Endocrine System

Endocrine System:

Composed of endocrine glands located throughout the body

Secrete chemical messengers called HORMONES into the bloodstream rather than into a duct(for
exocrine gland)
Hormones travel through the general blood circulation to specific sites called TARGET TISSUES
or effectors

Endocrine Glands:

Pituitary Gland: Anterior

HORMONE
Growth Hormone
Thyroid- Stimulating Hormone(TSH)
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
Luteinizing Hormone (LH) or interstitial cellstimulating hormone (ICSH)
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Prolactin

TARGET TISSUE
Kidney
Uterus, Mammary Gland

Thyroid Gland:
HORMONE
Thyroxine, triiodothyronine
Calcitonin

Follicles in ovary in females,Seminiferous

tubules in males
Ovary and mammary gland in females, testis in
males

Pituitary Gland: Posterior

HORMONE
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
Oxytocin

TARGET TISSUE
Most tissues
Thyroid Gland
Adrenal Cortex
Melanocytes in the skin
Ovary in female, testis in males

Parathyroid Gland:
HORMONE
Parathyroid Hormone

TARGET TISSUE
Most cells of the body
Primarily bones

TARGET TISSUE
Bone, Kidney

Adrenal Medulla:
HORMONE
Epinephrine (mostly),Some norepinephrine

Adrenal Cortex:

TARGET TISSUE
Heart, Blood vessels, liver, fat cells

HORMONE
Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)

TARGET TISSUE
Kidneys; to lesser degree, intestine and sweat
glands
Most tissues (eg. liver, fat, skeletal muscle,
immune tissues)
Most tissues

Glucocorticoids (cortisol)
Adrenal Androgens

Pancreas:
HORMONE
Insulin
Glucagon

TARGET TISSUE
Esp. liver, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue
Primarily Liver

Reproductive Organs:
HORMONE
Testosterone

Testes
Ovaries

Estrogens, Progesterone

Uterus, Ovaries, inflamed

tissues

Prostaglandins

Most tissues
Most tissues

Thymus:

HORMONE
Epinephrine (mostly),Some norepinephrine

TARGET TISSUE
Most tissues

Pineal Gland:
HORMONE
Melatonin

TARGET TISSUE
Heart, Blood vessels, liver, fat cells

TARGET TISSUE
Among others, hypothalamus

Pituitary and Hypothalamus

Hypothalamus autonomic nervous system and endocrine control center of the brain located
inferior to the thalamus
Pituitary Gland aka hypophysis and master gland
- Size of a pea
-Location: Depression of the sphenoid bone inferior to the hypothalamus of the brain

2 parts: anterior and posterior

-

control the functions of many other gland such as: ovaries, testes, thyroid gland and adrenal
cortex

Secretes hormones that influence growth, kidney function, birth & milk production from
mammary glands

Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary

Growth Hormone (GH)

Young person -> growth hormone deficiency -> remains small although normally proportioned =
pituitary dwarf

Excess growth hormone secretion ->present before bones finish growing in length, exaggerated
bone growth occurs-> becomes abnormally tall = giantism

Excess growth hormone secretion ->after growth in bone length is complete, continues in bone
diameter only -> results: facial features and hands become abnormally large = acromegaly

Secretion of GH is controlled by two hormones from the hypothalamus: releasing

hormones(growth hormone secretion) and inhibiting hormones(inhibits secretion).

Part of the effect of GH is influenced by a group of protein hormones = insulin-like growth

factors (IGFs) or somatomendins.

IGFs are similar in structure to insulin and can bind, to some degree, to insulin receptors.

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

Too much TSH = thyroid gland enlarges, secretes too much thyroid hormones

Too little TSH = decreases in size, secretes too little thyroid hormones

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Increases the secretion of a hormone from the adrenal cortex called = cortisol, also called
hydrocortisone.

Required because it keeps the adrenal cortex from degenerating

Increases pigmentation

Too much ACTH darkening of the skin

Gonadotropins regulate growth, development and functions of the gonads.

In females luteinizing hormone (LH) ovulation of oocytes and the secretion of the sex
hormones estrogen and progesterone from the ovaries.

In males Follicle-stimulating hormone(FSH) stimulates the development of follicles in the

ovaries and sperm cells in the testes.

Without LH and FSH, ovaries and testes decrease in size, no longer produce oocytes or sperm
cells and no longer secrete hormones.

Prolactin

Helps promote development of the breast during pregnancy and stimulates the production of milk
following pregnancy.

Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)

Similar to ACTH and over secretion of either causes the skin to darken.

Regulation of this hormone is not well understood.

Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Increases water reabsorption by kidney tubules = less water lost as urine.

Cause blood vessels to constrict when released in large amounts = vasopressin

Reduced ADH release from posterior pituitary results in large amount of dilute urine.

Lack of ADH secretion = diabetes insipidus, - production of large amount of dilute urine.

Consequences of diabetes insipidus are not obvious until the condition becomes severe. Large
urine volume causes an increase in the concentration of the body fluids and the loss of important
electrolytes: Ca2+, Na+ and K+

Familiar to some who have ever had alcohol to drink

Diuretic actions of alcohol are due to its inhibition of ADH secretion

Oxytocin

Causes contraction of the smooth muscle cells of the uterus as well as milk letdown from the
breasts in lactating women.

Commercial preparations of oxytocin known as Pitocin are given under certain conditions to
assist in childbirth and to constrict uterine blood vessels following childbirth.

THYROID GLAND

Made up of two lobes connected by a narrow band called Isthmus

One of the largest endocrine glands

Highly vascular

Requires Iodine to synthesize thyroid hormones

Surrounded by a connective tissue capsule

MAIN FUNCTION: secrete Thyroid hormones

THYROID HORMONES

Bind to nuclear receptors in cells and regulate the rate of metabolism

Are synthesized and stored within the gland in numerous thyroid follicles

Have negative-feedback on the hypothalamus and the pituitary

Hypothyroidism

-Lack of thyroid hormones

Hyperthyroidism

-Elevated rate of thyroid hormone secretion

THYROID FOLLICLE

Small spheres with walls composed of simple cuboidal epithelium

Each filled with the protein thyroglobulin to which thyroid hormones are attached

Between the follicles is a network of loose connective tissue that contains capillaries and
scattered parafollicular cells or C cells which secrete the hormone calcitonin

CALCITONIN

Secreted if the blood concentration of Ca2+ becomes too high, and it causes Ca2+ levels to
decrease to their normal range

Binds to the membrane-bound receptors of osteoclasts and reduces the rate of Ca2+reabsorption
(breakdown) from bone by inhibiting the osteoclasts.

Helps prevent elevated blood Ca2+levels

Hyporthermia and other stressors

1. Stress and hypothermia cause TRH to be released from neurons within the hypothalamus. Ti
passes through the hypothalamohypophysial portal system to the anterior pituitary.
2. TRH causes cells of the anterior pituitary to secrete TSH, which passes through the general
secretion of the thyroid gland.
3. TSH causes increased synthesis and release of T3 and T4 Into the general circulation.
4. T3 and T4 act on target tissues to produce a response.
5. Te and T4 also have an inhibitory effect on the secretion of TRH from the hypothalamus and
TSH from the anterior pituitary.

Parathyroid Gland
-it is embedded in the posterior wall of the thyroid gland.
-secretes the hormone called parathyroid hormone (PTH) which is essential fo the regulation of blood
calcium levels.
Hyperparathyroidism-abnormal high rate of PTH secretion.
Hypoparathyroidism-abnormal low rate of PTH secretion.

Effects of parathyroid hormone

1. PTH binds to membrane-bound receptors of renal tubule cells, which increases active vitamin D
formation.
Vitamin D causes the epithelial cells of the intestine to increase Ca2+ absorption.
2. PTH binds to receptors on osteoblasts. Substances released by the osteoblasts increase osteoclast
activity and cause reabsorption of bone tissue to release Ca2+.
Anatomy of the Adrenal Glands
-are two triangular-shaped organs which measure about 1.5 inches in height and 3 inches in length.
-they are located on top of each kidney.
-their name directly relates to their location.
The Adrenal Glands are two glands that sit on top of your kidneys that are made up of two
distinct parts.
Adrenal Cortex- the outer part of the gland that produces hormones that is vital to life, such as cortisol
and aldosterone
Adrenal Medulla- the inner part of the gland that produces nonessential hormones such as adrenaline.
Adrenal Medulla
-epinephrine and adrenaline are the principal hormones released.
Epinephrine and norepinephrine are referred to as the fight-or-flight hormones because of their role in
preparing the body for vigorous physical activity.
-norepinephrine is released in small amounts.

-in response to stimulation by the sympathetic nervous system these hormones are released which
becomes most active when a person is excited or physically active.
Stress and low blood glucose levels can also cause increased sympathetic stimulation of the adrenal
medulla.
Adrenal Cortex- produces three hormones can be seen outside the gland

Cortisol - which helps regulate metabolism and helps your body respond to stress
Aldosterone - ldosterone which helps control blood pressure
Three Hormones produced by the Adrenal Cortex

Mineralocorticoids: the most important of which is aldosterone.

Glucocorticoids: predominantly cortisol. Increases the breakdown of proteins
Adrenal androgens: male sex hormones mainly dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and testosterone.
Pancreas Anatomy

Pancreas The pancreas releases hormones into the blood which help control your blood sugars
(glucose). These two important chemicals are called insulin and glucagon.
The enzymes of pancreas releases several chemicals that would help in digestion and producing
proteins
The pancreas also releases a fluid that contains bicarbonate - basically, baking soda. This helps to
balance, or neutralize, the acids coming into the intestine from the stomach.
The Beta cells of the pancreas can also damage when there is any medication that can affect the
release of insulin. This condition is called diabetes: increase sugar levels.

The Endocrine portion of pancreas

Islets of Langerhans the endocrine portion of pancreas that have many small cluster cells. This is also
known as insulin producing tissue. Islets are groups of specialized cells that secrete different hormones.
4 cells distinct types:
Alpha secrete hormone glucagon; it promotes the breakdown of glucose in the endocrine system
Beta produces insulin the most abundant cell type of islets; for diabetes and it regulates the amount of
glucose in blood.
Delta somastotin hormone in pituitary gland inhibits gastric secretion

Insulin
The hormone produced by the pancreas cells (beta) that maintain or regulates the amount of glucose in
blood. Most of the people who are taking insulin are those suffer from diabetic.

Why is it importance to maintain blood glucose levels:

Too much or not enough glucose will lead to hypoglycemia, hyperglycemia, or diabetic ketoacidosis
Hypogylcemia: lack or deficiency of glucose in the blood.
Hypergylcemia: diabetes mellitus increase of glucose or sugar in the blood.
Diabetic Ketoacidosis: cannot produce insulin, the body begins to breakdown fat and acids. Ketones
produce high levels of blood acids.

IF TOO MUCH INSULIN IS PRESENT:

Blood glucose levels become VERY LOW.
INSULIN SHOCK may result because the brain, which primarily depends on glucose
for an energy source, malfunctions.
GLUCAGON
- causes the liver to convert stored
glycogen into glucose, which is released into
the bloodstream. High blood glucose levels
stimulate the release of insulin.

SOMATOSTATIN
- a hormone secreted in the pancreas
and pituitary gland that inhibits gastric
secretion and somatotropin release.

SATIETY CENTER
Are of the hypothalamus that controls the apetite
DIABETIS MELLITUS
Failure of insulin causes it
TESTES AND OVARIES
Produce sex hormones in addition to producing sperm cells and oocytes
Hormones produced by them are responsible in the development of sexual characteristics,
structural and functional differences between male and female and the ability to reproduce
Testes produces a male sex hormone called testosterone
Ovaries secretes two main classes of sex hormones which affect sexual characteristics: estrogen
and progesterone
(menstrual cycle is controlled by the release of these two from the ovaries)

Luteinizing Hormone (LH) & Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

Produced in the pituitary gland

Stimulates the secretion of hormones from the ovaries and testes
The rate of secretion of these two are controlled by the releasing hormones in the hypothalamus

THYMUS

Lies in the upper part of the thoracic cavity

Important in the function of the immune system

Secretes hormone called thymosin which aids the development of white blood cells called T cells

T cells protects the body against infection by foreign organisms

PINEAL GLAND

Pinecone-shaped

Located superior and posterior to the thalamus

Produces hormone called melatonin

Melatonin decreases the secretion of

LH and FSH by decreasing the release
of hypothalamic-releasing hormones

Inhibits the function of the reproductive

system