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Package testing - Measuring the shock experienced by a packaged product compared to the level of actual shock
exposure allows determination of the effectiveness of a packaging material. Package testing can also be used to
monitor vibration and shock that a product may experience during transport.
Shock - Accelerometers may be used to determine maximum impact acceleration levels experienced by vehicles
and crash dummies. Shock accelerometers also measure shock exposure experienced by space vehicles and
cargo during stage separation.
A wide variety of piezoelectric accelerometer configurations are available. Each method has its own particular
advantages and disadvantages for different applications. Since selecting a sensor is not trivial, applications
assistance from PCB field representatives or factory application engineers is available to assist with the selection
process.
In an accelerometer, the stress on the crystals occurs as a result of the seismic mass imposing a force on the
crystal. Over its specified frequency range, this structure approximately obeys Newton's law of motion, F=ma.
Therefore, the total amount of accumulated charge is proportional to the applied force, and the applied force is
proportional to acceleration. Electrodes collect and wires transmit the charge to a signal conditioner that may be
remote or built into the accelerometer. Sensors containing built-in signal conditioners are classified as Integrated
Electronics Piezoelectric (IEPE) or voltage mode; charge mode sensors require external or remote signal
conditioning. Once the charge is conditioned by the signal conditioning electronics, the signal is available for
display, recording, analysis, or control. PCB sensors containing integral electronics are known by their
trademarked term, Integrated Circuit - Piezoelectric, or ICP.
Shear Mode
Flexural Mode
Flexural mode designs utilize beam-shaped sensing crystals, which are supported to create strain on the crystal
when accelerated. The crystal may be bonded to a carrier beam that increases the amount of strain when
accelerated. This design offers a low profile, light weight, excellent thermal stability, and an economical price.
Insensitivity to transverse motion is also an inherent feature of this design. Generally, flexural beam designs are
well suited for low-frequency, low-g-level applications like those which may be encountered during structural
testing.
Flexural Mode
Compression Mode
Compression mode accelerometers offer simple structure, high rigidity, and historical availability. There are
Upright Compression
Inverted compression designs isolate the sensing crystals from the mounting base, reducing base bending
effects and minimizing the effects of a thermally unstable test structure. Many reference standard calibration
accelerometers use this design.
Inverted Compression
Isolated compression designs reduce erroneous outputs due to base strain and thermal transients. These
benefits are achieved by mechanically isolating the sensing crystals from the mounting base and utilizing a
hollowed-out seismic mass that acts as a thermal insulation barrier. These mechanical enhancements allow stable
performance at low frequencies, where thermal transient effects can create signal "drift" with other compression
designs.
Isolated Compression
Piezoelectric Material
There are two types of piezoelectric material that are used for PCB accelerometers: quartz and polycrystalline
ceramics. Quartz is a natural crystal, while ceramics are man-made. Each material offers certain benefits, and
material choice depends on the particular performance features desired of the accelerometer.
Quartz is widely known for its ability to perform accurate measurement tasks and contributes heavily in everyday
applications for time and frequency measurements. Examples include everything from wrist watches and radios to
computers and home appliances. Accelerometers benefit from several unique properties of quartz. Since quartz is
naturally piezoelectric, it has no tendency to relax to an alternative state and is considered the most stable of all
piezoelectric materials. This important feature provides quartz accelerometers with long-term stability and
repeatability. Also, quartz has virtually no pyroelectric effect (output due to temperature change), which provides
stability in thermally active environments. Because quartz has a low capacitance value, the voltage sensitivity is
relatively high compared to most ceramic materials, making it ideal for use in voltage-amplified systems.
Conversely, the charge sensitivity of quartz is low, limiting its usefulness in charge-amplified systems, where low
noise is an inherent feature. The useful temperature range of quartz is limited to approximately 600 F (315 C).
A variety of ceramic materials are used for accelerometers, depending on the requirements of the particular
application. All ceramic materials are man-made and are forced to become piezoelectric by a polarization process.
This process, known as "poling," exposes the material to a high-intensity electric field. This process aligns the
electric dipoles, causing the material to become piezoelectric. Unfortunately, this process tends to reverse itself
over time until it exponentially reaches a steady state. If ceramic is exposed to temperatures exceeding its range or
electric fields approaching the poling voltage, the piezoelectric properties may be drastically altered or destroyed.
Accumulation of high levels of static charge also can have this effect on the piezoelectric output. PCB uses three
classifications of ceramics. First, there are high-voltage-sensitivity ceramics that are used for accelerometers with
built-in, voltage-amplified circuits. There are high-charge-sensitivity ceramics that are used for charge mode
sensors with temperature ranges to 400 F (205 C). This same type of crystal is used in accelerometers that use
built-in charge-amplified circuits to achieve high output signals and high resolution. Finally, there are hightemperature ceramics that are used for charge mode accelerometers with temperature ranges to 600 F (316 C)
for monitoring of engine manifolds and superheated turbines.
be made for circumstances in which the temperature, at the installation point, exceeds the capability of the built-in
circuitry. The routine temperature range of ICP accelerometers is 250 F (121 C); specialty units are available that
operate to 350 F (177 C).
The electronics within ICP accelerometers require excitation power from a constant-current regulated, DC voltage
source. This power source is sometimes built into vibration meters, FFT analyzers, and vibration data collectors. A
separate signal conditioner is required when none is built into the readout. In addition to providing the required
excitation, power supplies may also incorporate additional signal conditioning, such as gain, filtering, buffering, and
overload indication. The typical system set-ups for ICP accelerometers are shown below.
mechanical resonant frequency and, therefore, the broadest usable frequency range. The addition of any mass to
the accelerometer, such as an adhesive or magnetic mounting base, lowers the resonant frequency of the sensing
system and may affect the accuracy and limits of the accelerometer's usable frequency range. Also, compliant
materials, such as a rubber interface pad, can create a mechanical filtering effect by isolating and damping highfrequency transmissibility.
Surface Preparation
For best measurement results, especially at high frequencies, it is important to prepare a smooth and flat
machined surface where the accelerometer is to be attached. Inspect the area to ensure that no metal burrs or
other foreign particles interfere with the contacting surfaces. The application of a thin layer of silicone grease
between the accelerometer base and the mounting surface also assists in achieving a high degree of intimate
surface contact required for best high-frequency transmissibility.
Stud Mounting
For permanent installations, where a very secure attachment of the accelerometer to the test structure is preferred,
stud mounting is recommended. First, grind or machine on the test object a smooth, flat area at least the size of
the sensor base, according to the manufacturer's specifications. Then, prepare a tapped hole in accordance with
the supplied installation drawing, ensuring that the hole is perpendicular to the mounting surface. Install
accelerometers with the mounting stud and make certain that the stud does not bottom in either the mounting
surface or accelerometer base. Most PCB mounting studs have depth-limiting shoulders that ensure that the stud
cannot bottom-out into the accelerometer's base. Each base incorporates a counterbore so that the accelerometer
does not rest on the shoulder. Acceleration is transmitted from the structure's surface into the accelerometer's
base. Any stud bottoming or interfering between the accelerometer base and the structure inhibits acceleration
transmission and affects measurement accuracy. When tightening, apply only the recommended torque to the
accelerometer. A thread-locking compound may be applied to the threads of the mounting stud to guard against
loosening.
A variety of adhesives are available from many manufacturers, who usually provide specification charts and
application bulletins for their adhesives. A Consumer Report's article, entitled "Which Glue for Which Job" (Jan.
1988), provides rating information on adhesives. A Popular Science magazine article, "Secrets of the Superglues"
(Feb. 1989), provides informative data on the use of superglues. Loctite provides an adhesive "Selector Guide" for
its products.
For most accelerometer adhesive mounting applications, PCB Series 080 Adhesive Mounting Bases are
suggested. These mounting pads keep the accelerometer base clean and free of epoxy that may be very difficult to
remove. Also, Series 080 Mounting Bases allow the accelerometer to be easily removed from the test structure
without damage to either the sensor or the test object.
Surface flatness, adhesive stiffness, and adhesion strength affect the usable frequency range of an accelerometer.
Almost any mounting method at low acceleration levels provides the full frequency range of use if the mounting
surface is very flat and the sensor is pressed hard against the surface to wring out all extra adhesive. Generally, as
surface irregularities or the thickness of the adhesive increase, the usable frequency range decreases.
The less-stiff, temporary adhesives reduce an accelerometer's usable frequency range much more than the more
rigid, harder adhesives. Generally, temporary adhesives are recommended more for low-frequency (<500 Hz)
structural testing at room temperature. Petro Wax is generally supplied with most of the accelerometers for a quick,
temporary mounting method used during system set-up and check-out. When quick installation and removal is
required over a wide frequency range up to 10 kHz, use a Series 080A Adhesive Mounting Base with one of the
stiffer, more permanent adhesives. Also, consider a magnetic mount, using the Series 080A27 Super Magnet with
Model 080A20 Steel Adhesive Mounting Pad for such measurements. For both, the mounting surface must be very
flat to achieve accurate high-frequency information.
Care should be exercised in selecting and testing an adhesive when concern exists regarding the possible
discoloration or damage to the test structure's surface finish. Test the adhesive first on a hidden location or a
sample of the structure's finish. Temporary adhesives like Petro Wax or beeswax offer a good solution for quick
installation in room-temperature applications. When higher temperatures are involved, apply a piece of aluminized
mylar tape to the test structure and mount the accelerometer with adhesive base using one of the other types of
adhesives. After the test, the tape can be easily removed with no damage to the surface finish of the structure.
Magnetic Mounting
Magnetic mounting bases offer a very convenient, temporary attachment to magnetic surfaces. Magnets offering
high pull strengths provide best high-frequency response. Wedged dual-rail magnetic bases are generally used for
installations on curved surfaces, such as motor and compressor housings and pipes. However, dual-rail magnets
usually significantly decrease the operational frequency range of an accelerometer. For best results, the magnetic
base should be attached to a smooth, flat surface. A thin layer of silicone grease should be applied between the
sensor and magnetic base, as well as between the magnetic base and the structure. When surfaces are uneven or
non-magnetic, steel pads can be welded or epoxied in place to accept the magnetic base. Use of such a pad
ensures that periodic measurements are taken from the exact same location. This is an important consideration
when trending measurement data.