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thyroid hormone. In the United States and other areas of adequate iodine intake,
autoimmune thyroid disease (Hashimoto disease) is the most common cause of
hypothyroidism; worldwide, iodine deficiency remains the foremost cause.
The image below depicts the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis.
The hypothalamic-pituitarythyroid axis. Levels of circulating thyroid hormones are regulated by a complex
feedback system involving the hypothalamus and pituitary gland.
See 21 Hidden Clues to Diagnosing Nutritional Deficiencies, a Critical Images
slideshow, to help identify clues to conditions associated with malnutrition.
Weight gain
Decreased appetite
Cold intolerance
Dry skin
Hair loss
Sleepiness
Depression
Constipation
Decreased perspiration
Blurred vision
Decreased hearing
Exhaustion
Weight gain
Dry skin
Jaundice
Pallor
Periorbital puffiness
Macroglossia
Hoarseness
Bradycardia
Pericardial effusion
Hypothermia
Bradycardia
Hypercarbia
Hyponatremia
Diagnosis
Third-generation thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) assays are generally the
most sensitive screening tool for primary hypothyroidism.[1] If TSH levels are
above the reference range, the next step is to measure free thyroxine (T4) or the
free thyroxine index (FTI), which serves as a surrogate of the free hormone level.
Routine measurement of triiodothyronine (T3) is not recommended.
Results in patients with hypothyroidism are as follows:
Abnormalities in the complete blood count and metabolic profile that may be
found in patients with hypothyroidism include the following[2] :
Anemia
Dilutional hyponatremia
Hyperlipidemia
No universal screening recommendations exist for thyroid disease for adults. The
American Thyroid Association recommends screening at age 35 years and every 5
years thereafter, with closer attention to patients who are at high risk, such as the
following[3] :
Pregnant women
Management
Monotherapy with levothyroxine (LT4) remains the treatment of choice for
hypothyroidism. Aspects of LT4 treatment are as follows:
In elderly patients and those with known ischemic heart disease, begin
with one fourth to one half the expected dose and adjust the dose in small
increments after no less than 4-6 weeks
Clinical benefits begin in 3-5 days and level off after 4-6 weeks
Achieving a TSH level within the reference range may take several months
LT4 dosing changes should be made every 6-8 weeks until the patients
TSH is in target range
After dose stabilization, patients can be monitored with annual clinical evaluations
and TSH monitoring. Patients should be monitored for symptoms and signs of
overtreatment, which include the following:
Tachycardia
Palpitations
Atrial fibrillation
Nervousness
Tiredness
Headache
Increased excitability
Sleeplessness
Tremors
Possible angina
In patients who continue to have symptoms (eg, weight gain, fatigue) despite
normalization of their TSH level, consideration should be given to causes other
than hypothyroidism. In some cases, however, the persistence of symptoms results
from impaired conversion of T4 to T3 in the brain; these patients may benefit
from combination LT4/liothyronine (LT3) therapy.[4]
The updated guidelines on hypothyroidism issued by the American Thyroid
Association in 2014 maintain the recommendation of levothyroxine as the
preparation of choice for hypothyroidism, with the following considerations:[5, 6]
Reference ranges of serum TSH levels are higher in older populations (eg,
>65 years), so higher serum TSH targets may be appropriate.
Serial serum TSH levels should be assessed every 4 weeks during the first
half of pregnancy to adjust levothyroxine dosing to maintain TSH within
the trimester-specific range.
Background
Hypothyroidism is a common endocrine disorder resulting from deficiency of
thyroid hormone. It usually is a primary process in which the thyroid gland is
unable to produce sufficient amounts of thyroid hormone.
Hypothyroidism can also be secondarythat is, the thyroid gland itself is normal,
but it receives insufficient stimulation because of low secretion of thyrotropin (ie,
thyroid-stimulating hormone [TSH]) from the pituitary gland. In tertiary
hypothyroidism, inadequate secretion of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
from the hypothalamus leads to insufficient release of TSH, which in turn causes
inadequate thyroid stimulation.
Worldwide, iodine deficiency remains the foremost cause of hypothyroidism. In
the United States and other areas of adequate iodine intake, autoimmune thyroid
disease (Hashimoto disease) is the most common cause. Hypothyroidism may also
be drug-induced or otherwise iatrogenic. (See Etiology.)
The patients presentation may vary from asymptomatic to myxedema coma with
multisystem organ failure. Because nearly all metabolically active cells require
thyroid hormone, deficiency of the hormone has a wide range of effects. Classic
signs and symptoms, such as cold intolerance, puffiness, decreased sweating, and
coarse skin, may not be present, especially in younger patients. (See Presentation.)
Third-generation TSH assays are readily available and are generally the most
sensitive screening tool for primary hypothyroidism. The generally accepted
reference range for normal serum TSH is 0.40-4.2 mIU/L.
If TSH levels are above the reference range, the next step would be to measure
free thyroxine (T4). Subclinical hypothyroidism, also referred to as mild
hypothyroidism, is defined as normal serum levels of free T4 and triiodothyronine
(T3) with a slightly high serum TSH concentration. (See Workup.)
For hypothyroidism, thyroid hormone is administered to supplement or replace
endogenous production. In general, hypothyroidism can be adequately treated
with a constant daily dose of levothyroxine (LT4). (See Treatment and
Medication.)
Congenital hypothyroidism, which affects 1 of every 4000 newborns, is due to
congenital maldevelopment of the thyroid (see Pediatric Hypothyroidism). This
disorder is included in the newborn screening panel in the United States and many
other countries, and it is readily treatable once detected. Cretinism refers to severe
hypothyroidism in an infant or child. This is classically the result of maternal
iodine deficiency, and thankfully is increasingly rare.
Pathophysiology
The hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis governs thyroid hormone secretion (see
the image below).
The hypothalamic-pituitarythyroid axis. Levels of circulating thyroid hormones are regulated by a complex
feedback system involving the hypothalamus and pituitary gland.
Although hypothalamic or pituitary disorders can affect thyroid function,
localized disease of the thyroid gland that results in decreased thyroid hormone
production is the most common cause of hypothyroidism. Under normal
circumstances, the thyroid releases 100-125 nmol of T4 daily and only small
amounts of T3. The half-life of T4 is approximately 7-10 days. T4, a prohormone,
is converted to T3, the active form of thyroid hormone, in the peripheral tissues by
5-deiodination.
Early in the disease process, compensatory mechanisms maintain T3 levels.
Decreased production of T4 causes an increase in the secretion of TSH by the
pituitary gland. TSH stimulates hypertrophy and hyperplasia of the thyroid gland
and 5-deiodinase activity, thereby increasing T3 production.
Deficiency of thyroid hormone has a wide range of effects. Systemic effects are
the result of either derangements in metabolic processes or direct effects by
myxedematous infiltration (ie, accumulation of glucosaminoglycans in the
tissues).
The hypothyroid changes in the heart result in decreased contractility, cardiac
enlargement, pericardial effusion, decreased pulse, and decreased cardiac output.
In the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, achlorhydria and prolonged intestinal transit time
with gastric stasis can occur. Delayed puberty, anovulation, menstrual
irregularities, and infertility are common. TSH screening should be a routine part
of any investigation into menstrual irregularities or infertility.
Decreased thyroid hormone effect can cause increased levels of total cholesterol
and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol and a possible change in highdensity lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol because of a change in metabolic clearance.
In addition, hypothyroidism may result in an increase in insulin resistance.
Etiology
In the United States and other areas of adequate iodine intake, autoimmune
thyroid disease (Hashimoto disease) is the most common cause of
hypothyroidism. The prevalence of antibodies is higher in women and increases
with age.
Primary hypothyroidism
Types of primary hypothyroidism include the following:
Postpartum thyroiditis
Drug-induced hypothyroidism
Iatrogenic hypothyroidism
Amiodarone
Interferon alfa
Thalidomide
Lithium
Stavudine
Bexarotene [9]
Perchlorate
Interleukin (IL)-2
Ethionamide
Rifampin
Phenytoin
Carbamazepine
Phenobarbital
Aminoglutethimide
Sulfisoxazole
p -Aminosalicylic acid
Ipilimumab
Use of radioactive iodine (I-131) for treatment of Graves disease generally results
in permanent hypothyroidism within 3-6 months after therapy. The frequency of
hypothyroidism after I-131 treatment is much lower in patients with toxic nodular
goiters and those with autonomously functioning thyroid nodules. Patients treated
with radioiodine should be monitored for clinical and biochemical evidence of
hypothyroidism.
External neck irradiation (for head and neck neoplasms, breast cancer, or Hodgkin
disease) may result in hypothyroidism. Patients who have received these
treatments require monitoring of thyroid function.
Thyroidectomy of course results in hypothyroidism. Patients who undergo a
thyroid lobectomy, with or without isthmectomy, have an approximately 15-30%
chance of developing thyroid insufficiency.
Genetics
Genome-wide association studies have suggested that a single-nucleotide
polymorphism located near the FOXE1 gene is associated with risk of developing
thyroid disease and that the strongest association is with hypothyroidism. Persons
found to have GG at the described location had an odds ratio (OR) of 1.35 for
development of hypothyroidism, whereas persons found to have AG at the
location had an OR of 1.00, and persons found to have AA at the location had an
OR of 0.74.[10]
Approximately 10% of patients with congenital hypothyroidism have an error in
thyroid hormone synthesis.[11] Mutations in the TPO gene appear to be the most
Central hypothyroidism
Central hypothyroidism (secondary or tertiary) results when the hypothalamicpituitary axis is damaged. The following potential causes should be considered[18,
19]
:
Pituitary adenoma
Lymphocytic hypophysitis
Sheehan syndrome
TRH resistance
TRH deficiency
Epidemiology
The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES 1999-2002) of
4392 individuals reflecting the US population reported hypothyroidism (defined
as TSH levels exceeding 4.5 mIU/L) in 3.7% of the population.[24] Hypothyroidism
is more common in women with small body size at birth and low body mass index
during childhood.[25]
Iodine deficiency as a cause of hypothyroidism is more common in lessdeveloped countries. Routine supplementation of salt, flour, and other food staples
with iodine has decreased the rates of iodine deficiency.
World Health Organization (WHO) data from 130 countries taken from January
1994 through December 2006 found inadequate iodine nutrition in 30.6% of the
population. The WHO recommends urinary iodine concentrations between 100
and 199 g/L in the general population and a range of 150-249 g/L in pregnant
women. In developed countries, death caused by hypothyroidism is uncommon.
Age-related demographics
The frequency of hypothyroidism, goiters, and thyroid nodules increases with age.
Hypothyroidism is most prevalent in elderly populations, with 2-20% of older age
groups having some form of hypothyroidism. The Framingham study found
hypothyroidism (TSH > 10 mIU/L) in 5.9% of women and 2.4% of men older
than 60 years.[26] In NHANES 1999-2002, the odds of having hypothyroidism
were 5 times greater in persons aged 80 years and older than in individuals aged
12-49 years.[24]
Sex-related demographics
Community studies use slightly different criteria for determining hypothyroidism;
therefore, female-to-male ratios vary. Generally, thyroid disease is much more
common in females than in males, with reported prevalences ranging from 2 to 8
times higher in females.
Race-related demographics
NHANES 1999-2002 reported that the prevalence of hypothyroidism (including
the subclinical form) was higher in whites (5.1%) and Mexican Americans than in
African Americans (1.7%). African Americans tend to have lower median TSH
values.[24]
Prognosis
Undertreatment of hypothyroidism leads to disease progression, with gradual
worsening of symptoms and further metabolic derangements. Ultimately,
untreated hypothyroidism can cause profound coma or even death. Untreated
hypothyroidism in infants can cause irreversible mental retardation.
In most patients, fortunately, thyroid hormone treatment reverses the signs and
symptoms of hypothyroidism. With treatment, other secondarily affected
laboratory values (eg, circulating lipid levels and elevated prolactin levels) should
improve.
Patient Education
Emphasize proper compliance at each visit. Clearly discuss the lifelong nature of
hypothyroidism, the need for lifelong levothyroxine therapy, the proper way to
take medicine, and the need for TSH testing at least annually.
Patients should take thyroid hormone as a single daily dose. Thyroid hormone is
better absorbed in the small bowel; therefore, absorption can be affected by
malabsorptive states, small bowel disease (eg, celiac sprue), and the patients age.
Many drugs (eg, iron, calcium carbonate, calcium acetate aluminum hydroxide,
sucralfate, raloxifene, and proton pump inhibitors) can interfere with absorption
and therefore should not be taken within 2-4 hours of LT4 administration.[27]
Estrogen/progestin oral contraceptives and pregnancy are associated with changes
in thyroid-binding globulin. These changes may impact thyroid hormone dosing.
For patient education information, see the Thyroid & Metabolism Center as well
as Thyroid Problems and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome.
triiodothyronine deiodinasi.
monitoring TSH serum disarankan ketika obat seperti fenobarbital, fenitoin,
carbamazepine, rifampin, dan sertraline dimulai.
Ketika memutuskan pada dosis awal levothyroxine, berat badan pasien, massa
tubuh tanpa lemak, status kehamilan, etiologi hipotiroidisme, tingkat elevasi TSH,
usia, dan konteks klinis umum, termasuk adanya penyakit jantung, harus
dipertimbangkan. Serum TSH tujuan yang tepat untuk situasi klinis juga harus
dipertimbangkan.
terapi hormon tiroid harus dimulai sebagai pengganti penuh awal atau
penggantian parsial dengan kenaikan bertahap dalam dosis dititrasi ke atas
menggunakan TSH serum sebagai tujuan.
penyesuaian dosis harus dibuat pada perubahan signifikan dalam berat badan,
dengan penuaan, dan dengan kehamilan; penilaian TSH harus dilakukan 4-6
minggu setelah perubahan dosis.
rentang referensi dari tingkat TSH serum lebih tinggi pada populasi yang lebih
tua (misalnya,> 65 tahun), target serum TSH sehingga lebih tinggi mungkin tepat.
rekomendasi diperbarui mengenai pengobatan hipotiroidisme pada wanita hamil
adalah sebagai berikut: [5, 6]
wanita hamil dengan hypothyroidism terang-terangan harus menerima terapi
penggantian levothyroxine dengan dosis dititrasi untuk mencapai konsentrasi TSH
dalam kisaran referensi trimester spesifik.
tingkat TSH serum Serial harus dinilai setiap 4 minggu selama paruh pertama
kehamilan untuk menyesuaikan levothyroxine dosis untuk mempertahankan TSH
dalam rentang trimester spesifik.
Serum TSH harus ditinjau kembali pada paruh kedua kehamilan.
Pada wanita sudah mengambil levothyroxine, 2 dosis tambahan per minggu
dari dosis levothyroxine saat ini, diberikan sebagai satu dosis ekstra dua kali
seminggu dengan pemisahan beberapa hari, dapat dimulai segera setelah
kehamilan dikonfirmasi.
Pengobatan myxedema koma adalah sebagai berikut:
Intravena (IV) LT4 dengan dosis 4 mg / kg berat badan ramping, atau sekitar
200-250 mg, sebagai bolus dalam dosis tunggal atau dibagi, tergantung pada
risiko pasien penyakit jantung
Setelah 24 jam, 100 mg LT4 IV, kemudian 50 mg / hari IV
dosis stres glukokortikoid IV
penyesuaian berikutnya dari dosis LT4 dapat didasarkan pada temuan klinis dan
laboratorium
Lihat Pengobatan dan Obat untuk lebih detail.
latar belakang
Hypothyroidism adalah gangguan endokrin umum akibat kekurangan hormon
tiroid. Biasanya adalah proses utama di mana kelenjar tiroid tidak dapat
menghasilkan jumlah yang cukup hormon tiroid.
penyakit lokal dari kelenjar tiroid yang menghasilkan penurunan produksi hormon
tiroid adalah penyebab paling umum dari hipotiroidisme. Dalam keadaan normal,
tiroid melepaskan 100-125 nmol T4 sehari-hari dan hanya sejumlah kecil T3.
Waktu paruh T4 adalah sekitar 7-10 hari. T4, sebuah prohormon, diubah menjadi
T3, bentuk aktif dari hormon tiroid, di jaringan perifer oleh 5'-deiodinasi.
Pada awal proses penyakit, mekanisme kompensasi mempertahankan tingkat T3.
penurunan produksi T4 menyebabkan peningkatan sekresi TSH oleh kelenjar
hipofisis. TSH merangsang hipertrofi dan hiperplasia kelenjar tiroid dan aktivitas
5'-deiodinase, sehingga meningkatkan produksi T3.
Kekurangan hormon tiroid memiliki berbagai efek. Efek sistemik adalah hasil dari
baik terjadinya penurunan proses metabolisme atau efek langsung oleh infiltrasi
myxedematous (yaitu, akumulasi glucosaminoglycans dalam jaringan).
Perubahan hipotiroid dalam hasil jantung pada kontraktilitas menurun,
pembesaran jantung, efusi perikardial, penurunan denyut nadi, dan penurunan
curah jantung. Dalam gastrointestinal (GI) saluran, achlorhydria dan
berkepanjangan waktu transit usus dengan stasis lambung dapat terjadi. Pubertas
tertunda, anovulasi, ketidakteraturan menstruasi, dan infertilitas yang umum.
skrining TSH harus menjadi bagian rutin dari penyelidikan atas ketidakteraturan
menstruasi atau infertilitas.
Penurunan efek hormon tiroid dapat menyebabkan kadar kolesterol total dan lowdensity lipoprotein (LDL) kolesterol dan kemungkinan perubahan high-density
lipoprotein (HDL) kolesterol karena perubahan dalam izin metabolisme
meningkat. Selain itu, hipotiroidisme dapat menyebabkan peningkatan resistensi
insulin.
Etiologi
Di Amerika Serikat dan daerah lainnya asupan yodium yang memadai, penyakit
tiroid autoimun (penyakit Hashimoto) adalah penyebab paling umum dari
hipotiroidisme. Prevalensi antibodi lebih tinggi pada wanita dan meningkat
dengan usia.
hipotiroidisme primer
Jenis hipotiroidisme primer meliputi berikut ini:
limfositik kronis (autoimun) tiroiditis
postpartum tiroiditis
Subakut (granulomatosa) tiroiditis
hipotiroidisme akibat obat
hipotiroidisme iatrogenik
limfositik kronis (autoimun) tiroiditis
Penyebab yang paling sering dari hipotiroidisme diperoleh kronis limfositik
(autoimun) tiroiditis (Hashimoto tiroiditis). Tubuh menganggap antigen tiroid
interferon alfa
thalidomide
lithium
stavudine
Oral tyrosine kinase inhibitor - Sunitinib, imatinib [8]
Bexaroterie [9]
perklorat
Interleukin (IL) -2
etionamid
rifampisin
fenitoin
carbamazepine
fenobarbital
Aminoglutethimide
sulfisoxazole
asam p -Aminosalicylic
ipilimumab
Penggunaan yodium radioaktif (I-131) untuk pengobatan penyakit Graves
biasanya menghasilkan hipotiroidisme permanen dalam waktu 3-6 bulan setelah
terapi. Frekuensi hipotiroidisme setelah pengobatan I-131 jauh lebih rendah pada
pasien dengan gondok nodular toksik dan mereka dengan mandiri berfungsi nodul
tiroid. Pasien yang diobati dengan radioiod harus dipantau untuk bukti klinis dan
biokimia dari hipotiroidisme.
iradiasi leher eksternal (untuk kepala dan neoplasma leher, kanker payudara, atau
penyakit Hodgkin) dapat menyebabkan hipotiroidisme. Pasien yang telah
menerima perawatan ini membutuhkan pemantauan fungsi tiroid.
Tiroidektomi hasil kursus di hipotiroidisme. Pasien yang menjalani lobektomi
tiroid, dengan atau tanpa isthmectomy, memiliki kesempatan sekitar 15-30% dari
mengembangkan insufisiensi tiroid.
Genetika
Studi asosiasi genome telah menyarankan bahwa polimorfisme nukleotida tunggal
terletak di dekat gen FOXE1 dikaitkan dengan risiko pengembangan penyakit
tiroid dan bahwa hubungan terkuat adalah dengan hipotiroidisme. Orang
ditemukan memiliki GG di lokasi yang dijelaskan memiliki rasio odds (OR) 1,35
untuk pengembangan hipotiroidisme, sedangkan orang ditemukan memiliki AG di
lokasi memiliki OR 1,00, dan orang ditemukan memiliki AA di lokasi memiliki
OR 0,74. [10]
Sekitar 10% dari pasien dengan hipotiroidisme kongenital memiliki kesalahan
dalam sintesis hormon tiroid. [11] Mutasi pada gen TPO tampaknya kesalahan
yang paling umum dari sintesis hormon, menyebabkan kegagalan untuk
menghasilkan jumlah yang cukup TPO. [12]
Mutasi pada TSHR dan PAX8 gen diketahui menyebabkan hipotiroidisme
kongenital tanpa gondok. [13, 14] mutasi pada gen TSHR dapat menyebabkan
hipotiroidisme karena ketidakpekaan terhadap TSH, meskipun sebagian besar
kasus yang terkenal untuk keadaan klinis eutiroid meskipun hasil tes laboratorium
yang abnormal (ditinggikan TSH dengan konsentrasi hormon serum tiroid
normal). Mutasi pada gen PAX8 penyebab hipotiroidisme akibat disgenesis atau
agenesis kelenjar.
bentuk sindrom hipotiroidisme juga baik dijelaskan. Sindrom Pendred disebabkan
oleh mutasi pada gen SLC26A4, yang menyebabkan cacat dalam organifikasi
yodium (yaitu, penggabungan ke hormon tiroid), kongenital kehilangan
pendengaran sensorineural, dan, biasanya, kelenjar tiroid membesar. Hal ini
diwariskan secara resesif autosomal. [15]
Autoimun Jenis polyendocrinopathy I disebabkan oleh mutasi pada gen AIRE dan
ditandai oleh adanya penyakit Addison, hipoparatiroidisme, dan mucocutaneous
candidiasis. Sebuah subset dari pasien dengan penyakit ini juga memiliki
prevalensi tinggi tiroiditis autoimun dan hipotiroidisme dan mutasi baru pada gen
AIRE yang diwariskan dalam mode dominan autosomal. [16] autoimun Jenis
polyendocrinopathy 2 (Schmidt syndrome) dikaitkan dengan insufisiensi adrenal
dan hipotiroidisme.
kekurangan yodium atau kelebihan
Di seluruh dunia, kekurangan yodium adalah penyebab paling umum dari
hipotiroidisme. Kelebihan yodium, seperti dalam pewarna radiokontras,
amiodaron, tonik kesehatan (suplemen herbal dan makanan), dan rumput laut,
secara sementara dapat menghambat organifikasi iodide dan sintesis hormon tiroid
(efek Wolff-Chiakoff). Kebanyakan individu yang sehat memiliki melarikan diri
fisiologis dari efek ini. Pada pasien dengan kelebihan yodium, yang symporter
natrium-iodida menutup, dan ini memungkinkan tingkat yodium intraseluler
menurun dan sekresi hormon untuk melanjutkan.
Efek Wolff-Chiakoff adalah berumur pendek karena symporter natrium-iodida
mampu cepat downregulation. Namun, paparan berlebihan yodium dapat
menghasilkan lebih mendalam dan berkelanjutan hipotiroidisme pada individu
dengan kelenjar tiroid yang abnormal (misalnya, dari tiroiditis autoimun,
tiroidektomi subtotal, atau terapi radioiodine sebelumnya). [17]
hipotiroidisme sentral
hipotiroidisme sentral (sekunder atau tersier) terjadi ketika aksis hipotalamushipofisis rusak. Penyebab potensial berikut harus dipertimbangkan [18, 19]:
adenoma hipofisis
Tumor menimpa hipotalamus
limfositik hypophysitis
sindrom Sheehan
Sejarah otak atau hipofisis iradiasi
Obat-obatan (misalnya, dopamin, prednison, atau opioid)
Kongenital nongoiterous hipotiroidisme Jenis 4
resistensi TRH
kekurangan TRH
Tumor di atau sekitar hipofisis penyebab gangguan fungsi hipofisis dengan
mengerahkan tekanan pada sel-sel hipofisis normal dan dengan demikian
mempengaruhi sekresi TRH, TSH, atau keduanya. Radiasi, hypophysitis, dan
Sheehan sindrom penyebab kematian sel-sel ini. Obat-obatan seperti dopamin dan
kortikosteroid menghasilkan sekresi TSH menurun.
Kongenital nongoiterous hipotiroidisme Jenis 4 disebabkan oleh mutasi pada gen
TSHB dan diwariskan dalam pola resesif autosomal. Pasien memiliki
hipotiroidisme dan tingkat TSH rendah yang tidak naik dengan pemberian TRH.
Banyak pasien dengan kondisi ini adalah produk dari serikat kerabat. [20]
resistensi TRH disebabkan oleh mutasi pada gen TRHR dan diwariskan secara
resesif autosomal. Pasien dengan kondisi ini memiliki hipotiroidisme dan,
mengejutkan, memiliki ketidakpekaan untuk sekresi thyrotropin. [21] Itu hanya
segelintir kasus resistensi TRH telah dilaporkan dalam literatur menunjukkan
bahwa ini adalah kondisi yang langka.
Kekurangan TRH disebabkan oleh mutasi pada gen TRH dan diwariskan secara
resesif autosomal. [22] Kasus Indeks adalah seorang gadis dievaluasi untuk
bertubuh pendek yang ditemukan memiliki kekurangan terisolasi TRH. [23]
Epidemiologi
Survei Kesehatan dan Gizi Ujian Nasional (NHANES 1999-2002) dari 4.392
individu mencerminkan penduduk AS melaporkan hipotiroidisme (didefinisikan
sebagai tingkat TSH melebihi 4,5 mIU / L) dalam 3,7% dari populasi. [24]
Hypothyroidism adalah lebih umum pada wanita dengan ukuran kecil tubuh saat
lahir dan indeks massa tubuh rendah selama masa kanak-kanak. [25]
kekurangan yodium sebagai penyebab hipotiroidisme lebih sering terjadi pada
negara-negara berkembang. suplementasi rutin garam, tepung, dan makanan
pokok lain dengan yodium mengalami penurunan tingkat kekurangan yodium.
Organisasi Kesehatan Dunia (WHO) data dari 130 negara yang diambil dari
Januari 1994 sampai Desember 2006 menemukan yodium nutrisi yang tidak
memadai di 30,6% dari populasi. WHO menganjurkan konsentrasi yodium urin
antara 100 dan 199 mg / L pada populasi umum dan berbagai 150-249 mg / L
pada wanita hamil. Di negara maju, kematian yang disebabkan oleh
hipotiroidisme jarang terjadi.
demografi yang berkaitan dengan usia
Frekuensi hipotiroidisme, gondok, dan nodul tiroid meningkat dengan usia.
Hypothyroidism adalah yang paling umum pada populasi lanjut usia, dengan 220% dari kelompok usia yang lebih tua memiliki beberapa bentuk hipotiroidisme.
Studi Framingham ditemukan hipotiroidisme (TSH> 10 mIU / L) dalam 5,9%
wanita dan 2,4% pria lebih tua dari 60 tahun. [26] Dalam NHANES 1999-2002,
http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/122393-overview#showall
Practice Essentials
Sleep disturbance
Hyperolfaction
Dysgeusia
Decreased gustatory discernment
Depression
Anxiety
Irritability
Mood changes
Decreased concentration
Diagnosis
Vital signs, including standing and lying blood pressure and pulse
Volume status (eg, mucous membrane condition, skin turgor, neck veins, mental
status)
General appearance (eg, nutrition, weight)
Thyroid evaluation
Abdominal evaluation
Cardiac evaluation
Neurologic evaluation
Laboratory tests
Imaging studies
The following imaging studies may be used to assess women with hyperemesis
gravidarum:
Procedures
Pharmacotherapy
The only FDA-approved drug for treating nausea and vomiting in pregnancy is
doxylamine/pyridoxine. However, antihistamines, antiemetics of the
phenothiazine class, and promotility agents (eg, metoclopramide) have also been
used to manage nausea and vomiting during pregnancy. In cases refractory to
standard therapy, ondansetron and steroids may be considered.
Surgery
Studies estimate that nausea and vomiting occurs in 50-90% of pregnancies. The
nausea and vomiting associated with pregnancy usually begins by 9-10 weeks of
gestation, peaks at 11-13 weeks, and resolves in most cases by 12-14 weeks. In 110% of pregnancies, symptoms may continue beyond 20-22 weeks.[6, 7]
Women with hyperemesis gravidarum often have high hCG levels that cause
transient hyperthyroidism. hCG can physiologically stimulate the thyroid gland
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) receptor. hCG levels peak in the first
trimester. Some women with hyperemesis gravidarum appear to have clinical
hyperthyroidism. However, in a larger portion (50-70%), TSH is transiently
suppressed and the free thyroxine (T4) index is elevated (40-73%) with no clinical
signs of hyperthyroidism, circulating thyroid antibodies, or enlargement of the
thyroid. In transient hyperthyroidism of hyperemesis gravidarum, thyroid function
normalizes by the middle of the second trimester without antithyroid treatment.
Clinically overt hyperthyroidism and thyroid antibodies are usually absent.[1, 9,
10, 11]
A positive correlation between the serum hCG elevation level and free T4 levels
has been found, and the severity of nausea appears to be related to the degree of
thyroid stimulation. hCG may not be independently involved in the etiology of
hyperemesis gravidarum but may be indirectly involved by its ability to stimulate
the thyroid. For these patients, hCG levels were linked to increased levels of
immunoglobulin M, complement, and lymphocytes. Thus, an immune process
may be responsible for increased circulating hCG or isoforms of hCG with a
higher activity for the thyroid. Critics of this theory note that (1) nausea and
vomiting are not usual symptoms of hyperthyroidism, (2) signs of biochemical
hyperthyroidism are not universal in cases of hyperemesis gravidarum, and (3)
some studies have failed to correlate the severity of symptoms with biochemical
abnormalities.[14, 15, 16]
Some studies link high estradiol levels to the severity of nausea and vomiting in
patients who are pregnant, while others find no correlation between estrogen
levels and the severity of nausea and vomiting in pregnant women. Previous
Levels of the plasma gut satiety hormones peptide YY (PYY) and pancreatic
polypeptide (PP) may play a role in hyperemesis gravidarum and pregnancyrelated weight changes.[19] In a prospective case-control study of 60 women (30
women with hyperemesis gravidarum, 30 control women), K et al found that
affected women had significantly elevated plasma PYY and PP levels relative to
the control group, and that PP levels were the the most important diagnostic and
prognostic factors of hyperemesis gravidarum.[19]
Hepatic dysfunction
Overall, the data suggest that a genetic predisposition may play a role in the
development of hyperemesis gravidarium.
Biochemical research
In some studies, women from low to middle socioeconomic class, women with
lower levels of education, women with previous pregnancies with nausea and
vomiting, women in their first pregnancy, and women with previous intolerance to
oral contraceptives more commonly experience nausea and vomiting during
pregnancy. Nausea and vomiting during pregnancy is also more common with
multiple-gestation pregnancies.
Other factors that have been proposed include ethnicity, occupational status, fetal
anomalies, increased body weight, nausea and vomiting in a prior pregnancy,
history of infertility, interpregnancy interval, corpus luteum in right ovary, and
prior intolerance to oral contraceptives.
Prognosis
Many hours of productive work are lost because of nausea and vomiting during
pregnancy. Nearly 50% of employed women believe that their work is affected,
and up to 25% require time off from work.
Hyperemesis gravidarum is a debilitating illness that can cause severe suffering,
which profoundly affects both patients and their families. In about half of the
women there is an adverse effect on spousal relationships, and 55% have feelings
of depression. In one study of 140 women with hyperemesis gravidarum, 27%
required multiple hospitalizations. The financial burden of hyperemesis
gravidarum on the American health system has been estimated as approximately
$130 million dollars per year, excluding physician fees.
Women with hyperemesis gravidarum who have a low pregnancy weight gain
(< 15.4 lb or 7 kg) have increased risk for delivering neonates of low birth weight,
delivering neonates who are small for gestational age, preterm delivery, and a 5minute Apgar score of less than 7.
Complications
Early patient education about the signs and symptoms of pregnancy may be
beneficial. One study found an association between nausea and vomiting and
insufficient knowledge about pregnancy, stress, doubts regarding the pregnancy,
and poor communication with the doctor and spouse.
For patient education resources, see Pregnancy Center, as well as Pregnancy and
Morning Sickness (Vomiting During Pregnancy).
praktek Essentials
Hiperemesis gravidarum adalah bentuk yang paling parah mual dan
disfungsi gastrointestinal
Pacu perut menyebabkan kontraksi peristaltik ritmis lambung. Kegiatan
myoelectric abnormal dapat menyebabkan berbagai disritmia lambung,
termasuk tachygastrias dan bradygastrias. disritmia lambung telah
dikaitkan dengan morning sickness. Kehadiran disritmia dikaitkan
dengan mual sementara aktivitas myoelectrical biasa hadir dalam
ketiadaan mual. Mekanisme yang menyebabkan disritmia lambung
termasuk peningkatan estrogen atau progesteron, gangguan tiroid,
kelainan dalam nada vagal dan simpatik, dan sekresi vasopresin dalam
menanggapi volume gangguan intravaskular. Banyak faktor-faktor ini
hadir pada awal kehamilan. Faktor-faktor patofisiologis yang diduga
menjadi lebih parah atau saluran pencernaan lebih sensitif terhadap
perubahan humoral / saraf pada mereka yang mengembangkan
hiperemesis gravidarum. [18]
Tingkatan kenyang usus plasma hormon peptida YY (PYY) dan
polipeptida pankreas (PP) mungkin memainkan peran dalam
hiperemesis gravidarum dan perubahan berat badan yang
berhubungan dengan kehamilan. [19] Dalam studi kasus-kontrol calon
dari 60 wanita (30 wanita dengan hiperemesis gravidarum, 30
perempuan control), K et al menemukan bahwa perempuan yang
terkena telah meningkat secara signifikan PYY plasma dan tingkat PP
relatif terhadap kelompok kontrol, dan bahwa tingkat PP adalah faktor
diagnostik dan prognostik paling penting dari hiperemesis gravidarum.
[19]
disfungsi hati
Studi fungsi hati yang abnormal dicatat pada sekitar 3% dari
kehamilan, dan penyakit yang berhubungan dengan kehamilan adalah
penyebab paling sering disfungsi hati selama kehamilan. [20]
Tampaknya ada kejadian trimester-spesifik penyakit hati selama
kehamilan. [20]
Penyakit hati, biasanya terdiri dari elevasi serum transaminase ringan,
terjadi pada hampir 50% dari pasien dengan hiperemesis gravidarum.
Penurunan mitokondria oksidasi asam lemak (FAO) telah diduga
berperan dalam patogenesis penyakit hati ibu terkait dengan
hiperemesis gravidarum. Ia telah mengemukakan bahwa wanita
heterozigot untuk cacat FAO mengembangkan hiperemesis gravidarum
dikaitkan dengan penyakit hati sambil membawa janin dengan cacat
FAO akibat akumulasi asam lemak dalam plasenta dan generasi
berikutnya spesies oksigen reaktif. Atau, adalah mungkin bahwa
kelaparan yang menyebabkan lipolisis perifer dan peningkatan beban
asam lemak dalam sirkulasi ibu-janin, dikombinasikan dengan
pengurangan kapasitas mitokondria untuk mengoksidasi asam lemak
pada ibu heterozigot untuk cacat FAO, juga dapat menyebabkan
hiperemesis gravidarum dan luka hati saat membawa janin
nonaffected.
gangguan metabolik
gangguan metabolik mungkin memiliki peran dalam patogenesis