), and the difference in distortion between the strengthened part by the strip joint
and the rest of the sides of the tube. This in fact disturbs the symmetry of the folding of
these PVC specimens and is apparent from the arrangement of the hinge lines of the
recovered PVC tubes; see Fig. 13.

6.
tt~

rn
b'3

0.
Itl

to)
tO

6.
tt~

2cm
I

(o)
FIG. 12. (a) Terminal buckling modes for PVC square frusta (specimens 2B, 3B, 3C, 4C); see Table
2 for details. 1: a top view; 2: a bottom view; 3: a side view. (b) Terminal buckling modes for
PVC square frusta (specimens 3A and 4A); see Table 2 for details. 1 : a top view; 2: a bottom view;
3: a side view. (c) Side views of specimen 4B (Euler buckling mode).

The axial crushing of thin PVC tubes and frusta

259

sp. 3A

sp. 4A

2cm
I

(b)

2cm
I

(c)
FIo. 12 (contd).

260

A . G . MAMALIS et al.

sp. IA

sp IB

sp. ID

sp 2

2cm
i

FIG. 13. Recovered P V C s q u a r e tubes i m m e r s e d in boiling w a t e r s h o w i n g d e f o r m a t i o n zones; see

T a b l e 1 for details.

(b)

Buckling loading

Typical load-deflection curves of the collapsed specimens are shown in Figs 15-20.
Initially the shell behaves elastically and the testing machine load rises at a steady state,
with the load-deflection curves showing the initial peak load followed by a very rapid
decrease in load. After this final stage, the post-buckling phase is developed with secondary
peaks and troughs directly related to the formation of the subsequent buckles during the
crumpling process. The secondary peak loads are significantly lower in magnitude than
the initial load, of slightly increasing magnitude for frusta as the buckling proceeds or of
constant magnitude in the case of square tubes. Note that of all the specimens tested only
specimen 4B did not show a post-buckling region, owing presumably to the Euler collapse
mode which occurred: see Fig. 16 and Table 2. In the load-deflection curves of Fig. 19,
a typical example of the theoretically predicted mean post-buckling load per lobe is indicated
for square frusta. It follows a stepped shape curve, increasing from one lobe to the next,
and it approximates satisfactorily to the experimental values of the mean load; see Table
2. For square tubes, a constant theoretical value of the mean load P is predicted using
equation (11) or (25) for the stationary hinge lines mechanism and is compared to the
experimental ones in Table 1. Application of the travelling hinge formulation I-equation
(18), (23) or (26)] gives values overestimated by about 10%. Experimental and theoretical
results obtained fit the following empirical equation for square tube buckling:

P/Pv = 4.672(t/~t) - 0.006.

(30)

CONCLUSIONS

The axial collapse of thin-walled square tubes and frusta has been investigated
theoretically and experimentally and deformation mechanisms have been proposed to
describe the crumpling process of the shells.
For the majority of the collapsed frusta, the start of collapse occurred near to the narrow
end of the shell, with the developing or subsequent deformation mode consisting of fixed
horizontal and inclined travelling hinges. According to this deformation mechanism,
characterized as 'symmetrical', two opposite sides of each lobe formed move inwards, while
the two other opposite ones move outwards. Each formed lobe is arranged at n/2 to the
previous one.

The axial crushing of thin PVC tubes and frusta

1t

sp. 2 A

sp. 2B

261

sp. 3A

sp. 4 A

sp. 3C

sp4C

2cm
I

FIG. 14. RecoveredPVC square frusta after immersionin boilingwater showingdeformationzones;

see Table 2 for details.

Square pyramids (~b = 16 ) formed the first lobes, which consisted of all four sides moving
o u t w a r d s - - i n other words, an extensible type of deformation was developed.
Initial overall buckling of a shell, i.e. the start of the collapse, occurred at the mid-height
of the frustum and resulted in distortion of the specimen; subsequent folding followed at
both sides of the first lobe.
A 'symmetrical' type of deformation, as described above, was also observed for square
tubes. All specimens showed a degree of out-of-squareness folding with a relatively greater
radius of curvature; this was probably due to the small slenderness ratio and/or the influence
of the strip joint.

262

A . G . MAMALIS et al.
2.5

2.0

1.5

O
O

1.0

C~
tu

= 0.5
2
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

Deflection
(a)

I L

|'l

(b)
Z

12.5
PI

7'.5

~
III

[~

..I"".__

"':"(,'

AV,

2.5

OI

02

03

04
Oefl.ection ( L )

05

06

07

08

FIG. 15. (a) The load-deflection characteristic of an axially compressed PVC square tube, 1C. See
Table 1 for details. - experimental curve; - - - theoretical mean post-buckling load (numbers
1-5 refer to the photographs of Fig. 6). (b) Load-deflection characteristics of axially compressed
PVC square tubes, see Table 1 for details. - - - - - - specimen 1A;
specimen 1B; - - - specimen
ID; - - - - - specimen 2.

75--

~2m

r<--.mm--0 I

T---T

02

03

04
Deflection (L)

05

06

0.7

F I G . 16. Load-deflection characteristics of axially compressed P V C , 7o square frusta, see Table 2

and Figs 7-8 for details of specimen numbers and buckling modes. - - - specimen
5 D ; - - specimen 4B.

2D;

specimen

The axial crushing of thin PVC tubes and frusta

263

75-

_9

~z

rn

:'"

,'"

OI

"0.3l ' " ' l "0 4

02

J"l

05

0.6

0.7

08

Deftection ( L )

FIG. 17. Load-deflection characteristics of axially compressed PVC, 14 square frusta, see Table
2. - specimen 3A; - - - specimen 4A.

7 5 - -

/"~
, --. .

!i

Z
~

-i

!
:

":"~

..

'.-..... .._..

I \./"

i
"

'\.;

i \ ".\

I
~25

I
0

OI

0 2

"i

03

""

, " - , "

04

"

05

06

07

DefLection ( L )

FIG. 18. Load-deflection characteristics of axially compressed PVC 16 square frusta, see Table
2 and Figs 9-10 for details for specimen numbers and buckling modes. - . - specimen 3D; . . . .
specimen 4D.

15-

125

--

A
Z
I0--

_9o z 5 -

.~

/"\..

/".\
25

0 I

02

03

04

0.5

06

07

I
08

Deflection ( L )

FIG. 19. Load-deflection characteristics of axially compressed PVC square tubes and frusta of
different semi-apical angles and almost the same wall thickness; see Tables 1 and 2 for details.
Experimental curves: - - . - - square tube 1A (Table 1);
7 square frustum (Table 2); . . . .
14 square frustum 3C (Table 2); . . . .
16 square frustum 4 D (Table 2); - - - - theoretical mean
postbuckling load per lobe for specimen 2B.

264

A . G . MAMALISet al.
75--

rr~

j.~
0

OI

~
02

~,.a
03

04
Deftection

~.s 'f ~"~"

o5

o6

07

O8

(L)

FIG. 20. Load-deflection characteristics of axially compressed PVC square tubes and frusta of
different semi-apical angles and almost the same wall thickness; see Tables 1 and 2 for details. - square tube ID (Table 1); - - - 7 square frustum 3B (Table 2);
14 square frustum 4C
(Table 2); . . . . 16 square frustum 3D (Table 2).

Plastic analysis based on the proposed mechanism for inextensional and extensible plastic
collapse and assuming a rigid-perfectly plastic material allows the prediction of the mean
post-buckling load during the crumpling process. For the geometries and materials
examined, theoretically predicted values of the mean post-buckling load were found to be
in good agreement with the experimental ones. The average calculated value of/~ was
experimentally verified to within _+ 15%.

REFERENCES
1. A. G. MAMALISand W. JOHNSON, The quasi-static crumpling of thin-walled circular cylinders and frusta under
axial compression. Int. J. Mech. Sci. 25, 713 0983).
2. A. G. MAMALIS, n . E. MANOLAKOS, G. L. VIEGELAHN, N. M. VAXEVANIDISand W. JOHNSON, On the
inextensional axial collapse of thin PVC conical shells. Int. J. Mech. Sci. 28, 323 (1986).
3. S. SAIGAL, W. JOHNSON and A. G. MAMALIS,The plastic collapse of thin-walled small angle frusta under axial
load and energy absorption. Proc. Int. Symp. Intense Dynamic Loading and its Effects, Beijing, China (1986).
4. A. G. MAMALIS, G. L. VIEGELAHN, D. E. MANOLAKOSand W. JOHNSON, Experimental investigation into the
axial plastic collapse of steel thin-walled grooved tubes. Int. J. Impact Enene 4, I I 7 (1986).
5. W. JOHNSON and A. G. MAMALIS,Crashworthiness of Vehicles. Mechanical Engineering Publications, London
(1978).
6. Q. MENG, S. T. S. AL-HASSANIand P. S. SODEN, Axial crushing of square tubes. Int. J. Mech. Sci. 25,747 (1983).
7. A. G. MAMALIS,D. E. MANOLAKOS,S. SAIGAL,G. L. VIEGELAHNand W. JOHNSON, Extensible plastic collapse
of thin-wall frusta as energy absorbers. Int. J. Mech. Sci. 28, 219 (1986).
8. W. ABRAMOWICZand N. JONES,Dynamic axial crushing of square tubes. Int. J. Impact Engng 2,263 (1984).
9. S. R. REID and T. Y. REDDY, Static and dynamic crushing of tapered sheet metal tubes of rectangular
cross-section. Int. J. Mech. Sci. 28, 623 (1986).