Running Head: USING CO- TEACHING AS A STRATEGY TO PROMOTE INCLUSION IN

THE CLASSROOM
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Using Co-Teaching as a Strategy to Promote Inclusion in the Classroom

Terry L. Forch
University of Colorado Denver

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Abstract
Federal law mandates that students with disabilities have access to their nondisabled
peers, the general education curriculum, and highly qualified teachers. Co-teaching is a service
delivery model that utilizes the knowledge and experience of two individuals in order to promote
inclusion, and meet the diverse needs of students populating schools today. In order for a coteaching team to be successful, both participants need to have genuine interest in being in the
partnership, have compatible personality and teaching styles, have adequate administrative
support, and engage in active communication.

Keywords: inclusion, collaboration, co-teaching

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Using Co-Teaching as a Strategy to Promote Inclusion in the Classroom

The Individuals for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA, 1975) focuses on where special
education should take, specifically the least restrictive environment (LRE), and the continuum of
services provided to individuals with disabilities (Obiakor, Harris, Mutua, Rotatori & Algozzine,
2012). The creation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1975 and its
reauthorizations in 1997 and 2004 (IDEA, 2004), along with the No Child Left Behind Act
(NCLB, 2002) emphasize that all students have access to the general education curriculum, and
are held to the same academic standards regardless of where their education takes place.
Research has shown that the expectation of teachers to service students with special needs in the
least restrictive environments, preferably in the general education classroom, have called for the
need of collaboration between special and general education teachers (Brown, Howerter, and
Morgan, 2013; Eccleston, 2010; Friend et al, 2010; Lindqvist and Nilholm, 2014; Morgan, 2106;
Obiakor et al, 2012; Pellegrino, Weiss and Regan, 2015; Pratt, 2014; Robinson and Buly, 2007;
Scruggs, Mastropieri and McDuffe, 2007).
Co-teaching is an effective strategy for promoting inclusion in classrooms, and meeting
the diverse needs of students (Brown et al, 2013; Howard and Potts, 2009; Morgan, 2016; Pratt,
2014; Rytivaara and Kershner, 2009; Scruggs et al, 2007). It involves the partnering of a general
and special educator or other specialist in order to collaboratively, flexibly and deliberately, meet
the shared common goal of delivering instruction to neurodiverse students, in the general
education setting (Friend et al, 2010).
Benefits of Co-teaching
Benefits to Teachers

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Many reports noted the benefits teachers received through the co-teaching experience
(e.g. Weiss, 2015; Scruggs, 2017). For instance, Rytivaara and Kershner (2012) examined the coteaching relationship of two teachers with ten years experience, who worked in a primary school
in Finland, to determine the professional learning and joint knowledge construction experienced.
The data collected over three and a half years through 71 observation days, and five formal
interviews revealed that there was a positive correlation between the development of a healthy,
trusting relationship and their willingness to share knowledge while engaging in cooperative
learning (p. 1005). Scruggs et al (2007) discovered other benefits to teachers to include,
increased content knowledge for the special educator, and increased skill in classroom
management and curriculum adaption for the general educator. Benefits of co-teaching extend
beyond the individual teachers to students by having the positive effects of co-teacher
collaboration [serve] as a social model for students (p.401).
Benefits to Students
Co-teaching benefits students with and without disabilities by exposing them to two
different teacher perspectives with individual expertise, and multiple pedagogical strategies.
Specifically for students with disabilities, co-teaching allows them to participate in general
education classrooms while still receiving individualized instruction (Friend et.al, 2010; Morgan,
2016; Scruggs, 2007). Morgan (2016) discovered that students with disabilities will experience
increased confidence, support, learning, and display an increase of appropriate behaviors. Other
benefits to co-teaching include having two experts in the classroom for which the students are
accountable to, increased learning engagement and retention, increased development of skills
and techniques, decrease in stigma for students with disabilities, and increased positive social
interactions in the classroom (p. 50).

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Challenges of Co-Teaching
Similar to most relationships, collaboration and co-teaching take time, effort, and
commitment. Other reports support Pratts (2014) findings that co-teaching teams go through a
three stage cycle while facing problems and working towards achieving symbiosis. The initation
stage examines whether the co-teaching partnership began through volunteerism, request or
expectation (Friend et al, 2010; Morgan, 2016; Scruggs, 2007). During this stage, the participants
will individually fall somewhere along the feeling continuum that ranges from hesitation to
anticipation. Feelings of hesitancy were expressed through territorial concerns, reliance on
another colleagues expertise, and individual prior experience or lack thereof with co-teaching.
Feelings of anticipation included the formation of peer mentoring, professional growth, and
acquiring new instructional strategies (Pratt, 2014, p.7).
Within the second, recursive symbiosis spin, stage, the co-teaching partners test the
waters of the relationship while learning about each others personality, teaching style,
expectations for students, and goals for co-teaching (Pratt, 2014, p.7). Compatibility is an
important component to developing an effective co-teaching team (Morgan, 2016; Rytivaara &
Kershner, 2009; Scruggs et al, 2007). In addition to having similar philosophies about inclusion,
teaching styles, classroom management, and expectations, co-teaching teams need to be able to
utilize their strengths and differences strategically (Brown et al, 2013; Eccleston, 2010; Howard
& Potts, 2014; Lindqvist et al, 2014; . Co-teaching partners need to use their individual strengths
to accommodate for each others weaknesses (Pratt, 2014, p.8).
As co-teaching teams strive to build a seamless partnership that exhibits flexibility in
their roles, they engage in self-reflection with a goal to improve themselves and the experience
(Eccleston, 2010; Pratt, 2014). External factors that impacted the success of the co-teaching team

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included professional development, co-planning time, and administrative support (Friend et al,
2010; Morgan, 2016; Pellegrino et al, 2015). Parity, trust and rapport are internal factors that
were identified as needed dimensions in order to ensure the success of the partnership
(Eccleston, 2010). Even the most positive, effective co-teaching teams will encounter challenges
throughout the experience, however, they will be able to overcome them by using strategies that
draw on their individual strengths including: (a)being open-minded, (b) using open
communication, (c) finding common ground, (d) using humor, (e) being selfless, and (f) asking
to help (Pratt, 2014, p.9).
Co-teaching partners spend an immense amount of time together while collaborating
during co-planning activities and lessons, collecting and analyzing data, and engaging in
reflection (Scruggs et.al, 2007). While co-teaching teams are developing their relationship as
they fine tune their co-teaching experience, challenges that can be experienced include: inequity
in roles, relationships (interpersonal differences), program logistics (insufficient planning time),
and lack of administrative support (Friend et.al, 2010; Pratt, 2014; ). In order for a co-teaching
team to be successful, four components need to be present: volunteerism (Friend et.al, 2010;
Morgan, 2016; Scruggs et.al, 2007), compatibility (Morgan, 2016; Pellegrino et al, 2015; Pratt,
2014; Rytivaara & Kershner, 2012; Scruggs et al, 2007), administrative support (Friend et al,
2010; Morgan, 2016; Scruggs et al, 2007), and active communication (Brown et al, 2013;
Eccleston, 2010; Lindqvist & Nilholm, 2014; Morgan, 2016).
Needs of Co-Teaching
Volunteerism
Teachers who volunteer to be in a co-teaching team will likely have more success than
those who are forced into the position (Morgan, 2016; Pratt, 2014, Weiss, 2015). Scruggs (2007)

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studied how volunteerism demonstrated a genuine interest and commitment to ensuring the
success of the co-teaching team reaching their shared common goal. When working so close to
someone for an extended period of time, conflicts are bound to arise, however, the development
of a positive relationship and the use of effective communication can help resolve the issues
(Brown et al, 2013; Rytivaara & Kershner, 2012).
Compatibility
A trusting relationship with mutual respect is arguably one of the most important
components of a successful co-teaching team (Eccleston, 2010, Friend et al, 2010). It takes time
to develop trust in another individual; each person needs to be able to trust the other to plan and
deliver instruction, and collect and analyze data (Pratt, 2007; Brown et al, 2013). Co-teachers
who share a common goal, and have compatible personalities, beliefs, teaching and classroom
management styles will be able focus more on the instructional aspect of co-teaching rather than
wasting time on individual differences (Brown et al, 2013; Friend et al, 2010; Morgan, 2016;
Pratt, 2014; Rytivaara and Kershner, 2012; Scruggs, 2007).
Communication
Communication is essential to the development of any collaborative partnership (Brown
et al, 2013; Eccleston, 2010). In order for effective communication and understanding to occur,
there needs to be a shared, common language between individuals. Robinson and Buly (2007)
studied the relationship between two professors at a northwestern regional university with the
goal of understanding how to break the language barrier between general and special educators.
They discovered that there were communication barriers between departments due to a lack of
similar definitions for shared concepts (p.85). They discovered that the most common terms

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that reflected misconceptions between general and special educators were: diagnosis, evaluation
versus assessment, explicit versus implicit instruction, and fluency (p.85).
It is necessary for co-teaching teams to communicate frequently (Howard and Potts,
2009; Morgan, 2016). They should utilize their shared language while implementing effective
communication strategies to ensure that their collaborative efforts are progressing. For example,
Brown et al (2013) reported effective communication skills teachers can use during conflict
resolution such as staying calm, positive body language, and limiting defensive reactions,
[while] keeping in mind that both educators share the common goal of student success (p.6).
When both teachers are communicating frequently throughout the collaborative process of coteaching, they both feel valued in the team. They will develop more ownership and
accountability towards the success of the co-teaching team (Morgan, 2016).
Administrative Support
Research shows that the success of a co-teaching team is largely dependent on the
support of the schools administration (Lindqvist and Nolhilm, 2014; Pratt, 2014). For instance,
while Friend et al (2010) studied the complexities associated with co-teaching, they discovered a
common theme among co-teaching teams is the need for administrative support. Administrators
can support a co-teaching team by providing professional development, and implementing a
schedule that allows for sufficient common planning time (Friend et al, 2010; Morgan, 2016;
Scruggs et al, 2007). Building on the results of other research, Lindqvist & Nilholm (2014)
studied how head teachers in Sweden support inclusion in their schools.
A head teacher in Sweden is equivalent to a principal in America. An essential component
to promoting inclusive classrooms is effective collaboration between the head teacher, general
and special education teachers. A head teacher needs to have educational leadership skills such as

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effective communication strategies, varied pedagogical methods, creative problem solving,

flexibility, and adaptability (Lindqvist and Nilholm, 2014, p.83). Encouraging open dialogue
between all stakeholders (staff, teachers, students, parents), will promote inclusion because it
demonstrates the philosophy that all students are our students who can be educated in the
general education classroom. Head teachers should be active participants in the classrooms by
taking a role in teachers lesson planning, teaching and evaluation of the lessons. This will allow
for the head teacher to ensure that current practices are promoting inclusive practices, as well as,
identifying any changes needed. When an issue arises in the classroom, the head teacher can
support other teachers by determining the underlying cause of the issue (teacher attitude,
changing learning environments etc.) (p.85). Solutions should be openly discussed, varied,
flexible, and adaptable to students needs (p.82).
Co-Planning Time
Research has revealed that sufficient co-planning time is vital to the success of a coteaching partnership (Brown et al, 2013; Eccleston, 2010; Friend et al, 2010; Howard and Potts,
2009; Morgan, 2016; Pellegrino et al, 2015; Pratt, 2014; Scruggs et al, 2007). For example,
Eccleston (2010) asserts the importance of face-to-face interactions but acknowledges the time
constraints of the school day (p. 44). In order to resolve this, Brown et al (2013) recommend
using technology and specific co-planning tools such as Google Docs and email to
collaboratively plan lessons and activities (p. 5). Howard & Potts (2009) discovered that having
an agenda during co-planning time will enable teachers to use their time wisely. A co-planning
checklist is provided to teachers so can organize their collaborative efforts including: standards,
assessment, accommodations/modifications, instructional strategies, and logistics (p.7). Brown
et al (2013) state that in order to co-plan effectively, high-quality lesson plans should provide an

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area to choose the co-teaching model or models to be implemented and the responsibilities of
both co-teachers (p.2).
Co-Teaching Delivery Models
Authors agree that there are five to six models of co-teaching that teachers can choose to
use throughout instruction. Brown et al (2013) and Okiakor et al (2012) discuss the five models
of co-teaching that can be utilized to match the goals of instruction: one teach and one assist,
station teaching, parallel teaching, alternative teaching or team teaching. Station teaching
involves splitting the class into three smaller groups and then rotating them through stations, two
of which are with the teachers, and one is independent practice. Parallel teaching is where the coteachers co-plan the lesson, split the class into two groups then deliver the same content to each
group. Alternative teaching is when one teacher takes the lead on the main instruction while the
other one pre-teaches and reteaches the concepts. The last model of co-teaching is team teaching.
This model utilizes both partners in the co-teaching team when delivering content to the whole
class. Friend et al (2010) offer up one additional model of co-teaching, one teach, one observe,
where one teacher leads whole-group instruction while the other teacher collects student data
(p.5).
Roles of Teachers
The current roles that teachers are taking in the co-teaching teams utilize the one teach,
one assist model, with the special education teacher usually being in the subordinate role
(Friend et al, 2010; Scruggs et al, 2007; Brown et al, 2013). This is due to lack of content
knowledge by the special education teacher. Brown et al. (2013) recommend assigning special
educators to one content area that they feel most comfortable with to develop their co-teaching
proficiency versus a variety of different content areas (p.5). Special educators need to use their

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unique knowledge of assessments and interventions, adapting and accommodating

lessons/assignments, and comprehension of the general education curriculum to effectively
collaborate and co-plan with the general education teacher (Morgan, 2016).
Friend et.al (2010) discovered that the general education teacher commonly implements
whole-class instruction, and generally does not interact much with students with special needs,
where as the special education teacher usually acts as an assistant, and behavior management
support. Howard & Potts (2009) found that each teacher brings with them a specific set of skills
and expertise, and when used appropriately, co-planning time can be utilized the most
effectively. They assert that general education teachers are the content experts and should
identify, then relate standards to the overall curriculum of the content being taught (math,
English, science). The special education teacher then can use her expertise of students Individual
Education Plans, and appropriate modifications and accommodations that can support students
with disabilities access to the general education curriculum while co-planning (Friend et al,
2010; Howard and Potts, 2009). An effective co-teaching team will have constantly evolving
roles, depending on the co-teaching model selected, and will share responsibilities such as
deciding the design and delivery of instruction, and assessments (Brown et.al, 2013; Friend et.al,
2010; Howard and Potts, 2009; Morgan, 2016; Pellegrino et.al, 2015; Rytivaara and Kershner,
2012; Sayeski, 2009).
Conclusion
Federal law mandates that students with disabilities have access to their nondisabled
peers, the general education curriculum, and highly qualified teachers. Co-teaching is a service
delivery model that utilizes the knowledge and experience of two individuals in order to promote
inclusion, and meet the diverse needs of students populating schools today. In order for a co-

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teaching team to be successful, both participants need to have genuine interest in being in the
partnership, have compatible personality and teaching styles, have adequate administrative
support including sufficient co-planning time, and engage in active communication. A successful
co-teaching team can promote inclusion by collaboratively delivering instruction to all students
in the least restrictive environment.

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