(WENTWORTH) Textbook-Plane Geometry 1898

GIFT OF
MATHEMATICAL TEXT-BOOKS
By G.
A.
WENTWORTH,
A.M.
Mental Arithmetic.
Elementary Arithmetic.
Practical Arithmetic.
Primary Arithmetic.
Grammar School
Arithmetic.
High School Arithmetic.

High School Arithmetic (Abridged).
First Steps in Algebra.
School Algebra.
College Algebra.
Elements of Algebra.
Complete Algebra.
Shorter Course in Algebra.
Higher Algebra.
New Plane Geometry.
New Plane and Solid Geometry.
Syllabus of Geometry.
Geometrical Exercises.
Plane and Solid Geometry and Plane Trigonometry.
New Plane Trigonometry.
New Plane Trigonometry, with Tables.
New Plane and Spherical Trigonometry.
New Plane and Spherical Trig., with Tables.
New Plane and Spherical Trig., Surv., and Nav.
New Plane Trig, and Surv., with Tables.
New Plane and Spherical Trig., Surv., with Tables.
Analytic Geometry.
TEXT-BOOK
OF
GEOMETBY
REVISED EDITION.
BY
G. A.
WENTWORTH,
A.M.,
AUTHOR OF A SERIES OF TEXT-BOOKS IN MATHEMATICS.
BOSTON,
U.S.A.:
PUBLISHED BY GINN & COMPANY.
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1888, by
G. A.
WENT WORTH,
in the Office ot the Librarian of Congress, at Washington,
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
TYPOGBAPHT BY
J. S.
GUSHING &
PBESSWOBK BY GINN &
Co.,
Co.,
BOSTON, U.S.A.
BOSTON, U.B.A.
PREFACE.
~\ T~OST persons do not
***
of abstraction
requisite
and do not
for
depends mainly upon the form
in
which the subject
sented whether they pursue the study with

aversion, or with increasing interest
In compiling the present

stantly
avoided
pre
and pleasure.
treatise, the
author has kept this fact con
and such methods have been adopted
as
experience and
attentive observation, combined with repeated trials, have
shown
No attempt has been made
most readily comprehended.
more
is
indifference, not to say
All unnecessary discussions and scholia have been
view.
in
;
power
apprehending geometrical concep
for
argument.
etry, it
easily acquire, the
keeping in mind the successive steps of a continuous

Hence, with a very large proportion of beginners in Geom
and
tions,
possess,
intelligible the simple notions of position,
to
to be
render
magnitude, and direc
but it is helieved
tion, which every child derives from observation
that these notions have been limited and denned with mathematical
;
precision.
few symbols, which stand
for
words and not
been used, but these are of so great

spicuity to
utility in
the demonstrations that no
for operations,
giving
style
have
and per
apology seems necessary for
their introduction.
make the page attractive. The

and are placed in the middle of the
directly under the eye in immediate connec
Great pains have been taken to

figures are
large and
page, so that they fall
distinct,
tion with the corresponding text.

full lines, the lines
dotted,
and the
employed
The given
lines of the figures are
as aids in the demonstrations are short-
resulting lines are long-dotted.
327374
PREFACE.
iv
In each proposition a concise statement of what

in one kind of type, of
in
stration
what
is
given
is
required in another, and the
The reason
another.
still
is
for
each
demon
indicated in
is
step
printed
email type between that step and the one following, thus preventing
the necessity of interrupting the process of the argument
to a previous section.
the reason depends
is
The number
in the
construction of
referring
on which
The constituent
placed at the side of the page.
are carefully marked.

parts of the propositions
assertion
by
of the section, however,
Moreover, each distinct
demonstration and each particular direction in the

no case is it
the
begins a new line; and in
figures,
a demonstration.
necessary to turn the page in reading
This arrangement presents obvious advantages.
at once
what
is
given and what
is
The pupil perceives
to the figure
required, readily refers
at every step, becomes perfectly familiar with the language of

in simple
etry, acquires facility
to
reason,
and
lays
Geom
and accurate expression, rapidly learns
a foundation
for
completely
establishing
the
science.
not so difficult as to discourage

Original exercises have been given,
the beginner, but well adapted to afford an effectual test of the degree
in
which he
exercises
is
have been placed
that the student
may
in
the
reproduce them
in
work
commit
of these
in order
and
to acquire a readiness in
derive the full benefit of
much
to the
mem
to
an examination
a useless and pernicious labor; but to learn their uses and
cations,
eo
early part of the
discover, at the outset, that to
and to
ory a number of theorems
is
Some
mastering the subjects of his reading.
appli
exemplifying their utility
is
to
that mathematical training which looks not
attainment oj information as to the discipline of the
mental faculties.
G. A.
EXETER, N.H.
1878.
WENTWORTH.
PEEFACE.
TO THE TEACHER.
WHEN
the pupil
for the first time, it will
him write his proofs on the blackboard
well to let
guage
Book
reading each
is
care being taken that his language be
in his
own
be
lan
the simplest possible,
arrangement of work be vertical (without side work), and
that the
that the figures be accurately constructed.
This method will furnish a valuable exercise as a language lesson,

will
and
the
cultivate
will allow
After a
a brief interval for deliberating
Book has been read
the Book, and should
in this
be required to
should state and prove
way, the pupil should review
draw the
line
and angle named.
He
should be
encouraged, in reviewing each Book, to do the original exercises

state the converse of propositions
if
be true to demonstrate
it
which may
to questions
The Teacher
is
and
also
to
strongly advised
to
arithmetically, the principles of limits.
stant base
b,
and a variable
altitude
x,
and
false,
if
the converse
many
propositions.
illustrate,
geometrically and
Thus a rectangle with a con

will afford an obvious illus
tration of the axiomatic truth that the product of a constant
variable
also a variable
is
constant and a variable

of the variable.
If x
is
to
give well-considered answers
asked him on
be.
determine from the statement,
to
whether the converse be true or
possible,
He
figures free-hand.
propositions orally, using a pointer to
the
on the figure every
indicate
and orderly arrangement of work,

on each step.
of neat
habit
and that the
and a
limit of the product of a
the product of the
constant by the limit
increases and approaches the altitude a as a
and approaches the area of

however, x decreases and approaches
limit, the area of the rectangle increases
the rectangle ab as a limit;

zero as
zero for
limit, the
a limit.
if,
area of the rectangle decreases and approaches
An
arithmetical
illustration of this truth
may
be
given by multiplying a constant into the approximate values of any

If, for example, we take the constant 60 and the repetend
repetend.
0.3333,
etc.,
the approximate values of the repetend will be T3o, -f^,
PREFACE.
VI
3 3 3
To o
ff>
rVtiW
an d these values multiplied by 60 give the series

19.998, etc., which evidently approaches 20 as a limit;
te->
18, 19.8, 19.98,
but the product of 60 into
(the limit of the repetend 0.333, etc.)
is
also 20.
Again,
series
^,
if
we multiply 60
yfo,
ûW
înr.
into the different values of the decreasing

etc.,
which approaches zero

^,
7 etc.; and
shall get the decreasing series 2,
as a limit,
we
this series evi
dently approaches zero as a limit.
In
this
way
the
pupil
hension of the subject of
The Teacher
is
may
led
to
a complete compre
likewise advised to give frequent written examina
These should not be too
tions.
easily be
limits.
difficult,
allowed for accurately constructing the
and
sufficient time
should be
figures, for choosing the best
language, and for determining the best arrangement.
The time necessary
for
the reading of examination-books will be
diminished by more than one-half,

in this
if
the use of the symbols employed
book be allowed.
G. A.
EXETER, N.H.
1879.
W.
PKEFACE.
VI}
NOTE TO REVISED EDITION.

THE first edition of this Geometry was issued about nine years ago.
The book was received with such general favor that it has been neces
sary to print very large editions every year since, so that the plates
are practically
worn
out.
Taking advantage of the necessity
author has re-written the whole work
plates, the
the distinguishing characteristics
all
of the
for
new
bat has retained
former edition.
few
changes in the order of the subject-matter have been made, some of

the demonstrations
have been given
a more concise and simple
in
form than before, and the treatment of Limits and of Loci has been
made
as easy of
comprehension as possible.
More than seven hundred
exercises have been introduced into this
edition.
These exercises consist of theorems,
struction,
and problems of computation,
adapted
to
No geometry can now
beginners.
loci,
problems of con
carefully graded
and
specially
receive favor unless
it
provides exercises for independent investigation, which must be of such

a kind as to interest the student as soon as
with the methods and the
he becomes acquainted
spirit of geometrical reasoning.
The author
has observed with the greatest satisfaction the rapid growth of the
demand
for original
exercises,
and he
invites particular attention to
the systematic and progressive series of exercises in this edition.
The part on Solid Geometry has been treated with much greater
freedom than before, and the formal statement of the reasons
for the
separate steps has b efen in general omitted, for the purpose of giving a
more elegant form
A
and
tb the demonstrations.
brief treatise on
is
issued in
Conic Sections (Book IX) has been

prepared,
pamphlet form, at a very low price. It will also be
bound with the Geometry

erally desired.
if
that arrangement
is
found to be gen
PREFACE.
Vili
The author takes
this
opportunity to express his grateful appre
ciation of the generous reception given to the
Geometry heretofore by
the great body of teachers throughout the country, and he confidently

anticipates the
up
same generous judgment of
to the standard required
his efforts to bring the
by the great advance of
work
late in the sci
ence and method of teaching.
The author
is
indebted to
many
correspondents for valuable sug
and a special acknowledgment is due, for criticisms and

careful reading of proofs, to Messrs. C. H. Judson, of Greenville, S.C.
gestions
Samuel Hart, of Hartford, Conn.
W. Le
Mo.;
J.
M. Taylor,
Conte Stevens, of Brooklyn, N.Y.
J.
L. Patterson, of Lawrenceville,
bridge, Mass.
bridge, Mass.
New
T.
M.
De Long,
E. R. Offutt, of St. Louis,
N.
G. A. Hill,
J.;
Blakslee, of Des Moines, la.
Ira M.
of Hamilton, N.Y.
G.
of Boulder, Col.
W.
of
Cam
Sawin, of Cain-
and W.
J.
Lloyd, of
York, N.Y.
Corrections or suggestions will be thankfully received.

G. A.
EXETER, N.H.,
1888.
WENTWORTH.
CONTENTS.
GEOMETRY.
PAGE
DEFINITIONS
STRAIGHT LINES
PLANE ANGLES
"l
.-
MAGNITUDE or ANGLES
.10
ANGULAR UNITS
METHOD or SUPERPOSITION
11
.-
SYMMETRY
13
MATHEMATICAL TERMS
14
POSTULATES
AXIOMS
SYMBOLS
15
.16
16
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
THE STRAIGHT
LINE.
THE STRAIGHT LINE
17
PARALLEL LINES
22
PERPENDICULAR AND OBLIQUE LINES
33
TRIANGLES
40
QUADRILATERALS
56
POLYGONS IN GENERAL
66
EXERCISES
72
CONTENTS.
BOOK
THE
II.
CIRCLE.
PAGE
75
DEFINITIONS
AKCS AND CHORDS
77
TANGENTS
89
MEASUREMENT.
92
THEORY or LIMITS
94
.98
MEASURE or ANGLES
PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION
106
EXERCISES
126
BOOK
III.
PROPORTIONAL LINES AND SIMILAR POLYGONS.
THEORY OF PROPORTION
131
PROPORTIONAL LINES
138
SIMILAR TRIANGLES
145
SIMILAR POLYGONS
153
NUMERICAL PROPERTIES OF FIGURES
156
167
PROBLEMS OF COMPUTATION
173
EXERCISES
175
BOOK
IV.
AREAS OF POLYGONS.
AREAS OF POLYGONS
180
COMPARISON OF POLYGONS
188
192
PROBLEMS OF COMPUTATION
204
EXERCISES
205
BOOK
V.
REGULAR POLYGONS AND
CIRCLES.
REGULAR POLYGONS AND CIRCLES

MAXIMA AND MINIMA

EXERCISES
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES
209
...
.230
...
....
.
-.
222
240
237
GEOMETRY.
DEFINITIONS.
1,
wood
If a block of
sented in Fig.
Each
face
1, it
will
the
of
or stone be cut in the shape repre
have
block
six flat faces.

is
called
a surface ; and if these faces are made

smooth by polishing, so that, when
a straight-edge is applied to any one

of them, the straight edge in every
part will touch the surface, the faces
are called plane surfaces, or planes.
2,
The edge
which any two
in
of these surfaces
meet
is
meet
is
called a line.
3,
The corner
which any three of these
at
lines
called a point.
4,
For computing
principal directions
its
volume, the block
is
measured
in three
From left to right,

From front to back,
From bottom to top,
A
A
A
to
B.
to C.
to
D.
These three measurements are called the dimensions of the

block,
and are named
(height or depth).
length, breadth (or width), thickness
2, .
*;*:
;*
>;
:"
solid, therefore,
.-..GEOMETRY.
has three dimensions, length, breadth,
and
thickness.
It is
surface of a solid is no part of the solid.
there
solid.
the
of
or
limit
the
surface,
boundary
simply
and breadth. So that,
fore, has only two dimensions, length
number of flat surfaces be put together, they will
if
5,
The
any
coincide and form one surface.

6,
simply a boundary
has only one dimen
So that, if any number of straight lines be put
length.
line.
they will coincide and form one
line
is
no part of a surface.
or limit of the surface.

sion,
It is
line, therefore,
together,
7,
point
the line.
is
no part of a
point,
therefore,
It is simply the limit of

has no dimension, but denotes
any number of points be put
line.
So that, if
position simply.
coincide and form a single point.
together, they will
in common language, is a limited portion of

with
matter; but in Geometry we have nothing
space filled
we study
to do with the matter of which a body is composed
a
its shape and size; that is, we regard a solid as
simply
limited portion of space which may be -occupied by a physical
8,
solid,
other way.
body, or marked out in some
A geometrical solid is
9,
It
points,
ideal,
Hence,
a limited portion of space.
at the outset that the

distinctly understood
of
solids
and
Geometry are purely
surfaces,
must be
lines,
though they can be represented
to the eye in only a
or on the
material way.
Lines, for example, drawn on paper
and
some
and
thickness,
width
blackboard, will have some
to
used
are
when
they
will so far fail of being true lines; yet,
it is assumed that they represent
help the mind in reasoning,
and without thickness.
breadth
without
perfect lines,
DEFINITIONS.
10,
letters,
as
BF;
by a
represented to the eye
is
point
named by a
letter, as
(Fig. 2)
a line
fine dot,
and
named by two
is
placed one at each end,

a surface is represented
and named by the lines which

bound it, as BCDF; a solid is
represented
bound
11,
by the
faces
which
FlQ
it.
By
supposing a solid to diminish gradually until
it
vanishes we may
consider the vanishing point, a point in

space, independent of a line, having position but no extent.
12,
line.
If a point
and may
13,
moves continuously
in space, its path is a

be
to
be of unlimited extent,
may
supposed
be considered independent of the idea of a surface.
This line
moving
surface
in space,
may
and
be conceived as generated by a line

A surface can
as of unlimited extent.
then be considered independent of the idea of a

14,
solid
may
solid.
be conceived as generated by a surface in
motion.
Thus, in the diagram, let the upmove to the

right surface
ABCD
right to the position
points A, B, C,
the lines AE,
respectively.
CD, and
faces
AD
and
EFGH.
The
lines
AB, BC,
~"~
D will generate
BF, CG, and DH,
The
D
A
|A~"~"
~"
"
yF
will generate the sur
AF, BG, CH, and AH, respectively.

generate the solid AG.
The
surface
ABCD will
15,
Geometry
is
the science which treats of position, form,
and magnitude.
16,
Points, lines, surfaces,
and
solids,
with their relations,
constitute the subject-matter of Geometry.
GEOMETRY.
17,
straight line, or right line,
same direction throughout its

whole extent, as the line AB.
18,
curved
19,
a line which has the
line is a line
no part of which
as the line
is
is
straight,
CD.
broken line
is
a series
of different successive
straight
lines, as the line
ER
20,
lines, as
A
line,
mixed
line is
the line
straight line
a curve.
FlG
a line composed of straight and curved
GH.
is
often called simply a
line,
and a curved
A plane surface, or a plane, is a surface in which, if

two
any
points be taken, the straight line joining these points
21,
will lie
wholly in the surface.
22,
curved surface
is
a surface no part of which
is
plane.
Figure or form depends upon the relative position of

Thus, the figure or form of a line (straight or curved)
points.
depends upon the relative position of the points in that line
the figure or form of a surface
depends upon the relative
23,
position of the points in that surface.

24,
With
reference to
form
or shape, lines, surfaces,
and
solids are called

figures.
With
reference to extent,
lines,
surfaces,
and
solids
are
called magnitudes.
25,
A plane figure
is
a figure all points of which are in the
same plane.
26,
Plane figures formed by straight lines are called rec

those formed by curved lines are called
figures
tilinear
curvilinear figures
and those formed
lines are called mixtilinear figures.
;
by straight and curved
DEFINITIONS.
Figures which have the same shape are called similar

Figures which have the same size are called equiva
figures.
lent figures.
Figures which have the same shape and size are
27,
called equal or congruent figures.

28, Geometry is divided into two parts, Plane Geometry
and Solid Geometry.
Plane Geometry treats of figures all
points of which are
the same plane.

Solid Geometry
which are not in the same plane.
in
treats of figures all points of
STRAIGHT LINES.
29,
may
30,
Through a point an
be drawn.
known, the position
words, a straight line

points are
31,
lines
determined
of straight lines
if its
and a point
is
known
and one
direction
and form
one,
the
but one
same point
and only
32,
Two
one point
coincide
extent,
and form
in the
one, straight line
in other words, a
straight line
whole
of
line.
is
determined
two of the points are known. Hence,

Two straight lines which have two points in common
throughout their
in the
in other
Hence,
Between two points

;
of the line
which pass through
direction coincide,
can be drawn
if
is
known.
All straight
same
number
If the direction of a straight line
line are
its
indefinite
These lines will have different directions.
but one
coincide
line.
straight lines can intersect (cut each other) in only

for if
and not
they had two points common, they would

intersect.
Of all lines joining two points the shortest is the

straight
and the length of the straight line is called the distance
between the two points.
33,
line,
GEOMETRY.
34,
straight line determined by
as prolonged indefinitely both ways.
two points is considered

Such a line is called an
indefinite straight line.

35,
is
Often only the part of the line between two fixed points
This part is then called a segment of the line.
considered.
For brevity, we say "the line

of a line limited by the points
AB"
to designate a
segment
and B.
36, Sometimes, also, a line is considered as proceeding from

a fixed point and extending in only one direction. This fixed
line.
point is then called the origin of the
37, If any point C be taken in a given straight

two parts CA and GB arc
^
said to have opposite direcfa
FIG. 5.
tions from the point C.
38,
Every straight
is
39,
If the
&
A B, may be considered as hav

is
namely, from A towards B, which
"line
expressed by saying
AB, the
line, as
ing opposite directions,
expressed by saying
line
AB";
"line
and from
B towards .4, which
BA"
magnitude of a given
line is changed, it
longer or shorter.
Thus (Fig. 5), by prolonging AC to

and AB = AC+ CB. By diminishing
CB.
CB from AB, and
becomes
B we add GB to AC,
AB to C, we subtract
AC=AB-
If a given line increases so that

several times in
magnitude
succession, the line
is
multi-
it is
prolonged by
its
own
and the resulting line

called a multiple of the given
plied,
is
Hence,
line.
Thus
(Fig.
6),
AC=2AB, AD = ZAB,
if
and
DEFINITIONS.
Lines of given length
may
also be multiplied
added and subtracted; they
be
may
and
divided by a number.
PLANE ANGLES.
40, The opening between two straight lines which meet is
The two lines are called the sides, and
called a plane angle.
the point of meeting, the vertex, of the angle.
41.
If there is but one angle at a
it is designated by a cap
placed at the vertex, and is
read by simply naming the letter
as,
given vertex,
ital letter
FIG.
7.
angle
(Fig. 7).
But when two or more angles have

the same vertex, each angle is desig
nated by three letters, as shown in
Fig. 8, and is read by naming the
three letters, the one at the vertex be
tween the others. Thus, the angle
Q means the angle formed by the
DA
sides
AD and AC.
FIG
It is often convenient to designate
an angle by placing a small italic let

ter between the sides and near the
vertex, as in Fig. 9.
42,
Two
angles are equal
if
they
FIG.
can be made to coincide.

43,
angle
If the line
BAG into
AD (Fig.
two equal
8)
is
parts,
drawn
BAD
so as to divide the
and CAD,
AD
is
called the bisector of the angle BAG.

In general, a line that
divides a geometrical magnitude into two equal parts is called
a bisector of
it.
GEOMETRY.
44.
Two
angles are called ad

the same
jacent when they have

vertex and a common
tween them
and
AOD
45,
as,
side be
the angles
BOD
(Fig. 10).
When
one
straight
line
FIG. 10.
stands upon another straight line

and makes the adjacent angles
equal, each of these
called a right angle.
equal
angles
DCA
angles is
Thus, the
DOB
and
(Fig. 11) are each a right angle.
C
46,
When
FIG. 11.
the sides of an an
gle extend in opposite directions,

so as to be in the same straight line, the angle is called a
Thus, the angle formed at C (Fig. 11) with
straight angle.
CA
sides
its
and
CB
a straight angle.
is
extending in opposite directions from C,

Hence a right angle may be defined as
half a straight angle.

47,
A perpendicular to
makes a
is
right angle with
a right angle,
pendicular to
DC
is
a straight line is a straight line that

Thus, if the angle
(Fig. 11)
DCA
it.
perpendicular to
AB, and
AB
is
per
DC.
48, The point (as C, Fig. 11) where a perpendicular meets

another line is called the foot of the perpendicular.
49.
gle
is
Every angle less than a right an

called an acute angle; as, angle A.
FIG
Every angle greater than a right

less than a straight angle is
and
angle
50,
as,
angle
C (Fig.
13).
called an obtuse angle;
DEFINITIONS.
51, Every angle greater than a straight angle and less

than two straight angles is called a reflex angle; as, angle
(Fig. 14).
FIG.
52,
FIG. 14.
13.
Acute, obtuse, and reflex angles, in distinction from
and straight
and inter
angles, are called oblique angles
secting lines that are not perpendicular to each other are
called oblique lines.
right
53,
When
two angles have the same vertex, and the sides
of the one are prolongations of

the sides of the other, they are
called vertical angles.
Thus, a
b (Fig. 15) are vertical an
and
gles.
54,
Two
angles
are
called
FlQ
complementary when their sum

equal to a right angle
of the other; as,
angles
is
and each
is
called the
DOB and DOC (Fig.
complement
10).
55, Two
angles are called supplementary when their sum is
equal to a straight angle and each is called the supplement
of the other as,
and
angles
10).
;
DOB
DO A
(Fig.
MAGNITUDE OF ANGLES.
56,
The
of its sides,
an angle depends upon the extent of opening

and not upon their length. Suppose the straight
size of
GEOMETRY.
10
00 to move in the plane of the paper from coincidence

as a pivot, to the position 0(7;
with OA, about the point
then the line 00 describes or generates
line
AOC, and the magnitude of the
the angle
AOC depends
angle
upon the amount
of rotation of the line
from the position
OA
to the position OC.

If the rotating line
OA
position
dicular to
angle
OA,
AOB
moves from the
to the position
OB, perpen
generates the right

moves to the position
it
if it
AOD
if it moves to the posi

generates the obtuse angle
if it moves to
the
it
straight angle
generates
indicated
reflex angle
the
it
generates
OD,
it
tion
OA
AOA
AOB
OB
the position
by the dotted line
,
and
if it
continues
its
rotation to the posi
OA, whence it started, it generates two straight angles.

Hence the whole angular magnitude about a point in a
or four right angles; and
plane is equal to two straight angles,
tion
the angular magnitude about a point on one side of a straight

line drawn through that point is equal to one straight angle,
two right angles.

and subtracted
Angles are magnitudes that can be added
a
and
divided
be
also
by number.
multiplied
they may
or
ANGULAR
57,
If
we suppose
00
(Fig.
from a position
turn about
OA
UNITS.
17) to
coinci
it makes a com
comes again into
and
plete revolution
dent with
until
coincidence with
OA,
it
will describe
angular magnitude about

0, while its end point O
will describe a curve called a circum
the
whole
the point
ference.
11
DEFINITIONS.
58, By adopting a suitable unit of angles
express the magnitudes of angles in numbers.
we
are able to
If we suppose 00 (Fig. 17) to turn about

from coinci
dence with OA until it makes one three hundred and sixtieth
of a revolution,
it
generates an angle at 0, which is taken

This unit is called a
angles.
as the unit for measuring

degree.
The degree is subdivided into sixty equal parts called

minutes, and the minute into sixty equal parts, called seconds.
Degrees, minutes, and seconds are denoted by symbols.
Thus, 5 degrees 13 minutes 12 seconds
right angle is generated when

of a revolution and is an angle of
generated when
is
00
an angle of 180
is
generated when
has
made
is
00
written, 5
has
made
13
12".
one-fourth
a straight angle is
of
a revolution and
one-half
90;
and the whole angular magnitude about

has made a complete revolution, and
00
contains 360.
The natural angular unit
is
one complete revolution.
But
the adoption of this unit would require us to express the

values of all angles by fractions.
The advantage of using the
degree as the unit consists in its convenient size, and in the fact
that 360
is
divisible
by
so
many
METHOD OF
is
different integral
numbers.
SUPERPOSITION.
59, The test of the equality of two geometrical magnitudes

that they coincide throughout their whole extent.
Thus, two straight lines are equal, if they can be so placed
that the points at their extremities coincide.

Two angles are
equal, if they can be so placed that they coincide.
In applying this test of equality, we assume that a line may

be moved from one place to another without altering its length;
that an angle may be taken up, turned over, and put down,
without altering the difference in direction of
its sides.
GEOMETEY.
12
This method enables us to compare magnitudes of the same

and DEF. Let
Suppose we have two angles,
ABC
kind.
so that the vertex E

EF falls on BO, the angle
DEF equals the angle ABC; the side EF falls between
EG and BA in the direction BG, the angle DEF less than
ABO; but the side EF falls in the direction BH, the angle
DEF greater than ABO.
the side
ED be placed
on
shall fall
B;
then,
on the side
if
BA,
the side
if
is
if
is
This method enables us to add magnitudes of the same kind.

if we have two straight lines
and CD, by placing the point Q
on B, and keeping CD in the ^
same direction with AB, we shall
have one continuous straight line
and CD.
the lines
BC
Thus,
AB
AD
D
#
FlQ 19
-
equal to the
sum
of
AB
C
/
B
FIG. 20.
Again
the angles ABC and DEF, and place

B and the side ED in the direction of BC, the
we have
E
DEF will take the position CBH, and the angles DEF
the vertex
angle
if
FIG. 21.
on
ABC will together equal the angle ABU.

side ED on J:L4, the
placed on B, and the
the angle FBC
and
the
ABF,
take
DEFwitt
position
angle
ABC and DEF,
will be the difference between the angles
and
If the vertex J
is
13
DEFINITIONS.
SYMMETRY.
60, Two points are said to be symmetrical with respect to a
third point, called the centre of sym\p
metry, if this third point bisects the
FlQ 22
straight line which joins them. Thus,
as a centre, if C
are symmetrical with respect to
and
p>
bisects the straight line
PP
1
.
61, Two points are said to be sym

metrical with respect to a straight
line, called the axis of symmetry, if
this
line
straight
bisects
at
right
angles the straight line which joins

them. Thus,
are symmet
and
rical
if
with respect to
XX
XX
62,
Two figures are
bisects
PP
as an axis,
at right angles.
said to be
sym
metrical with respect to a centre or

an axis if every point of one has a
corresponding symmetrical point in

the other.
Thus, if every point in
the figure
C* has a symmetrical
AB
point in
ABO,
with respect to
as
a centre, the figure A

C is sym
metrical to
with respect to
ABO
as a centre.
If
63,
ABC
ABO,
axis,
with respect to
the figure
cal to
an
every point in the figure

has a symmetrical point in
AB
axis.
A JB C
XX
is
an
as
symmetri
with respect to
XX
as
GEOMETRY.
14
64,
figure is symmetrical with re

bisects
if the point
spect to a point,
every straight line drawn through it

and terminated by the boundary of the
figure.
65,
A plane figure is symmetrical with
respect to a straight line, if the

divides it into two parts, which are
metrical with
to
respect
line
sym
this straight
line.
FIG. 27.
MATHEMATICAL TERMS.
66,
proof or demonstration
which the truth or
falsity
of
is
a course of reasoning by
any statement
is
logically
established.
67,
68,
theorem
is
a statement to be proved.
theorem consists of two parts: the hypothesis, or

and the conclusion, or that which is
is assumed
that which
asserted to follow from the hypothesis.

69,
An
axiom
is
a statement the truth of which
is
admitted
without proof.
70,
construction
is
a graphical representation of a geo
metrical figure.
71,
A problem is
72,
The
a question to be solved.
solution of a problem consists of four parts
the con
analysis, or course of thought by which
(1)
struction of the required figure is discovered
of the figure with the aid of ruler and
(2) The construction
The
compasses
(3)
tions;
The proof that the
all the given condi

figure satisfies
15
DEFINITIONS.
The
(4)
discussion of the limitations,
within which the solution
is
which often
exist,
possible.
A postulate is a construction admitted to be possible.

A proposition is a general term for either a theorem or
73,
74,
a problem.
75,
sition to
corollary
which
76,
is
it is
scholium
a truth easily deduced from the propo

attached.
a remark upon some particular feature
is
of a proposition.
The
77,
its
converse of a
theorem
hypothesis and conclusion.
is
formed by interchanging
Thus,
is
equal to B,
is
equal to D.
(Direct.)
If
is
equal to
is
equal to B.
(Converse.)
78,
The
If
negative of
A
If A
If
79,
D,
formed by stating the

conclusion.
Thus,
opposite of a proposition is
its
hypothesis and
is
equal to
is
not equal to B,
B,
The converse
is
its
equal to D. (Direct.)
is not
equal to D. (Opposite.)
of a truth
is
not necessarily true.

Thus,
a true proposition, but the
Every horse is a quadruped is

converse, Every quadruped is a horse, is not true.
80, If a direct proposition and its converse are true, the
opposite proposition is true ; and if a direct proposition and its
opposite are true, the converse proposition is true.
POSTULATES.
81,
Let
be granted
That a straight
any other point.
2.
That a straight
1.
to
it
line
line
can be drawn from any one point

can be produced to any distance,
or can be terminated at
3.
any point.
That a circumference may be described about any point
as a centre with a radius of given length,
GEOMETRY.
16
AXIOMS.
82.
Things which are equal
1.
same thing are equal
to the
to
each other.
2.
If equals are
3.
If equals are
added
to equals the
sums are equal.
taken from equals the remainders are equal.
4. If equals are added to unequals the sums are unequal,

and the greater sum is obtained from the greater magnitude.
If equals are
5.
taken from unequals the remainders are

is obtained from the
unequal, and the greater remainder

greater magnitude.
Things which are double the same thing,
6.
each other.
things, are equal to
are
halves of the
which
7.
Things
same thing, or
or equal
of equal
to each other.
things, are equal
8.
9.
The whole
The whole
is
greater than any of
is
equal to all its parts
its parts.
taken together.
SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS.
83,
increased by.
diminished by.
Def.
X multiplied by.
Ax.
... axiom.
-f-
divided by.
is
(or are) equal to.
Cor.
=:=
is
(or are) equivalent to.
is
(or are) greater than.
Adj.
Iden.
is
(or are) less than.
<
.-.
Cons.
hypothesis.
corollary.
adjacent.
identical.
construction.
supplementary.
therefore.
Sup.
angle.
Sup. -adj. supplementary.

Ext. -int. exterior-interior.
Bangles.
_L perpendicular.
Alt.-int.
Jl perpendiculars.
Ex.
II
parallel.
lie
parallels.
A triangle.
A triangles.
definition.
Hyp.
=
>
circles.
circle.
parallelogram.
17 parallelograms.
alternate-interior.
...
rt
right.
st
Q.E.D.
Q.E.F.
exercise.
straight.
.
quod erat demonstrandum,

which was to be proved.
quod erat faciendum,

which was to be done.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
THE STRAIGHT
PROPOSITION
84i
I.
LINE.
THEOREM.
All straight angles are equal.
Let Z.BCA and /.FED be any two straight angles.
ABCA =
To prove
Proof,
C shall
Apply the
fall
to the Z.
FED, so that the vertex

GB on the side EF.
on the vertex E, and the side
Then
(because
Z ECA
FED.
GA
BOA and FED
Therefore the
will coincide
are straight lines
Z EGA
is
with
ED,
and have two
equal to the
points common).
Z FED.
59
Q. E. D.
85,
COR.
1.
All right angles are equal.
86,
COR.
2.
87,
COR.
3.
The angular units have constant values.

The complements of equal angles are equal. Ax. 3.
COR.
4.
88,
The supplements of equal angles are
At a given point
perpendicular, and only one, can
89,
COR.
HINT.
draw
Ax.
5.
in
a given
equal.
7.
Ax. 3.
straight line one
be erected.
Consider the given point as the vertex of a

straight angle, and
the bisector of the angle.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
18
PROPOSITION
II.
BOOK
I.
THEOREM.
90. If two adjacent angles have their exterior sides

in a straight line, these angles are supplements of
each other.
Let the exterior sides OA and OB of the adjacent

A AOD and BOD be in the straight line A3.
A AOD and BOD supplementary.
To prove
AOB
Proof.
the
is
a straight
Z AOB
is
line.
st.
Hyp.
46
Z.
theZ^KXD + ZmD^thest. /.AOB.
But
/.
the
Ax. 9
A AOD and BOD are supplementary.
55
Q. E. D.
91. SCHOLIUM. Adjacent angles that are supplements of

each other are called supplementary-adjacent angles.
92.
COR.
Since the angular magnitude
neither increased nor diminished by the

radiate from the point, it follows that,
The sum of
to
all the angles about
about a point
number
of lines
a point in a plane
is
is
which
equal
two straight angles, or four right angles.
The sum of all

straight line
the angles about a point on the same side of a

passing through the point is equal to a straight
angle, or two right angles.
THE STRAIGHT LINE.
PROPOSITION
93.
CONVERSELY
ments of each
same
19
THEOREM.
III.
If two adjacent angles are supple
other, their exterior sides lie in the
straight line.
AC
Let the adjacent A OCA + OCB = 2

To prove
Proof,
A C and CB in
Suppose
CF to
the
same
rt. A.
straight line.
be in the same line with.-4Cl
Z OCA + Z OCF= 2 rt. A,
Then
81
90
(being sup.-adj. A).
But
.
Z OCA + Z OCB = 2 rt. A.

Z OCA + Z OCr= Z OCA -f Z
Take away from each
Z 0CF= Z
Then
.*.
94.
of these equals the
CB
and
A C and CB are
common
Ax. 1
Z OCA.
0C5.
Ax. 3
CF coincide.
in the
same straight
SCHOLIUM. Since Propositions
their opposites are true
Hyp.
OCB.
II.
and
line.
III.
Q.E. D.
are true,
80
namely,
If the exterior sides of two adjacent angles are not in a
straight line, these angles are not supplements of each other.
If two adjacent angles are not supplements of each other,
;
their exterior sides are not in the
same
straight line.
20
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
PROPOSITION IV.
THEOREM.
I.
If one straight line intersects another straight

line, the vertical angles are equal.
95,
Let line OP cut AS at

To prove
C.
Z OCB = Z ACP.
Z OCA + Z OCB = 2
Proof,
(being sup.-adj.
rt.
90
A,
90
A)-
AACP=2rt.
(being sup.-adj.
A,
).
Ax.
Take away from each
of these equals the
common
Z OCB -Z ACP.
Then
In like manner we
Z OCA.
Ax. 3
may prove
Q. E. D.
96.
COR.
the
If one of the four angles formed by
of two straight
right angles.
lines is
intersection
the other three angles are

right angle,
THE STRAIGHT LINE.
THEOREM.
PROPOSITION V.
97.
From a
21
point without a straight line one per
pendicular, and only
can be drawn
one,
to this line.
JT
D\
\
V
Let P be the point and AB the line.
To prove that one perpendicular, and only
from Pto AB.
one,
can be drawn
AB
AB
Turn the part of the plane above

about
as
it falls
upon the part below AB, and denote by
Proof,
an axis until
the position that
P takes.
Turn the revolved plane about AB to its original

and draw the straight line PP cutting AB at C.
position,
Take any other point

Since
D in
PDP
POP
is a straight line,
(Between two points only one straight
Z PCP is
Turn the
Then
.
PD and P D,
AB, and draw
st.
figure
CP will
Z, and
POD
line
Z PDP
about
coincide with
is not a
straight line.
can be drawn.)
is
not a
st.
OP, and
P.
DP with DP.
Z PCD = Z. POD, and Z PDO= Z PDC.

Z POZ), the half of st. Z PC/*, is a rt. Z and Z
half of Z
is not a rt. Z.
59
.-.
the
Z.
AB until P falls upon
PZ>C,
PZ>^,
.*.
PC
is
one
_L,
to
^15, and
and only
PD
is
one, can be
not _L to
AB.
drawn from
P to
47
AB.
Q.E.D,
PLANE GEOMETRY.
22
BOOK!
I.
PARALLEL LINES.
98,
DEF.
Parallel lines are lines which
lie in
the same
plane and do not meet however far they are prolonged in both
directions.
99,
Parallel lines are said to
lie in
the same direction
when
they are on the same side of the straight line joining their ori
when they are on opposite sides
gins, and in opposite directions
of the straight line joining their origins.
PROPOSITION VI.
100, Two straight lines in the same plane perpen
dicular to the same straight line are parallel.
-B
Let AB and CD be perpendicular to AC.

AB and CD parallel.
To prove
If
Proof.
AB
and
CD
are not parallel, they will meet
if
have two perpendicular

sufficiently
lines from their point of meeting to the same straight line
prolonged, and we
shall
but this
is
97
impossible.
and only
(From a given point without a straight line, one perpendicular,
one, can be drawn to the straight line.}
.
AB and CD are parallel.
Q.E.D.
AB
and CD are not parallel leads

the supposition that
a given
to the conclusion that two perpendiculars can be drawn from
The conclusion is false, therefore the supposi
line.
point to a straight
and CD are not parallel, it is true
tion is false; but if it is false that
This method of proof is called the indirect
are parallel.
that
REMARK. Here
AB
they
method.
101,
COR. Through a given point, one straight
(me, can be drawn parallel
to
a given straight
line,
line.
and only
23
PAEALLEL LINES.
THEOREM.
PROPOSITION VII.
102, If a straight line is perpendicular to one of

two parallel lines, it is perpendicular to the other.
H
M-
ar
ar
K
Let AB and EF be
perpendicular to
two parallel lines, and let

AB, and cut EF at C.
HK\_EF.
To prove
Suppose MN drawn through

MN \a\\toAB,
Proof,
Then
HK be
(7J_ to
HK.
100
to a given line are parallel).

(two lines in the same plane _L
EFia
But
/.
(through the
that
EF,
same point only one
to
AB.
line
EF.
101
\\
to
a given
line).
Q.E.D.
AB
two straight lines

are cut by a third line
If
CD
Hyp.
MN,
can be drawn
.ffiTis J_ to
is,
103,
and
EF
\\
coincides with
called
transversal,
are
eight angles formed,
as follows
the
named
The angles
interior
b,
c,
g are called
h are called ex
a, d, f,
e,
terior angles.
The angles d and /, or a and g, are called alt. -int. angles.

The angles b and h, or c and e, are called alt. -ext. angles.
The angles b and /, c and g, a and e, or d and h, are called
ext. -int.
angles.
24
PLANE GEOMETRY.
PROPOSITION VIII.
BOOK
I.
THEOREM.
104, If two parallel straight lines are cut by a third

straight line, the alternate-interior angles are equal.
Let EF and
GH
be two parallel straight lines cut by
the line BQ.
Z.B = /.Q.
To prove
Proof.
drawn J_
Then
Through
to
0, the middle point
AD
is
likewise _L to
(a straight line _L to one of two
that
is,
Apply
of
AD
BC, suppose
GH.
CD and BA are both JL

figure COD to figure BOA,
102
EF,
Us is _L to
to
the other),
AD.
so that
OD shall
fall
on OA.
00 will
Then
(since
and
95
on OB,
fall
/. COD = Z BOA,
being vertical
A)
C will fall upon B,

00 = OB by construction).
the point
(since
Then
the J_
CD
(from a point without a

.
/.
OCD
will coincide with the _L
coincides with
Z OB A,
and
is
97
BA,
straight line only one JL to that line
can be drawn}.
equal to
59
it.
Q. E. D.
Ex.
it is
Ex.
is
1.
Find the value of an angle

its complement.
if it is
double
its
complement
if
one-fourth of
2.
Find the value of an angle
one-third of
its
supplement.
if it is
double
its
supplement
if it
PAKALLEL
25
LINES./
THEOREM.
PROPOSITION IX.
When two
straight lines are cut

an
by a third straight line, if the alternate-interior
gles are equal, the two straight lines are parallel.
105.
CONVERSELY
MA
\f/
Let EF cut the straight lines AB and CD in the points

and K, and let the
AB
To prove
Proof,
Suppose
then
II
to
CD.
MN drawn through H
Z MHK= Z HKD,
(being
alt.-int.
of
II
II
to
CD
104
lines).
Z AHK= Z HKD.
/. Z MHK= Z AHK.
But
/. the lines JIfJVand
MNis
But
.*.
AB, which
II
to
101
Hyp.
Ax.
AB coincide.
CD.
coincides with
JOT,
Cons.
is
II
to
QD.
Q.E. D.
Ex.
3.
How many
clock at 2 o clock
degrees in the angle formed

3 o clock ? 4 o clock ? 6 o clock ?
by the hands of a
BOOK
PLANE GEOMETRY.
26
PROPOSITION X.
106,
line,
I.
THEOREM.
// two parallel lines are cutlby a third straight

the exterior-interior angles are equal.
Let AB and CD be two parallel lines cut

and K,
straight line EF, in the points
by the
Z EHB = Z HKD.
Z EHB = Z AHK,
To prove
Proof,
95
(being vertical A).

.
Z AHK= Z HKD,
But
(being alt.-int.
Aof\\
104
lines).
Ax.
In like manner we
may
prove
Z EHA = Z HKC.
COR. The alternate-exterior angles
107,
and
also
Ex.
4.
Q. E. D.
EHB
and CKF,
AHE and DKF, are equal.

If an angle
is
bisected,
and
if
a line
is
drawn through the
to the bisector, this line forms equal angles
vertex perpendicular
the sides of the given angle.
with
two adjacent angles are perpendicular to

are supplementary.
the
each other,
adjacent angles
Ex.
5.
If the bisectors of
PARALLEL LINES.
THEOREM.
PROPOSITION XI.
CONVERSELY
27
When two

the
exterior-interior an
line, if
are
these
two
gles
equal,
straight lines are parallel.
108,
ly a third straight

and let the
H and K,
AB
To prove
Proof,
Suppose
CD.
to
\\
MN drawn through
5"
II
to
CD.
Z EHN= Z HKD,
Then
(being ext.-int.
But
.
of
II
106
lines).
Z EHB = Z HKD.
Z EHB = Z EHN.
.the lines
JOT"
MNia
But
.
.AB, which
and
II
to
101
Hyp.
Ax.
AB coincide.
CD.
coincides with
MN,
Cons.
is
II
to
CD.
Q. E. D.
Ex.
6.
The
bisector of one of
two
vertical angles bisects the other.
Ex. 7. The bisectors of the two pairs of vertical angles formed by

two intersecting lines are perpendicular to each other.
28
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
PROPOSITION XII.
THEOREM.
I.
If two parallel lines are cut by a third straight

line, the sum of the two interior angles on the same
side of the transversal is equal to two right angles.
109.
-B
Let AB and CD be two parallel lines cut by the

EF in the points H and K.
straight line
To prove
Z BIIK+ Z HKD = 2
Proof,
Z EHB + Z EHK = 2
(being sup.-adj.
rt.
rt.
A
4
90
zt).
Z EHB = Z HKD,
But
(being ext.-int.
Substitute
Z HKD
Z
then
for
of
II
Z EHB in
106
lines).
the
BHK+ Z HKD - 2
first
rt.
equality
A.
Q. E. D.
AHE
is an angle of 135, find the number of

Ex. 8. If the angle
other angles formed at the points -ffand K.
degrees in each of the
Ex.
9.
Find the angle between the
tary angles.
bisectors of adjacent
complemen
PARALLEL LINES.
THEOREM.
PROPOSITION XIII.
CONVERSELY
110.
29
When two
by a third straight line, if the two interior angles on

the same side of the transversal are together equal to
two right angles, then the two straight lines are
parallel.

and K, and let the BHK+^HKD equal two right
angles.
AB
To prove
Proof,
Suppose
Then
to
II
CD.
MN drawn through H
NHK+ HKD = 2
Z.
to
\\
rt.
CD.
109
A,
(being two interior Aof\\son the same side of the transversal}.
Z.BHK+HKL = 2rt.A.
But
Hyp.
.Z.NHK+Z.HKD = Z.BHK+Z.HKD.
Take away from each

then
Z.
.
of these equals the
NHK=
the lines
MNis
But
.
AB,
Z.
AB and
II
to
common
Z.
BHK.
MN
HKD
Ax. 3
coincide.
CD.
which coincides with
Ax.
MN,
Cons.
is
II
to
CD.
Q.E.O.
BOOK
PLANE GEOMETRY.
30
I.
THEOREM.
PROPOSITION XIV.
to
straight lines which are parallel
other.
each
to
are
line
parallel
straight
Ill,
Two
a third
K
Let AB and CD be parallel
AB
To prove
Proof,
Since
(if
a straight
Since
to EF.
CD.
to
II
Suppose
HK drawn _L
CD
EF are
and
to
line is
AB
and
EF are
II,
(when two straight
Ex
10.
It has
lines
AB
is
II
97
EF.
_L to
Us, it is J_ to
rt.
to
102
CD,
the other also).
fflTis also _L to
(each being a
.-.
HKis
II,
one of two
to
AB.
Z).
108
CD,
are cut by a third straight
line, if the ext.-int.
are equal, the two lines are parallel).
been shown that
if
102
two
cut
parallels are
Q.
by a
E D
trans*
are equal, the exterior-interior angles

versal! the alternate-interior angles
on the same side of the transversal are
are equal the two interior angles
State the converse theo
State the opposite theorems.
Bupplementary.
rems.
PARALLEL
XV.
PKOPOSITION
31
LINES.
THEOREM.
112, Two angles whose sides are parallel, each to

each, are either equal or supplementary.
-fcr-
r
F
Let AB be parallel
and BC
to EF,
to
MN.
Z ABO equal to Z EHN, and

supplementary to Z EHM and to Z NHF.
To prove
Proof,
sect at
Prolong
(if
necessary)
to
Z MHF,
BO and FE until
D.
they inter
81 (2)
Z B = Z EDO,
Z DHN= Z ^D(7.
Then
and
(being
ext.-int.
A of
II
and
106
106
ines),
MHF (the vert. Z of DHN).

Now Z DHN the supplement of Z EHM and Z ^V^F.
Z.B = Z.
and
is
is
Z ^,
Z DJ77V,
of Z EHM and of Z NHF.
which
the supplement
is
equal to
Q. E. D.
REMARK. The
angles are equal
when both
pairs
of parallel sides
extend in the same direction, or in opposite directions, from their ver

tices
the angles are supplementary when two of the parallel sides extend
;
in the
same
vertices.
direction,
and the other two
in opposite directions,
from their
32
113,
Two
PLANE GEOMETKY.
BOOK
PROPOSITION XVI.
THEOREM.
I.
angles whose sides are perpendicular, each

equal or supplementary.
to each, are either
K
F
and AC
Let AB be perpendicular
to FD,
Z BAG
Z DFG,
To prove
equal
to
to GI.
and supplementary
to
/.DPI.
Proof,
Suppose
AKis
Then
AB, and AH AFD, arid AJI to IG,
AK drawn _L
to
\\
to
to
AC.
100
(two lines J_ to the same line are parallel).
112
(two angles are equal. whose sides are
from
II
and extend
in the same direction
their vertices).
Z BAK a right angle by construction.

Z BAH is the complement of Z KAH.
The Z CAJTis a right angle by construction.
Z HAHis the complement of Z BAG.
The
.
is
87
(complements of equal angles are equal).
. .
Z DFI,
the
.\/.DFG = ^BAO.
supplement of Z DFG, is also
Ax.
tf/.BAC.
REMARK. The
are supplementary
the supplement
or both obtuse
angles are equal if both are acute
if one is acute and the other obtuse.
Q.E.D.
they
PEKPENDICULAR AND OBLIQUE LINES.
33
PERPENDICULAR AND OBLIQUE LINES.

PROPOSITION XVII.
The perpendicular
114,
drawn from a point
be
to
THEOREM.
the shortest Line that can
is
a straight
Line.
D\
i
Let AB be the given straight line, P the given point,
the perpendicular, and PD any other line drawn
PC
from
to
AB.
To prove
Produce
Proof,
On
AB
plane of
PC to P
PC
making
as an axis, fold over
CP
<
PD.
CP = PC;
CPD
until
and draw
it
DP
conies into the
D.
The
(since
line
CP will
Z PCD - Z
P will
The point
(since
.
take the direction of
P>CD t
line
each being a
fall
rt.
by hyp.).
upon the point
PC= P Cby
CP
cons.).
PD = line P D,
PC +CP =2 PC.
PC + CP
+ DP
and
But
<PD
(a straight line
.
is
Cons.
1
,
the shortest distance between two

points).
.2PC<2PD, or PC<PD.
Q.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
34
115,
BOOK
X,
SCHOLIUM. The distance of a point from a line is under

mean the length of the perpendicular from the point
stood to
to the line.
PROPOSITION XVIII.
THEOREM.
drawn from a
point in a
cutting off equal dis
perpendicular
tances from the foot of the perpendicular, are equal.
116,
Two
oblique lines
to
a given
line,
Let FC be the perpendicular, and CA and CO two

oblique lines cutting off equal distances from F.
CA =
To prove
Proof,
CO.
Fold over CFA, on
the plane of
CF&s
an
FA
(since
will take the direction of
Z CFA = Z CFO,
Point
each being a
will fall
(since
.
COR.
pendicular
to
comes into
.line
C4
Two
oblique lines
a given
rt.
FO,
Z by hyp.).
upon point 0,
FA = FO
by hyp.).
= line
the
(their extremities being
117,
axis, until it
CFO.
CO,
same points).
drawn from a
Q. E. o.
point in a per
line, cutting off equal distances from the

make equal angles with the given line,
foot of the perpendicular,

and also with the perpendicular.
PEEPENDICULAE AND OBLIQUE LINES.
PROPOSITION XIX.
35
THEOREM.
118, The sum of two lines drawn from a point to

the extremities of a straight line is greater than the
sum of two other lines similarly drawn, but included
by them.
C
Let CA and CB be two lines drawn from the point C

the extremities of the straight line AB. Let OA and
OB be two lines similarly drawn, but included by CA
and CB.
to
To prove
Proof.
CA+CB>OA
AO to
Produce
meet the
AC+ CE
Then
(a straight line
and
is
>
+ OB.
line
CB
at
E.
OA + OE,
the shortest distance between two points),
BE+OE>BO.
Add
these inequalities, and
we have
CA+CE+BE+OE>OA +
Substitute for
and take away
We have
OE+ OB.
CE+ BE its equal CB,
OE from
each side of the inequality.
CA+CB>OA
OB.
Ax. 5
aEilx
36
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
PROPOSITION XX.
I.
THEOREM.
119, Of two oblique lines drawn from the same

point in a perpendicular, cutting off unequal dis
tances from the foot of the perpendicular, the more
remote is the greater.
b
Let OC be perpendicular to AB, OG and OE two oblique
lines to AB, and GE greater than CG.
OE
To prove
Take
Proof.
CF equal
to
OG.
>
CG, and draw OF.
0F= OG,
Then
(two oblique lines
drawn from a point

from the foot of the
in a
JL,
116
_L,
cutting off equal distances
are equal).
OC to
D, making CD
Prolong
Draw
and FD.
=00.
ED
Since
AB
is
OD at its middle point,

FO = FD, and EO = JED,
_L to
But
OE+ED>
116
OF+ FD,
118
sum
of two oblique lines drawn from a point to the extremities of a

straight line is greater than the sum of two other lines similarly drawn,
but included by them).
(the
But
20E>20F, or
OF= OG.
OE>
Hence
OE
OF.
>
OG.
aE
Only two equal straight lines can be drawn from

a straight line ; and of two unequal lines, the greater
120, COR.
a point
to
cuts off the greater distance from the foot of the perpendicular.
PEKPENDICULAE, AND OBLIQUE LINES.
PROPOSITION XXI.
37
THEOREM.
121, Two equal oblique lines, drawn from, the same

point in a perpendicular, cut off equal distances from
tine foot of the perpendicular.
Let CF be the perpendicular, and CE and CK be two

equal oblique lines drawn from the point C to AB.
FE=FK.
To prove
GFA
Fold over
Proof,
the plane of
on
OF as
an
axis, until it conies into
CFB.
The
(since
line
FE will take the direction FK,
Z CFE= Z. CFK,
Then the point
each being a
E must
fall
rt.
by hyp).
upon the point
K,
Otherwise one of these oblique lines must be more remote

from the perpendicular, and therefore greater than the other
which is contrary to the hypothesis that they are equal.
119
;
Q. E. D.
Ex.
11.
Show
that
the bisectors
of two
supplementary-adjacent
angles are perpendicular to each other.
Ex.
12.
Show
that the bisectors of two vertical

angles form one
straight line.
Ex. 13. Find the complement of an angle containing 26

Find the supplement of the same angle.
52
37".
PLANE GEOMETRY.
38
BOOK
PROPOSITION XXII.
I.
THEOREM.
122, Every point in the perpendicular, erected at

the middle of a given straight line, is equidistant
from the extremities of the line, and every point not
in the perpendicular is unequally distant from the
extremities of the line.
Let PR be a perpendicular erected at the middle of

the straight line AB,
any point in PR, and G any
point without PR.
Draw OA and OB, CA and CB.
To prove
OA
and
OB equal, CA
and
PA = PB.
Proof,
CB unequal.
Hyp.
116
drawn from the same point in a _L, cutting

tances from the foot of the _L, are equal).
without the perpendicular, one of the
(two oblique lines
Since
or
is
off"
equal dis
lines,
CA
will cut the perpendicular.
CB,
Let
CA
cut the J_ at D, and
Then
draw DB.
DB = DA,
drawn from the same point in a

tances from the foot of the _L, are
(two oblique lines
But
116
_L,
cutting off equal dis
equal).
CB<CD+DB,
(a straight line
is
the shortest distance between two points).
DA for DB,
CB<CD + DA.
Substitute in this inequality
That
is,
CB<CA.
and we have
PERPENDICULAR AND OBLIQUE LINES.

123,
Since two points determine the position of a straight
two points equidistant from the extremities of a
line,
mine
39
the perpendicular at the
middle of that
THE Locus OF A
line deter
line.
POINT.
required to find a point which shall fulfil a

single geometric condition, the point will have an unlimited
number of positions, but will be confined to a particular line,
124,
If
it
is
or group of lines.
Thus, if it is required to find a point equidistant from the

extremities of a given straight line, it is obvious from the last
proposition that any point in the perpendicular to the given
line at its middle point does fulfil the condition, and that no
other point does
that is, the required point is confined to this

Again, if it is required to find a point at a
perpendicular.
given distance from a fixed straight line of indefinite length, it
;
is
evident that the point must
so
drawn
lie in one of two

straight lines,
as to be everywhere at the given distance from the
fixed line, one on one side of the fixed line, and the other on
the other side.
The locus of a point under a given condition is the line,

or group of lines, which contains all the points that fulfil the
given condition, and no other points.
SCHOLIUM. In order to prove completely that a certain
the locus of a point under a given condition, it is neces
sary to prove that every point in the line satisfies the given
condition; and secondly, that every point which satisfies the
125,
line
is
given condition lies in the line (the converse proposition), or

that every point not in the line does not satisfy the given condi
tion (the opposite proposition).
126,
ities
Con.
The
locus of a point equidistant from the extrem

is the perpendicular bisector
of that line.
of a straight line
122, 123
PLANE GEOMETEY.
40
BOOK
I.
TRIANGLES.
127.
The bounding
ABC.
lines are called the
sides of the triangle,
and
their
sum
is
perimeter ; the angles formed

the sides are called the angles of the
called
by
a portion of a plane bounded by three
is
triangle
straight lines; as,
its
triangle,
and the vertices of these an
FIG.
1.
gles, the vertices of the triangle.
128,
An
exterior angle of a triangle
an angle formed between a side and

the prolongation of another side as,
is
ACD.
The
interior
angle
ACE
is
"
FIG. 2.
the
adjacent to the exterior angle
other two interior angles,
and B, are called opposite;
interior angles.
Scalene.
Isosceles.
Equilateral.
called, with reference to its sides, a

triangle
scalene triangle when no two of its sides are equal an isos
an equilateral
celes triangle, when two of its sides are equal
129,
is
triangle,
when
its
three sides are equal.
Obtuse.
Right.
130,
triangle,
triangle
when one
Acute.
with reference to
Equiangular.
angles, a right
an obtuse
of its angles is a right angle
is
called,
its
TEIANGLES.
41
when one
when all
of its angles is an obtuse angle

an acute
three of its angles are acute angles
an
equiangular triangle, when its three angles are equal.
triangle,
triangle,
131, In a right triangle, the side opposite the

right angle is
called the hypotenuse, and the other two sides the
legs, of the
triangle.
132, The side on which a
triangle is supposed to stand is
called the base of the triangle.
Any one of the sides may be
In the isosceles triangle, the equal sides
taken as the base.
are generally called the legs,

133,
vertical
134,
and the other
side,
the base.
The angle opposite the base of a triangle is called the

angle, and its vertex the vertex of the triangle.
The
altitude of a triangle
is
the perpendicular distance
from the vertex to the base, or to the base produced
as,
AD.
135, The three perpendiculars from the vertices of a tri

angle to the opposite sides (produced if necessary) are called
the altitudes; the three bisectors of the
angles are called tha
bisectors; and the three lines from the vertices to the middle
points of the opposite sides are called the medians of the
triangle.
136, If two
triangles have the angles of the one equal respec
tively to the angles of the other, the equal angles are called
homologous angles, and the sides opposite the
are
equal angles
called homologous sides.
In general, points,
lines,
and
angles, similarly situated in
equal or similar figures, are called homologous.

137,
THEOREM
than the third
side,
The sum of two sides of a triangle is greater

and their difference is less than the third
side.
In the
is
A ABC(Yi%.
1),
AB +
BC>AC, for
the shortest distance between two

points
away BCiiQm both
sides, AB>AC-BC, or
a straight line
and by taking
AC-BC<AB.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
PROPOSITION XXIII.
THEOREM.
42
I.
The sum of the three angles of a triangle
138,
equal
is
two right angles.
to
A
Let ABC be a
triangle.
Z B + Z BOA + Z A = 2 rt. A.
to AB, and prolong A
Suppose CE drawn
Z ECF+ Z ECE + Z J5O4 = 2 rt. Z,
To prove
Proof,
Then
II
(/ie swra o/
a^
the
about a
on the same
oin
=2
rt.
side of
to F.
92
straight line
A).
Z A - Z J57CF,
But
(Jetn^r ext.-int.
106
o/\\ lines).
w&/.B = Z.BCE,
(being
alt.-int.
Then
Con.
tracted
II
1.
If the
from two
sum
104
lines ).
Z EOF and Z .SC^ the equal A A

Z ^. + Z B + Z .SO4 - 2 rt. Zs.
Substitute for
139,
A of
and 5.
of two angles of a triangle
Q. E. D.
is
sub
the
right angles, the remainder is equal to
third angle.
2. If two triangles have two angles of the one
are equal.
two
angles of the other, the third angles
equal
141, COR. 3. If two right triangles have an acute angle of
the one equal to an acute angle of the other, the other acute
angles are equal.
COR.
140,
to
43
TRIANGLES.
COR.
142,
4.
In a
can be but one right angle,
triangle there
or one obtuse angle.
COR.
143,
5.
In a
right triangle the two acute angles are
complements of each other.

COR.
144,
6.
In an equiangular
triangle, each angle is one-
third of two right angles, or two-thirds of one right angle.
PROPOSITION
145,
sum
XXIV.
THEOREM.
The exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the

of the two opposite interior angles.
C*
-*i
Let
BCH
-*"*
be an exterior angle of the triangle ABC.
Z BCH Z A -f Z B.
To prove
Z B CH+ ÂCB = 2rt.A
Proof.
(being sup.-adj. A},
(the
sum
of the three
Take away from each
of a
rt.
of these equals the
Z.BCH=Z.A +
then
A=2
A).
common
Z ACB
Ax. 3
B.
Q. E. D.
146,
COR.
The
exterior angle of
either of the opposite interior angles.
a triangle
is
greater than
44
PLANE GEOMETRY.
PROPOSITION
XXV.
BOOK
I.
THEOREM.
147, Two triangles are equal if a side and two ad

jacent angles of the one are equal respectively to a
side and two adjacent angles of the other.
CD
A
In the triangles
/LB = Ê.
To prove
Proof,
Apply
coincide with
ABC and
ff
AB = DE,
DEF, let
Z.A = Z.D,
A ABC= A DEF.
the A AB C to the A DEF so that AB shall
DE.
A C will
take the direction of
ZA = ZD,by hyp.)
(for
DF,
AC will fall upon DF or DF produced.

EC will take the direction of EF,
the extremity
C of
(for
the extremity
.
ZB = ZE,by hyp.)
C of .#(7 will
fall
upon
EF
EF produced.
lines DF and EF,
or
.the point C, falling upon both the

fall upon the point common to the two lines, namely, F.
must
/.the two
A coincide, and are equal.
Q.E.D.
148, COR. 1. Two right triangles are equal if the hypotenuse

and an acute angle of the one are equal respectively to the hypote
nuse and an acute angle of the other.
149,
COR. 2. Two right triangles are equal if a side and an
acute angle of the one are equal respectively to a side and
homologous acute angle of the other,
45
TRIANGLES.
PROPOSITION
XXVI.
THEOREM.
150, Two triangles are equal if two sides and the

included angle of the one are equal respectively to
two sides and the included angle of the other.
ABC and DEF,
In the triangles
E
let
AB = DE, AG-DF,
A = ^D.
AAC-=A DEF.
To prove
Proof,
Apply the
coincide with
Then
A ABC to
the
A DEF so that AB shall
DE.
will take the direction of
= ZD,by hyp}
(for ZA
the point
C will
(for
fall
DF,
upon the point F,
AC= DF,
by hyp.).
(thdr extremities being the same points).
.the two

Q.E. D.
151,
COR.
equal, each
to
Two
each.
are
right triangles are equal if their legs
46
PLANE GEOMETRY.
PROPOSITION XXVII.
BOOK
I.
THEOREM.
152, If two triangles have two sides of the one

equal
respectively to two sides of the other, but the included
first greater than the included angle of

the second, then the third side of the first will be
greater than the third side of the second.
angle of the
-y
E
In the triangles ABC and ABE, let
but ZABC greater than /.ABE.
AC
To prove
Proof,
Place the
AB of the
>
AB = AB, BC=BE;
AE.
A so that AB of the one shall coincide with
other.
Suppose
BF drawn so as to bisect Z EBG.

Draw EF.
In the
A EBF and CBF

EB = J30,
BF=BF,
.*.
(having two sides
Hyp.
Iden.
Z EBF= Z. CBF.
A EBF&K& CBFwQ
Cons.
the
equal,
and the included /. of one equal respectively
and the included Z. of the other).
150
to
two sides
.\EF=FC,
(being homologous sides of equal A).
AF+ FE
Now
(the
sum
of two sides of a
.
AE,
A is greater than
137
>
the third side).
AF+FO AE-,
or,
AC>AE.
Q.E.D.
TRIANGLES.
PROPOSITION XXVIII.
47
THEOREM.
CONVERSELY. If two sides of a triangle are equal

respectively to two sides of another, but the third side
of the first triangle is greater than the third side of
the second, then the angle opposite the third side of
the first triangle is greater than the angle opposite
the third side of the second.
153.
In the triangles ABO and DEF, let AB = DE,

but let BG be greater than EF.
Z A greater than Z D.
To prove
Now Z A
Proof.
greater than
But
ZA
equal to
is
equal to
D,
or less than
And Z
is
D, or
D.
not equal to
D,
A ABC would
for then
A DEF,
(having two sides
than
is
AC = DF;
be
150
of the one, respectively equal to two

the included /. of the other),
and
the included
sides
and
and
BG would be
not less than
D,
equal to
for
then
EF.
BC would
EF.
be less
152
/.
ZA
is
greater than
D.
Q.E.D.
BOOK
PLANE GEOMETRY.
PROPOSITION
154,
In an
XXIX.
I.
THEOREM.
isosceles triangle the angles opposite the
equal sides are equal.
B
Let ABO
AB and AC
be an isosceles triangle, having the sides

equal.
Z B=Z
To prove
Proof,
Suppose
C.
AD drawn so as to bisect the /.BAG.

In the A ADB and ADC,
= AC.
AD = AD,
Z. BAD = Z. CAD.
.AAD = &ADC,
AJ3
(two
&
are equal if two sides and the included Z

sides and the included Z
respectively to two
.\Z.B =
155,
COR.
An
Hyp.
Iden.
Cons.
150
of the one are equal
of the other).
C.
Q.E.D.
is equiangular,
equilateral triangle
and each
angle contains 60.

Ex.
14.
The
bisects the base,
bisector of the vertical angle of

to the base.
and is
an
isosceles triangle
perpendicular
The perpendicular bisector of the base of an isosceles

and bisects the angle at the vertex.
passes through the vertex
Ex.
15.
triangle
49
TKIANGLES.
PEOPOSITION
XXX.
THEOREM.
156, If two angles of a triangle are equal, the sides

opposite the equal angles are equal, and the triangle
is isosceles.
= ZC.
In the triangle ABC, let the Z

To prove
Proof,
In the
rt.
AB = AC.
Suppose AD drawn J_ to BO.
A ALB and ADC,
AD = AD,
4.B = Z.Q.
.*. rt.
A ALB =
(having a side and an acute
an
rt.
Iden.
Hyp.
A ADC,
149
of the one equal respectively to

homologous acute
of the other).
side
and
(being homologous sides of equal &).

Q.E. D.
COR.
157,
Ex.
16.
triangle
is
An
equiangular triangle
is
The perpendicular from the vertex

an axis of symmetry.
also equilateral.
to the base of
an
isosceles
BOOK
PLANE GEOMETRY.
50
PROPOSITION
XXXI.
X,
THEOREM.
If two sides of a triangle are unequal, the an

are unequal, and the greater angle is
opposite
gles
158,
opposite the greater side.
C
In the triangle
ACB
let
Z A CB
To prove
be greater than AC.
greater than
B.
AE equal to AQ.
Take
Proof.
AB
Draw EC.
AAEC=Z.ACE,
(being
opposite equal sides).
Z AEG is
But
(an exterior
/.
of a
Substitute for
is
Much
than either opposite interior Z).
greater than
Z ACE its
Z.ACB\*
then
146
greater than Z. B,
A is greater
Z A CB
and
154
equal
greater than
more, then, is the
Z ACE.
Z ACB
Ax. 8
Z ^(7,
Z AEC.
Z. B.
greater than
^Cand
ACB, at the base of an isosceles tri

If the angles
lines
the
BD, CD, show that
straight
angle, be bisected by
Ex.
be an
17.
isosceles triangle.
DBCmll
TKI ANGLES.
PROPOSITION XXXII.
51
THEOREM.
159, CONVERSELY
If two angles of a triangle are
unequal, the sides opposite are unequal, and the
greater side is opposite the greater angle.
:
In.
the triangle AGE, let angle
angle E.
To prove
AB
Now AB
Proof,
is
>
ACE
be greater than
AC.
equal to AC, or less than AC, or greater
than AC.
AB
But
is
equal to the
not equal to AC, for then the /.
And
AB
than the
(if
is
not
B,
two sides of a
opposite equal sides ).
than AC, for then the
less
A are unequal,
greater
.
be
154
(being
less
C would
B,
is
AB
Z.
the
opposite are unequal,
opposite the greater side).
is
greater than
would be
158
and
the
AC.
Q. E. D.
Ex. 18. ABC and ABD are two triangles on the same base AB, and
on the same side of it, the vertex of each
triangle being without the
other.
If AC equal AD, show that BC cannot
equal
BD.
sum of the lines which join a point
within a triangle to the three vertices is less than
the perimeter, but
greater than half the perimeter.
Ex.
19.
The
PLANE GEOMETRY.
52
BOOK:
I.
THEOREM.
PROPOSITION XXXIII.
160, Two triangles are equal if the three sides of

the one are equal respectively to the three sides of
the other.
In the triangles ABC and A
BC=B
BC
let
AB = A B AC=A C
A ABC = A A B C
To prove
AB
AABC
in the position
Place
C, having its
in coincidence with its equal AC, and its
C
side
greatest
1
.
and draw
vertex at
opposite
Proof.
BB
Since AB = AB
Z ABB = Z AB B,
B
(in
an
isosceles
the
A opposite
Since
Hence,
Hyp.
154
the equal sides are equal).
CB = CB\
ZCBB = ZCB R
^ ABC= Z AB C,
/. A ABG= A AB O= A A B C
Hyp.
154
Ax. 2
150
(two
&
are equal if two sides and included Z of one are equal

sides and included Z of the other).
to
two
TRIANGLES.
PROPOSITION
53
XXXIV. THEOREM.
161. Two right triangles are

equal if a side and
the hypotenuse of the one are equal respectively to a
side and the hypotenuse of the other.
In the right triangles
and
AC=A C
A AC= A A
To prove
Proof,
upon
Then
let
ABÂ Bf,
A ABC to the A A B C so that AE shall

A falling upon A E upon E\ and and
the same side of A -B
Apply the
coincide with
ABC and A B C
BO will take the direction of B &,

Z ABC= Z A B C
(for
each being a
AC=A C
Since
the point
(two equal oblique lines
C will
from a point
.*.
the two
Z).
9
,
fall
upon
<7
in a _L cut
the foot of the
rt.
off"
121
equal distances from
JL).

Q.E. 0.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
54
PROPOSITION
BOOK
XXXV.
I.
THEOREM.
bisector of an angle is equi

the sides of the angle.
Every point in the
162,
distant
from
Let AD be the bisector of the angle BAG, and let O

be any point in AD.
To prove that
is
Proof,
Draw Oând
In the
rt.
(two
rt.
AB and AC.
OG J_ to AB and A C respectively.
equidistant from
A Ô^Fand AOO
AO=AO,
JBAO =
CAO.
Iden.
.-.AAOF=AAOG,
148
Hyp.
and an acute Z of the one are

hypotenuse and an acute Z of the other).
are equal if the hypotenuse
respectively to the
equal
OF= OG,
(homologous sides of equal &).

.*.
is
equidistant from
AB and
AC.
Q. E. D.
What
is
the locus of a point
Ex.
20.
At a given
Ex.
21.
Equidistant from two fixed points?
22.
At a given
Ex.
length
Ex.
Ex.
distance from a fixed point
\ 57.
119.
distance from a fixed straight line of indefinite
23.
Equidistant from two given parallel lines
24.
of a
given line
Equidistant from the extremities
?
?
TRIANGLES.
PROPOSITION
XXXVI.
THEOREM.
Every point within an angle, and equidistant
163,
from
55
its sides, is
in the bisector of the angle.
Let
be equidistant from the sides of the angle
BAG, and let AO join the vertex A and the point 0.
To prove that
Proof.
AO is
Suppose
the bisector of Z.
OF
and
OG
BAG.
drawn
J. to
AB
and AC,
respectively.
In the
rt.
A Ôând AOG
.-.
(two
rt.
OF= OG,
Hyp.
AOÂO.
Iden.
AAOF=AAOG,
& are equalif the
hypotenuse and a side

hypotenuse and a side of the
/.
AO
other).
Z FAO = /. GAO,
(homologous
.*.
161
of the one are equal to the
is
of equal A).
the bisector of
Z BAG.
Q.E. D.
164.
COR. The locus of a point within an angle, and equi
distant from
its sides, is
the bisector of the angle.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
56
BOOK
I.
QUADRILATERALS.
165.
quadrilateral is a portion of a plane bounded by
four straight lines.
The bounding lines are the sides, the angles formed by these
sides are the angles, and the vertices of these angles are the
vertices, of the quadrilateral.
166.
is
trapezium,
a quadrilateral which has no two sides
parallel.
167.
trapezoid
a quadrilateral which has two
is
sides,
and
only two sides, parallel.

168.
A parallelogram is a
quadrilateral which has
its
oppo
site sides parallel.
Trapezium.
169.
Trapezoid.
is
rectangle
Parallelogram.
a parallelogram which has
its
a parallelogram which has
its
angl<
right angles.
170.
rhomboid
is
angl<
oblique angles.
171,
172,
A
A
square
rhombus
Square.
173,
is
The
a rectangle which has

is
a rhomboid which has
Rectangle.
side
its
Rhombus.
sides equal.
its
sides equal.
Rhomboid.
upon which a parallelogram stands, and the

its lower and
upper bases.
opposite side, are called
57
QUADETLATEEALS.
174,
The
parallel sides of a trapezoid are called its bases,

its legs, and the line joining the middle
the other two sides

points of the legs
175,
called the median.
is
is
trapezoid
legs are equal.
called an isosceles trapezoid
The
when
altitude of a parallelogram or trapezoid

perpendicular distance between its bases.
176,
is
its
the
177, The diagonal of a quadrilateral is a

straight line joining two opposite vertices.
PROPOSITION
178,
XXXVII.
THEOREM.
The diagonal of a parallelogram divides the
figure into two equal triangles.
A.
Let ABCE
"be
a,
AC
its diagonal.
A ABC= A AEQ.
To prove
In the
parallelogram and
A ABC and AEQ,

AC=AC,
Iden.
Z.ACB = CAE,
Z.CAB = Z.ACE,
and
(being alt.-int.
of
II
104
lines).
.-.AAC=AAEG,
(having a side
and two
147
of the one equal respectively to a side

two adj.
of the other).
adj.
and
Q.E.D.
58
BOOK
PLANE GEOMETRY.
XXXVIII.
PROPOSITION
I.
THEOREM.
In a parallelogram the opposite sides are equal,

the opposite angles are equal.
179,
and
Let the figure ABCE be a parallelogram.
BC= AE, and AB = EC,

Z B = /. E, and Z BAE^Z. BCE.
To prove
also,
Draw AC.
Proof.
AABCÂAEC,
(the
diagonal of a
.-.
178
divides the figure into two equal &).
BC= AE,
and
AB= CE,
/.B = Z.E,mdL/.BAE=BCE,
Also,
(having their sides
II
and
112
extending in opposite directions from
their vertices).
180,
181.
Parallel lines comprehended between parallel
COR.
2.
everywhere
-L.
Two parallel
lines
distant.
equally
C
D
DC are parallel,
distances
the
measure
in AB to DC,
dropped from any points
For
J
1.
are equal.
lines
are
Con.
Q. E. D.
if
AB
and
of these points from
hence, all points in
DO.
AB
But these J are
equal,
are equidistant from DO.
by
180;
59
QUADRILATERALS.
XXXIX.
PROPOSITION
THEOREM.
If two sides of a quadrilateral are equal and

parallel, then the other two sides are equal and par
allel, and the figure is a parallelogram.
182,
Let the figure ABCE be a quadrilateral, having the

AE equal and parallel to BO.
side
AB equal and
To prove
EC.
Draw AC.
Proof.
In the
to
II
A ABC and AEC

BC= AE,
Hyp.
AC=AC,
BCA = Z.CAE,
(being alt.-int.
of
II
Iden.
104
lines).
150
(having two sides
and
the included Z. of the one equal respectively to two

sides and the included
\
of the other).
AB = EC,
Z.BAC=/-ACE,
Also,
(being homologous
.-.AJBis
(when two straight
lines are cut
II
of equal &).
105
to J^C;
by a third straight
line, if the alt.-int.
are equal, the lines are parallel).

.
the figure
ABCE
is
O,
(the opposite sides being parallel).
168
Q. E.
60
183,
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
PROPOSITION XL.
THEOREM.
I.
If the opposite sides of a quadrilateral are
equal, the figure is
a parallelogram.
Let the figure ABCE be a quadrilateral having
AE and AB =
BG =
EC.
To prove figure
ABCE a O.
Draw AC.
Proof.
In the
A AB
AEQ
0= AE,
AB=CE,
AC= AC.
.:AABC=AAEC,
and
Hyp.
Hyp.
Hen.
160
to three sides of the other).

(having three sides of the one equal respectively
and
(being homologous
.-.BO is
AB
and
(when two straight
lines lying
line, if the alt.-int.

.-.
is
of equal &).
II
ioAJE,
II
to
105
EC,
in the same plane are cut by a third straight

the figure
(having
its
ABCE
is
O,
168
opposite sides parallel).

Q.E. D.
61
QUADRILATERALS.
PROPOSITION XLI.
THEOREM.
The diagonals of a parallelogram
184,
bisect
each
other.
Let the figure ABCE be a parallelogram, and let

the diagonals AC and BE cut each other at 0.
A0= 00, and BO = OK

In the A AOE and BOO
To prove
AE=BC,
179
(being opposite sides of a CJ).
ZOAE=ZOC,
OEA=QBC,
and
(being alt.-int.
of
II
104
lines).
.-.AAOE = AOC,
(having a
side
and two
adj.
of the one equal respectively to
two adj.
of the other).
side
147
and

Q.E.
Ex.
is
25.
D.
If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, the figure
a parallelogram.
Ex.
26.
The diagonals of a rectangle are
Ex.
27.
If the diagonals of a parallelogram are
equal, the figure
is
equal.
a rectangle.
Ex. 28. The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular

and bisect the angles of the rhombus.
Ex.
and
29.
The diagonals
to
each other,
of a square are perpendicular to each other,
bisect the angles of the square.
62
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
XLIL
PROPOSITION
I.
THEOREM.
185. Two parallelograms, having two sides and the

included angle of the one equal respectively to two
sides and the included angle of the other, are equal.
CD
In the parallelograms
A B AD = A D and
,
Z.A
ADCD and A B C D
let
AB =
Z.A>.
To prove that the UJ are equal.
ABCD to A C D so that
Apply
and coincide with A D
Then AB will fall on A B\
f
AD will fall on
and the point
BO
Now,
and
through point
.
and
C falls
D
.-.
the point
/.
(7
must
.
fall
.
on
Z>(7and
through the point
by
hyp.).
to
II
AD
and are drawn
BO and B C* coincide,
the lines
In like manner,
.-.
B will fall on B\
=A B
(for AB
are
C
both
DC
or
101
produced.
and are drawn
coincide.
101
are
II
to
f
.
Z)(7and
DC
on
DC
falls
C falls
on both
D C produced.
and D C
or
BC
on the point common to both, namely,
the two
UJ
coincide,
and are equal.

Q. E. O.
186,
COR.
Two
altitudes are equal.
rectangles having equal bases
and equal
63
QUADRILATERALS.
THEOREM.
PROPOSITION XLIII.
187. If three or more parallels intercept equal parts

on any transversal, they intercept equal parts on
every transversal.
Let the parallels AH, BK, CM, DP intercept equal

parts HK, KM, MP on the transversal HP.
AB, EG, CD
To prove that they intercept equal parts

transversal
From A, B, and
Proof,
II
to
on the
AD.
tf
suppose
AE, BF, and CO drawn
HP.
Then
AE = HK, BF= KM,
CO = MP,
are
(parallels comprehended between parallels
.
180
equal).
.AE=BF=CO.
Ax.
Z.A = AB = Z.C,
Also
(being ext.-int.
of
II
106
lines)
E=Z.F=/.O,
and
(having their sides
/.
II
and
directed the
same way from
A ABE= A BCF= A
(each having a side
and two
adj.
/.
112
the vertices).
CDG,
respectively equal to
of the others).
adj.
a,
side
147
and two
AB mm BC= CD,
(homologous sides of equal &).
Q. E. o.
64
PLANE GEOMETRY.
COR.
188,
The
1.
BOOK
I.
line parallel to the base

of
triangle
and
bisecting one side bisects the other side also.
DE be
For, let
BC and
to
II
Draw through
this line is
DE, by
to
II
a line
to
II
111.
bisect
AB.
BC. Then
The three
by hypothesis intercept equal

parts on the transversal AB, and there
parallels
by
fore,
AC-, that
187, they intercept equal parts on the transversal

bisects AC.
is, the line
DE
COR.
189,
sides of
side.
AB,
BC, passes through E, the middle point of

and j7 coincides
Therefore, the line joining
with this parallel and

to
AB bisects AC,
it
is
190,
COR.
and
3.
to
II
bisects
= \BG. But BDEF

DE=BF=\BG.
ezoid
which joins
the middle points of two

parallel to the third side, and is equal to
For, a line drawn through D, the middle
line
to
II
188.
AC, by
is
triangle
half the third

point of
The
2.
is
BC.
BC, by
O by
188
line which is parallel

one leg of the trap
any
transversal, they intercept equal

187.
parts on every transversal by
COR.
trapezoid
is
For,
189,
and therefore
the bases of
rx;
a trap
?
x
JP\ \
j
/
the bases,
to
and
is
equal to half the

In the
EF
is
II
of
to
AD,
to F, the
sum
A ADB
draw the diagonal DB.
E, the middle point
Then, by
EF drawn
BF= FG
is,
The median of a
parallel
of the bases.
join
4.
to
For
parallels intercept equal parts on
191,
that
construction,
The
bisects
ezoid bisects the other leg also.

if
Also, since
middle point of DB.
AB sui& = %AB.
In the
ADBC
Fto G, the middle point of BC. Then FG is to DC

and = \DG. AB and FG, being to DC, are to each other.
But only one line can be drawn through F to AB.
There
join
II
II
II
II
fore
FG
is
the prolongation of
and DC, and
= * (AB + DC).
EF.
Hence
EFG
is
II
to
AB
65
EXERCISES.
EXERCISES.
30. The bisectors of the angles of a triangle meet in a point which
equidistant from the sides of the triangle.
and
HINT. Let the bisectors
intersect at 0.
BE
AD
Then
being in
AD
is
(Why ?) And being

is
and AB. Hence
and therefore
is
AC and
equidistant from
BE
in
is
is
AB.
equidistant from
AC
equidistant from
in the bisector CF.
(Why
BC
and BC,
?)
The perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle meet

point which is equidistant from the vertices of the
31.
in a
triangle.
HINT. Let the
Then
at 0.
and C. (Why ?)
from A and B.
is
_L bisectors
being in
And
FF
EEf and
is
being in
Hence
in the JL bisector
32.
EE/
is
DD /
intersect
is
equidistant
equidistant from
(Why?)
The perpendiculars from the
meet in a point.
HINT. Let the JL
DD
equidistant from
and
C,
and therefore
vertices of
a*
triangle to the opposite
eides
be
AH, BP, and CK.
Through A, B, C suppose B C A C
to BC, AC, AB, respectively.
drawn
f
II
AH
is
JL to
B C
f
,
AB
Then
Now ABCB and

and AB = BC, and ACT
(Why ?)
^
ACBff are Hf (why?),
= BC. (Why ?) That is, A is the middle point of B &. In the same way,
B and C are the middle points of A C and A B respectively. There
fore, AH, BP, and C!2Tare the _L bisectors of the sides of the A A B C
,
Hence they meet in a point. (Why ?)

33. The medians of a triangle meet
in a point which is two-thirds of

the distance from each vertex to the middle of the opposite side.
HINT. Let the two medians AD and CE meet in 0.

Take ,Fthe middle point of OA, and G of OC. Join
to AC
OF, FE, ED, and DO. In A AOC, OF i*
and equal to AC. (Why ?) DE is \\ioAC and equal
to %AC.
(Why ?) Hence DOPE is a O. (Why ?)
Hence AF= FO = OD, and
OE. (Why ?)
Hence, any median cuts off on any other median two-thirds of the
II
,}
CG=GO=
dis
tance from the vertex to the middle of the opposite side.

Therefore the
median from B will cut off AO, two-thirds of AD; that is, will pass
through 0.
66
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
POLYGONS IN GENERAL.
A polygon
192,
is
a plane figure bounded by

straight lines.
The bounding
lines are the sides of the

polygon,
is the
perimeter of the
sum
and
their
polygon.
The angles which the adjacent sides make with each other
are the angles of the polygon, and their vertices are the ver
tices of the polygon.
The number of sides

number of its angles.
193,
of
of a polygon
diagonal of a polygon
two angles not adjacent
as
is
evidently equal to the
a line joining the vertices
is
AC,
Fig. 1.
B
JO
D
E
Fio.
194,
FIG.
1.
An
FIG.
2.
3.
equilateral polygon
is
a polygon which has
all its
equiangular polygon
is
a polygon wh^ch has
all its
sides equal.
195,
An
angles equal.
196.
convex polygon is a polygon of which no side, when
produced, will enter the surface bounded by the perimeter.
197.
and
Each angle
is less
198.
sides,
concave polygon
when produced,
perimeter.
199,
of such a polygon
than a straight angle.
is
is
called a salient angle,
a polygon of which two or more

bounded by the
will enter the surface
Fig. 3.
The angle
FDE
is
called a re-entrant angle,
greater than a straight angle.

If the term polygon is used, a convex
polygon
is
and
meant.
is
POLYGONS.
200.
Two
67
polygons are equal when they can be divided by

number of triangles, equal each to
diagonals into the same
for the polygons can be applied

each, and similarly placed
to each other, and the corresponding triangles will evidently
;
coincide.
201.
Two
polygons are mutually equiangular,
if
the angles
of the one are equal to the angles of the other, each to each,
when taken in the same order. Figs. 1 and 2.
202, The equal angles in mutually equiangular polygons
are called homologous angles
and the sides which lie between
equal angles are called homologous sides.
;
203,
Two
polygons are mutually equilateral,
if
the sides of
the one are equal to the sides of the other, each to each,
taken in the same order. Figs. 1 and 2.
FIG.
FIG.
4.
5.
FIG.
6.
FIG.
when
7.
Two polygons may be mutually equiangular without being

mutually equilateral as, Figs. 4 and 5.
And, except in the case of triangles, two polygons may be
;
mutually equilateral without being mutually equiangular
as,
Figs. 6 and 7.
If two polygons are mutually equilateral
they are equal, for they

ao as to coincide.
may
and equiangular,
be applied the one to the other
204,
polygon of three sides is called a trigon or triangle;
one of four sides, a tetragon or quadrilateral ; one of five sides,
a pentagon; one of six sides, a hexagon; one of seven sides, a

heptagon; one of eight sides, an octagon; one of ten sides, a
decagon ; one of twelve
sides,
a dodecagon.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
68
BOOK
PROPOSITION XLIV.
205,
The
sum
I.
THEOREM.
of the interior angles of a polygon is

many times less
two right angles, taken as

equal
two as the figure has sides.
to
Let the figure ABCDEF be a polygon having n
Z.A+AB + AC, etc. = (w-2) 2 rt.A.

From the vertex A draw the diagonals
sides.
To prove
Proof,
AC, AD,
and AE.
The sum
of the
polygon.
Now
and the sum
.-.
the
of the
sum
the polygon
of the
= (n
A = the
there are (n
of the
2) 2
of the
rt.
A.
2)
of each
A,
sum
that
of the
of the
A,
A = 2 rt. A.
is,
the
sum
of the
138
A of
a E. D.
206. COR. The sum of the angles of a quadrilateral equals

two right angles taken (4
2) times, i.e., equals 4 right angles;
and if the angles are all equal, each angle is a right angle. In
n sides is
general, each angle of an equiangular polygon of
o /~
2^
equal
to
right angles.
69
POLYGONS.
XLV.
PROPOSITION
THEOREM.
207, The exterior angles of a polygon, made by pro

ducing each of its sides in succession, are together
equal to four right angles.
\
Let the figure ABODE be a polygon, having its sides
produced in succession,
To prove the sum of the ext. A = 4 rt. A.
Proof,
and the
Denote the
ext.
A by
int.
a, b,
c,
A
d,
of the
polygon by A, B,
AA + Za = 2rt.A,
Z B -f Z b = 2
and
C,
D,
JS,
e.
rt.
90
A,
(being sup.-adj. A).
In like manner each pair of

.
as
the
many
sum
of the interior
adj.
A=2
rt.
and exterior
A.
A=2
rt.
A taken
times as the figure has sides,
2 n
or,
But the
interior
A = 2 rt. A
figure has sides less two,
2 n
or,
.*.
rt.
the
=
rt.
A.
taken as
(n
2)
rt.
rt.
many
times as the
A,
A.
exterior A = 4
rt.
A.
Q.E.D.
BOOK
PLANE GEOMETRY.
70
PROPOSITION
XL VI.
I.
THEOREM.
quadrilateral which has two adjacent sides

the other two sides equal, is symmetrical
equal,
with respect to the diagonal joining the vertices of
the angles formed by the equal sides, and the diago
nals intersect at right angles.
208,
and
Let ABCD be a quadrilateral, having AB = AD, and

CB = CD, and having the diagonals AC and BD.
To prove that the diagonal
is
J_
to
the diagonal
In the
Proof,
AC is
AC=AO.
.AABCÂADC,
Z BAQ= Z DAO,
(homologous
upon
if
Hence
and
Hyp.
ABC is
AD, CB
of symmetry,
Hen.
(having three sides of the one equal
Hence,
aoris
A ABC ^d, ADC

AB = AD, and B0= DC,
and
.-.
an
BD.
and
turned on
on CD, and
OB
160
to three sides
of the other).
Z EGA = /. DCA,
of equal A).
AC
on
as an axis,
AB will
fall
OD.
Ada an axis of symmetry,
65,
and
is
J_ to
BD^
POLYGONS.
71
PROPOSITION XLVII.
THEOREM.
// a figure is symmetrical with respect to two

axes perpendicular to each other, it is symmetrical
with respect to their intersection as a centre.
209,
r
D
Let the figure ABCDEFGH be symmetrical with

respect to the two axes XX YY , which intersect at
right angles at 0.
,
To prove
the centre of symmetry of the figure.
Proof. Let
be any point in the perimeter of the
Draw
NMIL
Join
to
YY
and
IKL
LO, ON, and
to
(the figure being
61
symmetrical with respect
to
XX
).
KI= OM,
But
comprehended between
(Us
KL = OM,
.-.
and
LO
In like manner
is
180
Us
are equal).
KLOMia a O,
(having two sides equal
182
and parallel).
equal a,nd parallel to
we may prove
KM.
KI= KL,
Now
figure.
XX
KM.
179
ON equal and parallel to KM.
Hence the points L, 0, and JVare in the same straight line

drawn through the point
to KM; and LO=ON, since
II
each
.
is
equal to
any straight
.
is
KM.
line
LON, drawn through
0,
is
bisected at 0.
the centre of symmetry of the figure.
64
Q. E. D.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
72
BOOK
I.
EXERCISES.
34.
The median from the vertex
to the
base of an isosceles triangle
is
perpendicular to the base, and bisects the vertical angle.

35.
State and prove the converse.
The bisector
by producing one of
36.
37.
State
of an exterior angle of an isosceles triangle, formed

the legs through the vertex, is parallel to the base.
and prove the converse.
38.
The
39.
State
40.
The medians drawn
41.
State
42.
The
43.
State the converse
altitudes
upon the
legs of
an
isosceles triangle are equal.

to the legs of
an
(See Ex.
bisectors of the base angles of
an
33.)
and the opposite theorems.
44? The perpendiculars dropped from the middle point of the base of
an
isosceles triangle
45.
State
upon the
legs are equal.
/- 46. If one of the legs of an isosceles triangle is produced through the

vertex by its own length, the line joining the end of the leg produced to
the nearer end of the base is perpendicular to the base.
47.
Show
that the
sum
of the interior angles of a
hexagon
is
equal to
eight right angles.

48.
Show
that each angle of an equiangular pentagon
is
f of a right
angle.
49.
How many sides has an equiangular polygon, four of whose angles
are together equal to seven right angles
How
is
50.
many sides has a polygon, the
sum of its exterior angles ?
to
the
equal
51.
How many
is
double that of
is
double that of
52.
sides has a polygon, the
exterior angles
its
How many
of whose interior angles
sum
of whose interior angles
sum
of whose exterior angles
sides has a polygon, the

interior angles?
its
sum
73
EXERCISES.
53.
BAG is
a triangle having the angle
bisect the angle

54.
If from
AQ in
and meet
B double the angle A.

BD is equal to
D, show that
If
BD
AD.
any point in the base of an isosceles triangle parallels to

show that a parallelogram is formed whose perimeter
the legs are drawn,

is
constant,
and equal
to the
sum
of the legs of the triangle.
55. The lines joining the middle points of the sides of a triangle divide
the triangle into four equal triangles.
56.
The
lines joining the
middle points of the side of a square, taken
in order, enclose a square.

57. The lines joining the middle points of the sides of a rectangle,
taken in order, enclose a rhombus.
58. The lines joining the middle points of the sides of a rhombus,
taken in order, enclose a rectangle.
59.
The
lines joining the
middle points of the sides of an isosceles
trapezoid, taken in order, enclose a

60.
lateral,
61.
The
lines joining the
rhombus
or a square.
middle points of the sides of any quadri
taken in order, enclose a parallelogram.
The median of a trapezoid passes through the middle points
of
the two diagonals.
is
62. The line joining the middle points of the diagonals of a trapezoid
equal to half the difference of the bases.
HINT.
64.
Draw CE
\\
DB.
63. In an isosceles trapezoid each base makes

equal angles with the legs.
\
\
In an isosceles trapezoid the opposite angles
are supplementary.
If the angles at the base of a trapezoid
angles are equal, and the trapezoid is isosceles.
65.
are equal, the
66.
The diagonals
67.
If the diagonals of a trapezoid are equal, the
trapezoid
is
of
an
isosceles trapezoid are equal.
isosceles.
DF
HINT. Draw CE and

_L to CD.
Show that &
and BCE are equal, that & COD and AOB are
isosceles, and that A AOC and BOD are equal.
ADF
other
PLANE GEOMETRY.
74
BOOK
I.
68. ABOD is a parallelogram, E and F the middle

points of AD and
BC respectively: show that BE sand DJ^will trisect the diagonal AC.
69. If from the diagonal BD of a square ABCD, BE
cut off equal
to BO, and EF is drawn perpendicular to BD to meet DC at F, show
is
that
DE
is
equal to EF, and also to FC.
of a triangle ABC, and the

70. The bisector of the vertical angle
bisectors of the exterior angles at the base formed by producing the sides
and AC, meet in a point which is equidistant from the base and the
AB
sides produced.
71. If the two angles at the base of a triangle are bisected, and
through the point of meeting of the bisectors a line is drawn parallel to
the base, the length of this parallel between the sides is equal to the sum
of the segments of the sides between the parallel and the base.
72.
If one of the acute angles of a right triangle

is double the shortest side.
is
double the other,
the hypotenuse
73. The sum of the perpendiculars dropped from any point in the
base of an isosceles triangle to the legs is constant,
and equal to the altitude upon one of the legs.
HINT. Let
PD
and
PE
the
be the two Js,
upon AC. Draw PG

PBQ and PBD equal.
altitude
to
BF
the
BF, and prove

..
The sum of the perpendiculars dropped from any point within an

equilateral triangle to the three sides is constant, and equal to the
74.
altitude.
HINT. Draw through the point a line

75.
What
secting lines
is
II
to the base,
and apply Ex.
73.
the locus of all points equidistant from a pair of inter
In the triangle CAB the bisector of the angle C makes with the
an angle equal to half the difference of the
perpendicular from C to
angles A and E.
76.
AB
77.
is
If one angle of
equilateral.
an
isosceles triangle
is
equal to 60, the triangle
BOOK
II.
THE CIRCLE.
DEFINITIONS.
circle is a portion of a plane bounded by a curved
210,
dis
line called a circumference, all points of which are equally
within called the centre.
tant from a
point
211,
A radius is a straight
circumference
line
drawn from the
centre to the
a straight line drawn through

extremities in the circumference.
and a diameter
the centre, having its

By the definition of a
is
circle, all its radii
are equal.
diameters are equal, since the diameter is equal to

212,
secant
is
two
All
its
radii.
a straight line which intersects the circum
ference in two points
as,
AD,
Fig.
1.
line which touches the circum

tangent is a straight
it
intersect
as,
ference but does not
the
in
which
The
1.
0,
point
213,
Fig.
is
tangent touches the circumference
called the point of contact, or point of
tangency.
Two circumferences are tangent

Fia l
other when they are both taneach
to
same point; and are tangent
gent to a straight line at the
one circumference lies
or
externally, according as
internally
other.
the
without
or
within
wholly
214,
PLANE GEOMETRY.
76
BOOK
II.
An arc of a circle is any portion of the circumference.

arc equal to one-half the circumference is called a semi-
215,
An
circumference.
216,
chord
is
a straight line having
its
extremities in the
circumference.
Every
cliord subtends
ference; thus, the chord
AB
and the larger arc
spoken
of,
the less arc
is
two arcs whose sum
AB (Fig. 3)
BCDEA.
If a chord
meant unless
A segment of a circle
an
arc
and its chord.
by
217,
is
is
the circum
subtends the smaller arc
it is
and
its
arc are
otherwise stated.
a portion of a circle bounded
A segment equal to one-half the circle is called a semicircle.

A sector of a circle is a portion of the circle bounded
218,
by two
radii
and the arc which they
intercept.
A sector equal to one-fourth of the circle is called a quadrant.

219, A straight line is inscribed in a circle if it is a chord.
220, An angle is inscribed in a circle
circumference and its sides are chords.
if its
vertex
is
in the
221, An angle is inscribed in a segment if its vertex is on

the arc of the segment and its sides pass through the extrem
ities of the arc.
222, A polygon
chords of the circle.
223,
is
inscribed in
circle is inscribed in
circle
a polygon
if
if
its
sides
are
the circumference
touches the sides of the polygon but does not intersect them.
ARCS AND CHORDS.
224,
circumscribed about a circle
is
polygon
77
sides of the polygon are tangents to the circle.

225,
circle is circumscribed about a polygon
if
if all
the
the circum
ference passes through all the vertices of the polygon.

for
226, Two circles are equal if they have equal radii
if
to
the
will
coincide
one
is
other; conversely,
they
applied
;
two equal
Two
have equal radii.

are concentric if they have the same centre.
circles
circles
PROPOSITION
227,
The diameter of a
other chord;
and
THEOREM.
I.
than any
and the circum
circle is greater
bisects the circle
ference.
p
Let AB be the diameter of the circle AMBP, and
AE any other chord.
To prove
AB
>
AE, and
AB
bisects
the circle
and
the
circumference.
Proof,
From
I.
C,
the centre of the O,
draw
OR
CE^CB,
same
(being radii of the
But
(the
falls
sum
of two sides of a
>
AE,
Fold over the segment
upon
APB,
therefore the arc
because
all
A is
>
137
he third side).
Ax. 9
AB AE.
on AB as an axis until
59. The points A and B will remain fixed;
AMB will coincide with the arc APB
AC+ CB
Then
II.
circle).
AC+CE>AE,
points
or
>
A MB
in
each
are
equally distant
centre C.
Hence the two
it
figures coincide throughout
from the
210
and are equal.
59
Q.E.O.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
78
PROPOSITION
228,
II.
BOOK
II.
THEOREM.
straight line cannot intersect the circum
ference of
circle in
LetHKbe any
To prove that
more than two
points*
line cutting the circumference
HK can
AMP.
intersect the circumference in only two
points.
Proof,
If possible, let
three points If, P, and
From
HK intersect
0, the centre of the
Then
the circumference in
K,
O, draw OH, OP, and OK.
OH, OP, and
OJiTare equal,
(being radii of the same
circle).
Hence, we have three equal straight lines
drawn from the same point

is
OH, OP, and
OK
But
this
to a given straight line.
120
impossible,
(only two equal straight lines can be
Therefore,
points.
drawn from a point
to
a straight
HK can intersect the circumference
in only
line).
two
a E. a
ARCS AND CHORDS.
PROPOSITION
79
THEOREM.
III.
v^
229,
In the same
circle, or
equal
circles,
equal an
gles at the centre intercept equal arcs; CONVERSELY,

equal arcs subtend equal angles at the centre.
ABP and A B P
In the equal circles
Proof,
Apply
shall coincide with
so that Z.
B will fall
(for
OE = O R
Then
the arc
Z O -= Z V.
BS = arc IPS
O ABP to O A &P,
arc
To prove
let
upon
BS
and
08= O S
and
0*.
8 upon 8
226
being radii of equal
).
will coincide with the arc JR /S
since all points in the arcs are equidistant from the centre.
210
.
CONVERSELY
.arc
BS=&rc
Let arc RS
arc
B &.
RS
To prove
ZO = ZO
Proof, Apply O ABP to O A E F, so that arc BS shall fall
upon arc -R S B falling upon B S upon S and
upon
Then BO will coincide with B 0\ and SO with S O
.
,<0
and
coincide
and are
equal.
Q. e.
BOOK
PLANE GEOMETRY.
80
II.
PROPOSITION IV. THEOREM.

230. In the same circle, or equal circles, if two
chords are equal, the arcs which they subtend are
equal; CONVERSELY, if two arcs are equal, the chords
which subtend them are equal.
ABP and A B P
the equal circles

chord R S
In.
let chord
RS =
To prove
Draw
Proof.
In the
arc
the radii
A OBS and
B8
arc
OB, OS,
O JZ
0>B
08= the
and
Hyp.
radii
.AB08=AB
and
/S"
B8=B 8
OR
the radii
O B and
O>8
226
160
(three sides of the one being equal to three sides of the other).
229
(in equal
CONVEESELY
equal
at the centre intercept equal arcs).
RS= arc R S
chord S = chord B 8
Z =Z
Let arc
To prove
Proof.
1
.
229
subtend equal
(equal arcs in equal
and
OB
and
.
OS= O B
.AOBS=AO B 8
(having two sidos equal each

.
and
chord
to
each
and
at the centre),
226
respectively.
150
the included
B8 = chord B 8
equal).
aE
D.
ARCS AND CHORDS.
PROPOSITION V.
81
THEOREM.
231, In the same circle, or equal circles, if two arcs

are unequal, and each is less than a sewii-circumfer
ence, the greater arc is subtended by the greater
chord; CONVERSELY, the greater chord subtends the
greater are.
JC.
In the circle whose centime is

greater than the arc AMF.
0,
let the arc
To prove
chord
AB greater than chord AF.
Proof.
Draw
the radii
the radii
but
&
having two
CONVERSELY
OA
and
A AOB and AOF,
OA and OB = the radii OA and

Z AOB is greater than Z AOF.
AB
/.
(the
be
OA, OF, and OB.
Since Fis between A and B, OF will fall between

OB, and Z AOB be greater than Z A OF.
Hence, in the
AMB
equal each
sides
>
OF,
152
AF,
to each,
but the included
unequal).
Let AB be greater than AF.

arc AB greater than arc AF.
To prove
In the
A AOB and AOF,

OA and OB= OA and OF respectively.
But
AB
is
greater than
Z AOB
/.
(the
is
AF.
greater than
having two sides equal each

.
arc
OB
AB
falls
is
to each,
Z AOF, ^-
Hyp153
but the third sides unequal}.
without OF.
greater than arc
AF.
Q.E.D.
82
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
PROPOSITION VI.
THEOREM.
The radius perpendicular
232,
the chord
and
a chord
to
the arc subtended by
II.
bisects
it.
^_
Let AB be the chord, and let the radius OS be per

pendicular to
AB
at M.
AM= BM, and arc AS = arc BS.
To prove
Proof,
Draw
In the
rt.
OA
and
OB
from 0, the centre of the
circle.
A OA M and OB M
the radius
OA = the
radius
OB,
and OM = OM.
.\AOAM=AOBM,
(having the hypotenuse
and a
side of one equal to the hypotenuse

side of the other).
/.
(equal
233,
COR.
Hen.
161
and a
AM= BM,
229
.*,TGAS=&Tc8,
at the centre intercept equal arcs on the circumference).

Q.E.D.
1.
The perpendicular
middle of a
For the centre is
erected at the
chord passes through the centre of the circle.

from the extremities of a chord,
and is therefore in
equidistant
122
the perpendicular erected at the middle of the chord.
234,
chord
235,
COR.
The perpendicular erected
2.
at the
middle of
bisects the arcs of the chord.
COR.
The
3.
parallel chords
is
locus of the middle points of
a system of
the diameter perpendicular to them.
ARCS AND CHORDS.
PROPOSITION VII.
83
THEOREM.
236, In the same circle, or equal circles, equal

chords are equally dislant from the centre ; AND
CONVERSELY.
Let AB and OF be equal chords of the circle ABFC.

To prove A 13 and CF equidistant from the centre 0.
Proof,
Draw
OP to AB, OH. to OF, and join OA and OC.

OP and OH bisect AB and CF,
232
(a radius
Hence,
in the
rt.
_l_
to
a chord
bisects
AP=CH,
OA = the radius
A OPA - A OHC,
the radius
.-.
(having a side
and hypotenuse
.
COJTVEBSELY
Proof,
In the
the radius
Let OP =
To prove
rt.
00.
161
and hypotenuse
OP = OH.
equidistant from 0.
OH.
AB = CF.
A OPA and OHO
OA = the
/.
Ax. 7
of the one equal to a side

of the other).
AB and OF are
.*.
it).
A OPA and OHO
radius 0(7, and
OP= OH,
A OPA and OJffC are equal.

AP= OH.
Hyp.
161
/.
CF.
Ax
C.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
84
BOOK
II.
THEOREM.
PROPOSITION VIII.
237, In the same circle, or equal circles, if two

chords are unequal, they are unequally distant from
the. centre, and the greater is at the less distance.
In the circle whose centre is 0, let the chords AB

and CD be unequal, and AB the greater; and let OE
and OF be perpendicular to AB and CD respectively.
OE
To prove
Proof,
Suppose
AO drawn
same
OF.
equal to CD, and
OR JL to
AG.
OH= OF,
Then
(in the
<
236
two equal chords are equidistant from the
centre).
Join Elf.
OE and OH
AB and
bisect
(a radius A.
a chord
AG,
bisects
232
respectively,
it).
AB
A G,
CD
or its equal
is
greater than
by hypothesis,
the half of AB, is greater than AH, the half of AG.
Since,
AE,
to
the
(the greater of
AHE
is
greater than the
two sides of a
has the greater
Z AEH,
Z
opposite to
158
it).
Z ORE, the complement of the Z AHE,

Z OEH, the complement of the Z AEH.
Therefore, the
less
than the
(the greater of two

.
of a
.OE<
OE
A
<
159
OH,
has the greater side opposite
OF, the equal
is
of
to it).
OH.
Q.E.Q
ARCS AND CHORDS.
THEOREM.
PROPOSITION IX.
238,
cles,
CONVERSELY
In the same
85
circle, or
if two chords are unequally distant
centre, they are
distance
is
equal cir
from the
unequal, and the chord at the
less
the greater.
In the circle whose centre is 0, let AB and CD be

unequally distant from 0; and let OE perpendicular
to AB be less than OF perpendicular to CD.
AB
To prove
Proof,
Suppose
AG drawn
Then
(in the
sameQ
equal to CD, and
OH= OF,
OE
(the greater of two sides of a
Therefore, the
236
<
centre).
OH.
EH.
Join
A OEHfhe Z OHE
greater than the
OH _L to AG.
two equal chords are equidistant from the
Hence,
In the
CD.
>
is
less
than the
has the greater
Z.
Z OEH,
opposite to
158
it).
Z A HE, the complement of the Z OHE,

Z A EH, the complement of the Z OEH
.
(the greater of two
of a
AE
A
>
AH,
has the greater side opposite
is
159
to it).
AE=\AB, and AH=%AQ.

CD, the equal of AG.
.\AB>AG; hence AB
But
>
Q. E. D.
86
BOOK
PROPOSITION X.
THEOREM.
II.
a radius at
straight line perpendicular to

is a tangent to the circle.
A.
239,
its
PLANE GEOMETRY.
extremity
M-
Let
MB
MB tangent
To prove
Proof,
be perpendicular to the radius OA at
From
to
draw any other
A.
the circle.
line to
MB,
as
OCH.
114
OH>OA,
(a JL
the shortest line from
is
a point
to
straight line).
the point ZTis without the circle.
MB
Hence, every point, except A, of the line

is a
circle, and therefore
tangent to the
MB
is
without the
circle at
213
A.
Q. E. D.
COR.
240,
radius
1.
drawn
tangent
to
circle is
the point of contact.

to the circle at A, every point of
the circle.
is
to
Hence,
OA
is
perpendicular
For,
if
MB
is
to
the
tangent
without
MB, except A, is
to MB, and
the shortest line from
therefore perpendicular to
MB
114)
that
is,
MB
is
per
pendicular to OA.
241, COR. 2.
perpendicular to a tangent at the point of

For a radius is
contact passes through the centre of the circle.
perpendicular to a tangent at the point of contact, and there
fore,
by
89, a perpendicular erected at the point of contact

and passes through the centre.
coincides with this radius

242,
circle
COR.
3.
perpendicular
upon a tangent
contact.
to
let
fall
from
the centre of
the circle passes through the point of
ARCS AND CHORDS.
THEOREM.
PROPOSITION XI.
Parallels
243,
87
intercept equal arcs on
a circum
ference.
F
FIG.
FIG.
1.
2.
Let AB and CD be the two parallels.

CASE I. When AB is a tangent, and CD a
Suppose
arc
OF
FF
Suppose
AB at F
This J. to
.%
to
arc
a chord
DF.
arc
drawn
AB.
J_ to
CD.
CF= arc
bisects the
102
232
DF,
chord and
its
subtended arc).
FCF = arc FDF

.a,Tc(FCF -FC) = a,rc(FDF
arc OF = arc DF
that
CASE II. When AB and CD are secants. Fig. 2.
Suppose JEF drawn to CD and tangent to the circle
Also, arc
241
a diameter of the circle.
is
It is also _L to
(a radius A.
1.
Fig.
AB touches the circle at F.
To prove
Proof.
secant.
227
82
-FI>),
is,
11
at
M.
arc AM = arc BM
Then
Case
arc CM = arc DMand
= arc BD.
/.by subtraction, arc AC
CASE III. When AB and CD are tangents. Fig. 3.
Suppose AB tangent at E, CD at F, and GH to AB.
Case
arc OE = arc EH
Then
arc OF = arc
and
I.
II
.-.
by
addition,
arc
EQF= arc
^.ZTF.
I.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
88
BOOK
II.
THEOREM.
PROPOSITION XII.
Through three points not in a straight

and only one, can be drawn.
244,
line,
one circumference,
Let A, B, C be three points not in a straight line.

To prove that a circumference can be drawn through A, B,
and
(7,
and only
one.
AB and BO.
At the middle points of AB and BC suppose
Join
Proof,
Since
sect in
BC
is
not the prolongation of
AB,
_I
erected.
these J will inter
some point 0.
The point
0, being in the J_ to
AB
at its middle point,
is
equidistant from A and B\ and being in the J_ to J5(7at its

and C,
122
middle point, is equidistant from
(every point in the perpendicular -bisector of a straight line is equidistant

from the extremities of the straight line).
Therefore
is
equidistant from A, B, and C; and a cir

as a centre, with a radius OA,
cumference described from
through the three given points.

circumference can be made to pass through
one
Only
For the centre of a circumference passing
these points.
through the three points must be in both perpendiculars, and
will pass
As two
hence at their intersection.
straight lines can inter
the centre of the only circumfer

the
three given points.
ence that can pass through
Q E D
sect in only one point,
is
245,
points.
COR.
For,
Two
if
circumferences can intersect in only two

two circumferences have three points common,
they coincide and form one circumference.
TANGENTS,
89
PROPOSITION XIII.
246,
The tangents
to
THEOREM.
circle
drawn from an
rior point are equal, and make equal angles

the line joining the point to the centre.
exte
with
B.
c
Let AB and AC be tangents from A to the
whose centre is 0, and AO the line joining A to
To prove
AB = AC,
AB
(a tangent to
In the
rt.
is
Z BAO = Z
OB and 00.
and
Draw
Proof,
_L to
radius
drawn
0.
CAO.
AC _L to
OB, and
circle is _L to the
circle
240
OC,
to the
point of contact).
A OAB and OAC

OB=OC,
(radii of the
same
circle).
OA = OA.
.-.A OAB = A OAC
Iden.
(having a side
and hypotenuse
of the one equal to a side

of thz other).
Z BAO = Z
and
CAO.
Q. E. D.
247, DEF. The line joining the centres of

called the line of centres.
248,
DEF.
common
tres,
common tangent
exterior tangent
and a common
centres.
when
it
161
and hypotenuse
to
two
two
-circles
circles is called
is
does not cut the line of cen
interior tangent
when
it
cuts the line of
90
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
PROPOSITION XIV.
249,
II.
THEOREM.
If two circumferences intersect each other, the

perpendicular to their common
line of centres is
chord at
middle
its
point.
Let C and C be the centres of two circumferences

which intersect at A and B. Let AB be their common
chord, and CC join their centres.
CO
To prove
_L to
AB at
its
middle point.
drawn through the middle

passes through the centres C and (7
Proof.
_L
of the chord
AB
233
(a _L erected at the middle of a chord passes through the centre of the O).
/.
the line
(7(7
having two points in common with
must coincide with

/.
Ex.
centres
(i.)
(ii.)
(iii.)
78.
CO
this _L,
it.
is
_L to
AB at its middle point.
Describe the relative position of two circles
if
Q.E. D.
the line of
is
greater than ^he
is
equal to the
is
(iv.) is
less
sum
sum
of the radii
of the radii
than the sum but greater than the difference of the radii
equal to the difference of the radii
(v.) is less
than the difference of the
Illustrate each case
by
a figure.
radii.
91
TANGENTS.
PROPOSITION XV.
THEOREM.
250, If two circumferences cure tangent to each other,

the line of centres passes through the point of contact.
Let the two circumferences, whose centres are C

and C touch each other at 0, in the straight line AB,
and let CO be the straight line joining their centres.
,
To prove
in the straight line
is
CO
_L to AB, drawn through the point 0, passes

241
the
centres C and C
through
a
at
the
JL
to
contact
the
centre
(a
tangent
point of
passes through
Proof,
of the
.
the line
CO
must coincide with
having two points in common with
Ex.
this _L
it.
is
.*.
chord
circle).
in the straight line
CO
1
.
Q. E. D.
The line joining the centre of a circle to the middle of a

perpendicular to the chord.
79.
is
Ex.
80.
The tangents drawn through the extremities of a diameter
are parallel.
Ex.
81.
The perimeter
of an inscribed equilateral triangle
is
equal
to half the perimeter of the circumscribed equilateral triangle.
Ex.
lateral
82.
is
The sum
of
equal to the
two opposite
sum
sides of a circumscribed quadri
of the other
two
sides.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
92
BOOK
II.
MEASUREMENT.
To measure a quantity
251,
times
it
of
any kind
is
to find
how many
known
contains another
Thus, to measure a line
is
quantity of the same kind.

to find how many times it con
known line, called the linear unit.

The number which expresses how many times
tains another
a quantity
contains the unit-quantity, is called the numerical measure
of that quantity
as, 5 in 5 yards.
;
The magnitude
252,
of a quantity
magnitude
of another quantity of the
is
always
same
kind.
relative to the
No
quantity
This relative magni

great or small except by comparison.
tude is called their ratio, and is expressed by the indicated
is
quotient of their numerical measures
measure
The
when
the same unit of
applied to both.
is
ratio of
to b
written
is
-,
or
b.
Two
253,
common
quantities that can be expressed in integers in

The
unit are said to be commensurable.
common
terms of a
unit
is
called a
common measure, and

common measure.
each quantity
called a multiple of this
is
common measure
Thus, a
foot,
which
feet.
3|
foot,
3f
2J
feet
254,
is
Hence, 2^
and 3f feet is of a
and 22 times in
2-J- feet,
of 2J feet
contained 15 times in
-J-
and 3f feet are multiples of of a

by taking % of a foot 15 times, and
a foot 22 times.
feet
-J-
feet being obtained
by taking %
of
When two
have no common
quantities are incommensurable, that is,

unit in terms of which both quantities can be
expressed in integers,
it
is
impossible to find a fraction that
will indicate the exact value of the ratio of the given quanti
ties.
It is possible,
however, by taking the unit sufficiently

from the true value
small, to find a fraction that shall differ

of the ratio
by
as little as
we
please.
93
RATIO.
Thus, suppose a and b to denote two
lines,
V5= 1.41421356
Now
but
such that
.....
.-
a value greater than 1.414213,
than 1.414214.
less
then, a millionth part of b be taken as the unit, the value
If,
of the ratio
lies
and there-
and
between
from either of these fractions by less than

carrying the decimal farther, a fraction may be found
fore differs
By
that will differ from the true value of the ratio by less than a
billionth, a trillionth, or any other assigned value whatever.
Expressed generally, when a and b are incommensurable,
and
divided into any integral number
is
(ri)
of equal parts,
one of these parts is contained in a more than

less than
-f 1 times, then
if
m times,
but
n
that
is,
the value of %
lies
between
The
-
error, therefore, in
is less
than
-.
made
to
and
taking either of these values for
But by increasing n
decrease indefinitely,
and
to
indefinitely.
become
assigned value, however small, though

absolutely equal
w+
it
- can be
than any
cannot be made
less
to zero.
Hence, the ratio of two incommensurable quantities cannot

be expressed exactly by figures, but it may be expressed ap
proximately within any assigned measure of precision.
255,
The
ratio of
an incommensurable
its
two incommensurable quantities is called

ratio ; and is a fixed value toward which
successive approximate values constantly tend.
BOOK
PLANE GEOMETRY.
94
THEOKEM. Two incommensurable
256.
when
measure
the unit of
is indefinitely
II.
ratios are
equal
if,
diminished, their ap
proximate values constantly remain equal.

Let a b and a
values
when
b be
two incommensurable
between the approximate values
lie
the unit of measure
is
much
as
thev cannot
Now
and a
differ so
is
if
is
d has any
value, however small, -, which
n
diminished, can be made
a b
:
=a
1
:
by hypoth-
less
d cannot have any value;

is,
no difference between the ratios a b and a
that
Therefore
fore
n
Then
indefinitely diminished.
d<-.
can be indefinitely
there
and
a
(if any) between the fixed values
a fixed value. Let d denote this difference.
Then
esis
whose true
the difference
:
But
ratios
than
d
:
0,
d.
and
there
1
.
THE THEORY OF
LIMITS.
257, When a quantity is regarded as having a/zec? value

but
throughout the same discussion, it is called a constant;
conditions
under
the
when it is regarded,
imposed upon it, as
having
it is called a variable.
different successive values,
it can be shown that the value of a variable, measured
When
by continuing the series

a given constant by less than any
however small, but cannot be made abso
at a series of definite intervals, can
be
made
to differ from
assigned quantity,
is called the limit
lutely equal to the constant, that constant
of the variable, and the variable is said to approach indefi
nitely to its limit.
If the variable is increasing, its limit is called a superior
limit
if
decreasing, an inferior limit.
THEORY OF
LIMITS.
Suppose a point to move from

ditions that the first
second
it
shall
95
toward B, under the con
M?
tr
move
one-half the distance from
to
B, that
is,
to
M;
the next
second, one-half the remaining distance, that is, to

next second, one-half the remaining distance, that is, to
the
M"
and so on indefinitely.
Then it is evident that the moving point may approach as
near to
as we please, but will never arrive at B.
For, how
ever near
may
it
be to
at
any
instant, the next second
it
it must,
will pass over one-half the interval still remaining
therefore, approach nearer to B, since half the interval still
;
remaining
is
some distance, but
will not reach
B, since half
remaining is not the whole distance.

Hence, the distance from A to the moving point
the interval
still
is
an in
creasing variable, which indefinitely approaches the constant

as its limit ; and the distance from the moving point to
is a
decreasing variable, which indefinitely approaches the
AB
B
constant zero as
its limit.
If the length of
denoted by
limit,
by v
x,
AB
and the
is
two inches, and the variable

and
difference between the variable
after one second,
after
two seconds,
= 1,
=1+
= 1 -f
x
a?
=1
v = ^\
^ = ^
v = %\
v
-J,
after three seconds,
a?
after four seconds,
#=l-}-^-f-^-|--J-,
and
is
its
-J-
-f
-J-,
so on indefinitely.
+ + +
Now
the sum of the series 1

etc., is less than
J
but by taking a great number of terms, the sum can be
made to differ from 2 by as little as we please. Hence 2 is
-j-,
the limit of the
sum
of the series,
when
increased indefinitely and

ference between this variable sum and
terms
is
is
2.
the
number
of the
the limit of the dif
96
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
Consider the repetend 0.33333
TG + dhr
II.
which may be written
+ nflnr + ydhnr +
However great the number of terms of this series we take,

sum of these terms will be less than
but the more
terms we take the nearer does the sum
Hence
approach
the sum of the series, as the number of terms is increased,
the
approaches indefinitely the constant
as a limit.
In the right triangle ACE, if the vertex

the base BO, the angle
258.
indefinitely
diminishes,
nitely
if
and
zero
approaches
the vertex
A approaches
indefi
moves away from
the base indefinitely, the angle
increases
and approaches a right angle indefinitely

but
cannot become zero or a right angle,
;
so long as
comes
A OB is
a triangle
for if
be
BC
becomes the straight line

and if
becomes a right angle, the triangle becomes two parallel
zero, the triangle
AC&ud AB perpendicular to BO.

B must lie between and 90 as limits.
lines
Hence the value
of
BOD inscribed in a circle,

Again, suppose a square
the middle points of the arcs subtended by
the sides of the square.
If we draw
259.
and E, F, H,
the straight lines AE, EB, BF, etc.,

we shall have an inscribed polygon of
double the number of sides of the
K[
square.
The length
polygon,
lines,
is
of the perimeter of this
represented
by the dotted
greater than
that
of
the
square, since two sides replace each

side of the square and form with it a triangle, and two sides
of a triangle are together greater than the third side; but less
than the length of the circumference, for
it
is
made up
of
THEORY OF
which
straight lines, each one of
circumference between
its
97
LIMITS.
is
less
than the part of the
extremities.
By continually repeating the process of doubling the num

ber of sides of each resulting inscribed figure, the length of
the perimeter will increase with the increase of the number
but it cannot become equal to the length of the cir
cumference, for the perimeter will continue to be made up of
straight lines, each one of which is less than the part of the
of sides
circumference between
The length
its
extremities.
of the circumference
is
therefore the limit of the
length of the perimeter as the number of sides of the inscribed

figure is indefinitely increased.
260,
THEOREM. If two variables are constantly equal

limit, their limits are equal.
and each approaches a
A:
________^^
N ~~
~C
Let
AM
and
AN
be two variables which are con
stantly equal and which approach indefinitely

and AC respectively as limits.
AB = AC.
If possible, suppose AB
AC,
AB
To prove
AD = AC.
Then the variable AMm&y assume values between AD and
Proof,
AB,
But
while
>
t*he
variable
always be
less
than
AD.
this is contrary to the hypothesis that the variables should
continue equal.
.*.
In the same way

.
AN must
and take
it
AB cannot be
>
AC.
may be proved that
AB and AC are two values
than the other.
Hence
AC cannot be
neither of which
AB = AC.
is
>AB.
greater
PLANE GEOMETRY.
98
BOOK
II.
MEASURE OF ANGLES.
PROPOSITION XVI.
THEOREM.
261. In the same circle, or equal circles, two angles

at the centre have the same ratio as their intercepted
arcs.
CASE
I.
When
the arcs are commensurable.
In the circles whose centres are G and D, let ACB and

EDF be the angles, AB and EF the intercepted arcs.
Z AOB =
~ arc AB
Z.EDF arc EF
To prove
m be a common measure of AB and EF.

Suppose m to be contained in AB seven times,
and in EF four times.
arc AB __1
Then
(1)
4
arc EF
At the several points of division on AB and EF draw radii.
Proof.
Let
These radii will divide

.
EDF into four parts,

(in the
From
same O, or equal
(1)
and
<D,
/.
ACB
into
seven parts, and
229
equal each to each,

equal arcs subtend equal
EDF
EDF
arc
at the centre).
(2)
(2),
EF
MEASURE OF ANGLES.
CASE
II.
When
99
the arcs are incommensurable.
In the equal circles ABP and A B P* let the angles

intercept the incommensurable arcs
ACB and A C S
AB and A B
Z ACB
AB
______
arc
To prove
AB
into any number of equal parts, and

Divide
as many
these
one
of
parts as a unit of measure to A
apply
times as it will be contained in A
Proof,
Since
AB and AB
DB
are incommensurable, a certain number

to some point, as D, leav
of these parts will extend from
ing a remainder
less
than one of these parts.
Draw C D.
Since
AB and A D are commensurable,

Z ACB arc AB
A C D arc A D
Case
I.
If the unit of measure is indefinitely diminished, these ratios

continue equal, and approach indefinitely the limiting ratios
Z AGE
ACB
Z.
and
arc
arc
AB
AB
^,-^fr
1260
.
(If two variables are constantly equal, and each approaches a limit, their
limits are equal.)
Q.I.Q.
BOOK
PLANE GEOMETRY.
100
II.
like the angular magnitude about

into
360
divided
a point,
equal parts, called degrees. The
is subdivided into 60 equal parts, called minutes ;
arc-degree
and the minute into 60 equal parts, called seconds.
262,
The circumference,
is
Since an angle at the centre has the same number of anglethe intercepted arc has of arcdegrees, minutes, and seconds as
and seconds, we say
degrees, minutes,
An
angle at the centre
measured by its intercepted arc ; meaning, An angle at the

centre is such a part of the whole angular magnitude about
is
the centre as
its
intercepted arc
is
of the whole circumference.
THEOREM.
PROPOSITION XVII.
An inscribed angle is measured by one-half

arc
the
intercepted between its sides.
263,
CASE I. When one side of the angle is a diameter.

In the circle PAB (Fig. 1), let the centre C be in
one of the sides of the inscribed angle B.
To prove
/.
B is measured by J arc PA.

Draw CA.
Proof.
CA = radius
Eadius
.\Z.B =
CB.
154
A,
(being opposite equal sides of the
PCA = Z
But
(the exterior
Z of a A
Z PCA
But
(the
is
at the centre
.
./.
to the
equal
is
sum
CAB).
+ Z.A,
measured by PA,
is
.145
of the two opposite interior A).
measured by
measured by
the intercepted arc).
PA.
262
MEASURE OF
CASE
When
II.
To prove
>,
\i
J.Q1
\>>\
the centre is within the angle.
In the circle BAE (Fig.

within the angle EBA.
Z EBA
Proof,
AJKiLIJSI
let the centre
2),
fall
EA.
is
measured by
-J
Draw
the diameter
EGP.
arc
Z PEA is measured by \ arc PA,

Z PBE is measured by arc PE,
/. Z PEA + Z PEE is measured by \ (arc PA + arc
or Z EBA is measured by
arc -ZL4.
Case
I.
Case
I.
PE),
-|
CASE
When
III.
the centre is without the angle.
In the circle BFP (Fig. 3), let the centre C fall

without the angle ABF.
To prove Z
is measured by -J arc AF.
ABF
Draw
Proof,
the diameter
BOP.
Z PEF is measured by \ arc PF,

Z PEA is measured by \ arc PA.
./. PEF-/. PEA is measured
by
(arc PF~ arc
or Z AEF is measured by
arc AF.
-J-
Case
I.
Case
I.
P^4),
Q.E.D.
FIG.
264,
1.
FIG.
2.
FIG.
3.
An
COR.
1.
For
it is
angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right

measured by one-half a semi-circumference.
COR. 2. An angle inscribed in a
segment greater than a
semicircle is an acute angle. For it is measured
by an arc less
angle.
265,
than half a semi-circumference

266,
COR.
semicircle is
3.
an
An
as,
Z CAD.
obtuse angle.
For
it
greater than half a semi-circumference

267,
equal.
Fig. 2.
angle inscribed in a segment

is
;
less than a
measured by an arc
as,
Z GBD.
Fig. 2.
All angles inscribed in the sam.e

segment are
For they are measured by half the same arc.
Fig. 3.
COR.
4.
*LANE GfEQMETRY.
102
PROPOSITION XVIII.
BOOK
II.
THEOREM.
268, An angle formed ~by two chords intersecting

within the circumference is measured by one-half
the sum of the intercepted arcs.
Let the angle AOC be formed by the chords AB

and CD.
Z AOC is measured by %(AC+ BD).
To prove
Draw AD.
Proof,
(the exterior
of a
Z.COA = /.D + Â,

A is equal to the sum of the two
145
opposite interior A}.
Z D is measured by % arc AC,

Z A is measured by % arc BD,
But
and
(an inscribed
,-.Z
COA
Z. is
is
measured by %
measured by \
263
(AC+ BD).
Q.E.D.
Ex.
83.
The opposite angles
of
an inscribed quadrilateral are sup
plements of each other.

Ex. 84. If through a point within a circle two perpendicular chords
are drawn, the sum of the opposite arcs which they intercept is equal to
a semi-circumference.
Ex.
85.
The
line joining the centre of the square described
upon the
of the rt. Z, bisects the right angle.

hypotenuse of a rt. A, to the vertex
HINT. Describe a circle upon the hypotenuse as diameter.
MEASURE OF ANGLES.
PROPOSITION XIX.
103
THEOREM.
269, An angle formed by a tangent and a chord

measured by one-half the intercepted arc.
is
ill-
MAH
the angle formed by the tangent
fee
MO
and chord AH.

To prove
Z MAH is measured by J arc A EH.

Draw
Proof.
the diameter
ACF.
Z MAFiszrt.
(the radius drawn
MAF being
ference
240
Z,
a tangent at the point of contact
Z,
rt.
is
measured by
is JL to it).
the semi-circum
AEF.
Z HAF is
But
(an inscribed
.%
to
-is
measured by J arc
measured by % the intercepted
Z MAF-/. HAF is measured

or
MAH
is
by
measured by
263
HF,
arc).
(AEF- HF)
A EH.
Q. E. D.
Ex.
86.
If
two
circles
touch each other and two secants are drawn
through the point of contact, the chords joining their extremities are
HINT. Draw the common tangent.
parallel.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
104
PROPOSITION
BOOK
XX.
II.
THEOREM.
An angle formed by two secants, two tangents,

a tangent and a secant, intersecting without the
circumference, is measured by one-half the difference
270,
or
of the intercepted arcs.
FIG.
CASE
I.
1.
Angle formed by two
Let the angle

cants OA and OB.
To prove
(Fig. 1)
secants.
be formed by the two se
measured by
is
AB
EC).
Draw CB.
Proof,
ÂCB = Z.O + Z.B,

(the exterior
By
taking
of a
A is
away
equal
ZB
Z AGE
But
(an inscribed
.-.
Z. is
is
sum
from both
is
Z B is
and
to the
145
of the two opposite interior A).
sides,
measured by \
AB,
measured by \ OE,
measured by $
measured by
%(AB
CE\
263
MEASURE OF ANGLES.
CASE
Angle formed by two
II.
Let the angle

gents OA and OB.
To prove
tangents.
formed by the two tan
(Fig. 2) be
measured by
is
105
-|
(AMJ3
ASH).
Draw AB.
Proof.
OAB,
Z
(the exterior
By
of a
A is
sum
equal to the
of the
Z OAB from both
taking away
145
two opposite interior A}.
sides,
Z ABO is measured by AMB,

Z OAB is measured by % ASB,
But
269
-J-
and
(an Z formed by a tangent and a chord is measured by

.
CASE
measured by 1 (A
is
the intercepted arc}.
ASB).
Angle formed by a tangent and a
III.
Let the angle
OA.
measured by %
is
secant.
formed by the tangent
(Fig. 3) be
OB and the secant

To prove
MB
Draw
Proof.
(ADS
CES).
OS.
ZACS=ZO + ZCSO,
(the exterior
By
Z of a A is
taking
away
equal
to the
sum
Z GSO from both
Z ACS is measured
But
(being
Z CSO is
and
(being
.
an
sides,
by |
ADS,
263
inscribed Z),
measured by
$CES,
an /.formed by a tangent and a

is
145
of the two opposite interior A}.
measured by
%(ADS
269
chord).
CES).
Q.E.D.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
106
BOOK
II.
PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION.
XXL
PROPOSITION
At a given point in a
271.
perpendicular to that
PROBLEM.
straight line, to erect a
line.
HOB
FIG.
I.
Let
To
erect
JS\ ________ ,-- B

FIG.
1.
be the given point in AC. (Fig.

a A.
to the line
From
Construction,
AC at the point
2.
1).
0.
as a centre, with
any radius OB,
AC
describe an arc intersecting

in two points 77 and B.
From .ZTand
as centres, with equal radii greater than
OB,
describe
Then the
two arcs intersecting
OR is the _L
line
R.
and
are two points
Since
and B, they determine the position
Proof.
7?"
at
the line
HE at
its
at equal distances from

of a perpendicular to
middle point 0.
123
II.
When the given point is at the end of the
Let B be the given point. (Fig. 2).
To
erect
a J_
Construction,
to
the line
without
AB
and from
as a radius, describe an arc
AB at E.
it
to
meet the arc again at D.
BD the J_ required.
The Z. B inscribed in a semicircle, and
BD, and
Proof.
O
CB
Take any point
Draw EC, and prolong

Join
line.
AB at B.
as a centre, with the distance
intersecting
OR.
Join
required.
is
is
is
therefore
264
a right angle.
Hence
BD
is
_L to
AB.
o. E F
.
PROBLEMS.
107
PKOPOSITION XXII.
PROBLEM.
From a point without a straight

a perpendicular upon that line.
272,
fail
line, to let
--.
,.,
Let AB be the given straight line, and C the given

point without the line.
To
let fall
_L to the line
From C
Construction,
AB from the point
as a centre, with a radius sufficiently
great, describe an arc cutting
From .ZTand
Q.
AB in two points,
.5"
and K.
\HK,
describe two arcs intersecting at 0.
Draw CO,
and produce
CM
Proof, Since
C and
is
it
to
meet
AB
at
the _L required.
are two points equidistant from

at its middle point.
K) they determine a _L to
HK
______
NOTE.
Given lines of the figures are
long-dotted,
and auxiliary
M.
full lines,
lines are short-dotted.
J?"and
123
Q. E.
F.
resulting lines are
108
273,
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
PROPOSITION XXIII.
PROBLEM.
To bisect a given straight
Let AB be the given straight

To
bisect the line
Construction,
greater than
line.
line.
AB.
From
AB,
II.
and
as centres, with equal radii
describe arcs intersecting at
C and
E.
Join GE.
Then the
line
GE bisects AB.
Proof, G and
are two points equidistant from A and B.
Hence they determine a J_ to the middle point of AB.
123
Q.E.
Ex. 87. To find in a given line a point

tant from two given points.
F.
X which shall be equidis
which shall be equidistant from two

To find a point
from a third given point.
distance
and
at
a
given
given points
Ex.
88.
Ex. 89. To find a point

two given points.
Ex.
90.
To
given points.
find a point
X which
X
shall be at given distances from
which shall be equidistant from three
PKOBLEMS.
PROPOSITION
XXIV. PROBLEM.
a given
arc.
Let ACS be the given
arc.
274,
To
To
bisect
bisect the
arc
ACB.
Draw
Construction,
From
AB,
and
109
AB.
the chord
describe arcs intersecting at
D and E,
Draw DE.
Proof,
Since
DE bisects the arc ACB.

D and E are two points equidistant from A
and B, they determine a
_L erected at the middle of chord
AB.
123
And a _L erected at the middle of a chord passes through

the centre of the O, and bisects the arc of the chord.
234
Q.E.F.
Ex.
91.
To construct a
circle
having a given radius and passing
through two given points.
To construct a circle having

passing through two given points.
Ex.
92.
its
centre in a given line and
PLANE GEOMETRY.
110
To
275,
PKOPOSITION
XXV.
a given
angle.
bisect
BOOK
II.
PROBLEM.
Let AEB be the given angle.

To Used Z AEB.
E as
From
Construction.
a centre, with any radius, as
describe an arc cutting the sides of the
From
and
E at A and
EA,
B.

to B, describe two arcs inter
one-half the distance from
secting at C.
Join EC, AC, and EG.
Proof,
and
In
EC bisects the Z E.
the A AEC an& BEG
AE = BE, and AG= BC,
EC = EC.
.-.A AEC^&BEC,
(having three sides equal each
.-.
Cons.
Men.
160
to each).
Z AEG =Z. BEG.

Q. E.
Ex.
93.
To divide a
Ex.
94.
To construct an
Ex.
95.
To
F.
right angle into three equal parts.
find a point
equilateral triangle, having given one side.
X which shall be equidistant from two given
points and also equidistant from two given intersecting lines.
PROBLEMS.
PROPOSITION
Ill
XXVI.
PROBLEM.
At a given point in a given straight

an angle equal to a given angle.
276,
line, to
construct
Let C be the given point in the given line CM, and

A the given angle.
To construct an
Construction,
/. at
From
equal
to the Z.
as a centre, with
describe an arc cutting the sides of the
From O as a
any radius, as
at
and F.
HCm
/.
(in equal
arc
(in equal
triangle.
Hm are equal.
Cons.
Hm,
230
.ZC=ZA,
229
equal arcs subtend equal
draw
in
DB + EC.
If an interior point
C, the angle
and
the required angle.
EF= arc
Ex. 96. In a triangle ABC,

ting the sides of the triangle
97.
EF,
HG at m.
equal chords subtend equal arcs).

.
is
The chords jEFand
Proof,
Ex.
AE,
as a centre, with a radius equal to the distance
Draw Cm, and
AE,
CM at H.
describe an arc intersecting the arc
tices
ZA
centre, with a radius equal to
describe an arc cutting
From
A.
BOG
Q. E.
F.
DE parallel to the base BC, cut

and E so that DE shall equal
t
of a triangle
is
at the centre}.
ABC
is
joined to the ver
of the
greater than the angle
BAG
PLANE GEOMETRY.
112
XXVII.
PROPOSITION
Two angles of a
277,
BOOK
II.
PROBLEM.
triangle being given, to find
the third angle.
Let A and B be the two given angles of a

To find the third
Construction,
triangle.
of the A.
Take any straight
line,
as JEF,
and at any
point, as If,
construct
and
Then
Proof.
Z a equal
Zb
sum
since
the third
two
A of
of the
the
Z A,
276
Z B.
Z required.
of the three
and the sum of the three
and
equal to
Z. c is the
Since the
to
A a,
b,
of a
and
A = 2 rt. A,
2
c,
are equal to the
will be equal to the
rt.
138
92
A\
A a and b,
c.
Ax.
3.
Q. E.
Ex.
to 37
F.
In a triangle ABC, given angles A and B, equal respectively

13 32" and 41 17 56". Find the value of angle C.
98.
H3
PROBLEMS.
PROPOSITION XXVIII. PROBLEM.
Through a given point, to draw a straight

a given straight line.
278,
line
parallel to
D
Let AB be the given
line,
To draw through the point
the point
Then
C construct
Z.
FCHis
the line
\\
the
to
.\HFia
(when two straight
lines,
II
to
AB.
Z EDB.
ECF= Z EDB.
276
AB.
Z ECF= Z EDB.
Proof.
point.
line parallel to the line
Draw DOE, making
Construction,
At
and C the given
A3,
Cons.
108
lying in the same plane, are cut by a third straight

line, if the ext.-int.
Q.E.F.
Ex.
99.
To
also equidistant
find a point
X equidistant
from two given parallel
from two given points and
lines.
Ex. 100. To find a point

equidistant from two given intersecting
and also equidistant from two given parallels.
lines
PLANE GEOMETRY.
114
BOOK
II.
XXIX. PROBLEM.
PROPOSITION
To divide a given straight line into equal
279,
parts.
-0
Let AB be the given straight

To divide
AB into equal parts.

A
From
Construction,
Take any convenient

times as the line
From
II
line.
AB
is
draw the
length,
and apply
or
(if three
more
A C is
\\s
to
it
AO
as
many
AO,
as
(7,
draw CB.
AO
draw
lines
AB into equal parts.

divided into equal parts, AB
also,
187
Through the several points

CB, and these lines divide
Proof. Since
AO.
to be divided into parts.
the last point thus found on
to
line
of division on
is
intercept equal parts on any transversal, they intercept

equal parts on every transversal).
Q. E.
Ex.
101.
To divide a
line
into four equal parts
by two
F.
different
methods.
Ex. 102. To
find a point
distant from the other
two
X in one side of a given triangle and equi
sides.
Ex. 103. Through a given point to draw a line which shall

equal angles with the two aides of a given angle.
make
115
PROBLEMS.
XXX.
PROPOSITION
280,
Two
and
sides
PROBLEM.
the included angle of a trian
gle being given, to construct the triangle.
D
7)
Let the two sides of the triangle be

included angle A.
To construct a
tively,
and
Construction,
At A,
given
having two sides equal
the included Z.
Take
to
and
= /. A.
AB equal to the side
the extremity of
AB,
c,
and
and the
c respec
c.
construct an angle equal to the
276
A.
On^Dtake A C equal
to b.
Draw CB.
Then
A AGE is the A
required.
Q. E.
F.
Ex. 104. To construct an angle of 45.

Ex. 105. To
find a point
which shall be equidistant from two
given intersecting lines and at a given distance from a given point.
Ex. 106. To draw through two

given length.
a triangle a line
to the
between the sides shall have a
sides of
third side so that the part intercepted
||
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
XXXI.
PROPOSITION
PROBLEM.
281,
side and two angles of
given, to construct the triangle.
Let
be the given side,
To construct the
Construction,
[I.
A and B
a triangle being
the given angles.
triangle.
Take
EC equal
to
c.
At
the point
E construct the Z.CEH equal to Z A.
At
the point
C construct
Let the sides
EH and
A COE
Then
the /.
is
the
276
EQK equal to Z B.
GK intersect at 0.
required.
Q. E. F.
REMARK.
one of the given angles is opposite to the

given
find the third angle by g 277, and proceed as above.
If
side,
Discussion, The problem is impossible when the two

given
angles are together equal to or greater than two right angles.
Ex. 107. To construct an angle of 150.
Ex.
108.
straight railway passes two miles from a town.
place
four miles from the town and one mile from the
railway. To find by
construction how many places answer this description.
is
Ex. 109. If in a circle two equal chords intersect, the segments of one
chord are equal to the segments of the other, each to each.
Ex. 110.
AB is any chord
and
line cutting the circumference in
that the triangles
ACD and EAB
AC tangent to a circle at A, CDE a

D and E and parallel to AB; show
is
are mutually equiangular.
PROBLEMS.
117
PROPOSITION XXXII.
The three
282,
sides of
PROBLEM.
a triangle being
given>
to
construct the triangle.
7
A*-A
^BB
and
o.
AB equal to
o.
Let the three sides be m,

To construct the
Construction.
From
arc
?i,
triangle.
Draw
as a centre, with a radius equal to n, describe an
and from
B as a centre,
with a radius equal to m, describe
an arc intersecting the former arc at
C.
Draw GA and GB.
A GAB is the A
Then
required.
Q.E.F.
Discussion,
to or greater
The problem is impossible when one side

than the sum of the other two.
is
equal
Ex. 111. The base, the altitude, and an angle at the base, of a tri
angle being given, to construct the triangle.
Ex. 112. Show that the bisectors of the angles contained by the oppo
(produced) of an inscribed quadrilateral intersect at right angles.
Ex. 113. Given two perpendiculars, AB and CD, intersecting in 0, and
a straight line intersecting these perpendiculars in
and F\ to construct
a square, one of whose angles shall coincide with one of the right angles
site sides
at O,
and the vertex of the opposite angle of the square
(Two
solutions.)
shall lie in
EF.
BOOK
PLANE GEOMETRY.
118
PROPOSITION XXXIII.
II.
PROBLEM.
Two sides of a triangle and the angle opposite

one of them being given, to construct the triangle.
283,
CASE
If the side opposite the given angle
I.
is
than the
less
other given side.
Let
be greater than
and A the given
a,
angle.
To construct the triangle.

Construction.
DAE to the given Z A.

On AD take AB =
Construct
276
b.
From
B as a centre,
with a radius equal to
describe an arc intersecting the line
BO and
Draw
Then both the
A ABC and ABC
the conditions, and hence

This
have two constructions.
fulfil
called the
ambiguous
Discussion,
to the JL
BH,
,D
.-
JD /
is
is
and there
^L.
x --...
a
--
will be
tri-
,D
ABH.
angle
If the given side a is less than the
JL from B, the arc described from
B^-
/^/
is
but one construction, the right
hence the problem
Cand C
we
equal
the arc described from
will not intersect or touch
a,
case.
If the side
B will touch AE,
AE at
AE, and
impossible,
-.
\a
i--
THE CIKCLE.
119
ZA
If the
is right or obtuse, the
problem is impossible for the
side opposite a right or obtuse angle is the greatest side.
159
CASE
If a
II.
If the Z.
is
is
to b.
equal
acute,
and a = b, the arc described from
a centre, and with a radius equal to a, will

cut the line
at the points
and O.
AE
There
is
isosceles
therefore
but one solution
B ,P
Vx
the
J[
If the
Discussion,
ZA
is
is
impossible
opposite them, and a
obtuse A.
III.
If a
is
greater than
b.
ED
from
the acute Z. A.
solution
If the
from
There
namely, the
ZA
is
then only one
is
y^
A ABC.
If the /.
from
sides of
A ABC
ED
/?\
^
C
~~-rA
ED
A, at the points
C and
<?
\B
The
not contain the obtuse

;
^\
*
is obtuse, the arc described

cuts the line
on opposite
<j/
v
answers the required conditions,
^_
c
but the AA.BC does not, for it does
tion
right, the arc described
the line
sides of
does not contain
on opposite
A, and we have two equal right
which fulfil the required conditions.
cuts
B will cut
A ABO
The
answers the required conditions, but the

it
~^c~
A have equal
cannot have two right
or two
does not, for
right or obtuse,
for equal sides of a
If the given Z.
is acute, the arc described
on opposite sides of A, at
the line
and
A ABC*
i>/
AEG.
the problem
CASE
B as
namely, the
A.
A A BO.
There
is
-"
"~
.....
^
v<1
"
then only one solu

Q.E.
F.
120
PLANE GEOMETEY.
PROPOSITION
Two
284,
sides
BOOK
II.
XXXIV. PROBLEM.
and an included angle of a paral
lelogram being given,
to construct the
parallelogram.
/
/
/
/
Let m and
be the two sides, and C the included
angle.
To construct a parallelogram.
AB equal to
Draw
Construction,
At
construct the Z.
and take
From
o.
equal to
(7,
276
AH equal to m-
T&s a centre, with a radius equal
From
to
o,
describe an arc.
B as a centre, with a radius equal to m,
describe an arc, intersecting the former arc at E.
EH and EB.
Draw
The quadrilateral
Proof.
/.
ABEH\$>
required.
AB = HE,
Cons.
^#= 5^7.
Cons.
the figure
(having
the
its
ABEHis a O,
183
opposite sides equal).

Q. E.
F.
PEOBLEMS.
PROPOSITION
XXXV.
PROBLEM.
To circumscribe a circle about a given
285,
angle.
tri
Let ABC be the given

.
121
To circumscribe a
circle
Construction,
Since
BO is
tersect at
From
about
Bisect
At
triangle.
ABC,
AB and
not the prolongation of
some point
The point
AB,
271
Js.
these J
will in
0.
A B C is
and
273
the points of bisection erect
0, with a radius equal to
Proof.
BO.
is
the
OB,
describe a circle.
required.
equidistant from
also is equidistant
from
and B,
B and
122
(7,
(every point in the _L erected at the middle of a, straight line is equidistant

from the extremities of that line).
.
and a
OB,
the point
is
equidistant from A, B, and
O,
described from
will pass
as a centre, with a radius

equal to
through the vertices A, B, and C.
ae<F .
286, SCHOLIUM. The same construction serves to describe a

circumference which shall pass through the three points not
in the same
also to find the centre of a
straight line
given
;
circle or of a
given arc.
BOOK
PLANE GEOMETRY.
122
XXXVI.
PROPOSITION
Through a given
287,
point, to
II.
PROBLEM.
draw a tangent
to
circle.
given
>iJ
CASE
I.
When
the given point is
Let C be the
To draw a tangent
to
From
Construction,
CASE
II.
draw the radius 00.
the centre
AM
Proof,
circle.
the circle at C.
Through
Then
gent to the
on the
given, point on the circle.
straight line
C draw
AM
to
271
00.
the tangent required.
is
_!_
to a radius at its extremity is tan
239
circle.
When
the given point is without the circle.
be the centre of the given circle, E the given

point without the circle.
To draw a tangent to the given circle from the point E.
Let
Join
Construction,
On
OE.
OE as
a diameter, describe a circumference intersecting

and H.
the given circumference at the points
Draw
Then
EM
is
OM and EM.
the tangent required.
Z OME is
Proof,
264
a right angle,
(being inscribed in a semicircle).

.
EM
is
In like manner, we
tangent to the circle at
may
prove
M.
239
HE tangent to the given
O.
Q. E.
F.
123
PROBLEMS.
PROPOSITION
To inscribe a
288,
From E, with
The
Since
tant from the sides

(7,
it is
EH J. to the line AC.
radius
EH
EH,
describe the
O KHMis the O
is
AB and AC;
and
an
centre,
O KMH.
A,
is
it is
BC,
SCHOLIUM. The intersec

formed byangles of a triangle,
the sides of the tri
producing
are the centres of three
angle,
each of which will touch

one side of the triangle, and the
two other sides produced. These
circles,
three circles are called escribed
162
the sides of the Z).
with a radius equal to
A and be inscribed in
tions of the bisectors of exterior
equidis
in the bisector
AC and
equidistant from
/. is
E as
will touch the sides of the
circles.
since
the sides
equidistant from
described from
272
required.
in the bisector of the
in the bisector of
(every point
.-.
275
C.
the intersection of these bisectors,
draw
triangle.
A ABC.
Bisect A A and
From E,
of the
triangle.
circle in the
Construction,
Proof,
a given
circle in
Let ABC be the given

To inscribe a
PROBLEM.
XXXVII.
it.
124
PLANE GEOMETRY.
PKOPOSITION
BOOK
XXXVIII.
II.
PROBLEM.
290, Upon a given

straight line, to describe a seg
ment of a circle which shall contain a given angle.
Let AB be the given
line,
and
M the given
angle.
AB which shall contain Z M.

Construction, Con struct Z ABE
276
equal to Z.M.
Bisect the line AB by the _L FO.
273
From the point B draw BO
to EB.
271
To describe a segment upon
_i_
FO
From
and BO, as a cen

0, the point of intersection of
tre, with a radius equal to OB, describe a circumference.
Proof,
The segment
AKB
The point
is
(every point in
and B,
122
equidistant from
middle of a straight line is equidistant
the extremities of that

line).
the circumference will pass

through A.
But
BE -L to OB.
BE tangent to the O,
is
/.
/.
a radius at
Z ABE is
(being
t *.
its
extremity
measured by
is
239
tangent
arc
an ^.formed by a tangent and a
inscribed
Cons.
is
to
(a straight line
An Z
the segment required.
JL erected at the
from
.
is
in
the
segment
segment
AKB
AB,
to the
O).
269
chord).
is
AKB contains Z M.
measured by
263
Ax. 1
0. E.
F.
125
PROBLEMS.
PROPOSITION
XXXIX.
PROBLEM.
To find the ratio of two commensurable straight
291,
lines.
F
Let AB and CD
"be
two straight
lines.
To find the ratio of AB and CD.

Apply CD to AB as many timesjas possible.
Suppose twice, with a remainder
Then apply
EB to CD as many
EB.
times as possible.
Suppose three times, with a remainder
Then apply
FD to EB as many
Suppose once, with a remainder
Then apply
FD.
times as possible.
HB.
HB to FD as many times as possible.
Suppose once, with a remainder
KD.
KD to HB as many times as possible.

KD
contained just twice in HB.
Suppose
measure of each
referred to KD as a unit, will
Then apply
is
The
line,
then be as follows
HB = 2KD-,
EB = FD+HB = 5KDCD = 3 EB -f FD = 18 KD
AB = 2 CD + EB = 41
CD
18
/.the ratio
CD
18
Q.E.F.
126
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
II.
THEOREMS.
114.
The shortest
line
and the longest
line
which can be drawn from
a given exterior point to a given circumference pass through the centre.

115. If through a point within a circle a diameter and a chord _L to
the diameter are drawn, the chord is the shortest cord that can be drawn
through the given point.
116.
In the same
or in equal
circle,
circles,
two arcs are each
if
greater than a semi-circumference, the greater arc subtends the
less
chord, and conversely.

117.
If
in the arc
ABC
is
BC, then
On PA
HINT.
an inscribed equilateral
PA = PB + PC.
take
PIT equal
to
triangle,
PB, and
join
BM.
In what kinds of parallelograms can a

Prove your answer.
circle
"118.
119.
The radius of the
and Pis any point
be inscribed?
an equilateral triangle
circle inscribed in
is
equal to one- third of the altitude of the triangle.

120.
121.
A
A
circle
can be circumscribed about a rectangle.
circle
can be circumscribed about an
isosceles trapezoid.
-- 122. The tangents drawn through the vertices of an inscribed rec

tangle enclose a rhombus.
-f^ 123.
The diameter of the
circle inscribed in
rt.
A is
equal to the
between the sum of the legs and the hypotenuse.

124. From a point A without a circle, a
straight line AOB is drawn
through the centre, and also a secant ACD, so that the part A C without
difference
the circle
the
is
Prove that
equal to the radius.
DAB
Z.
equals one-third
Z DOB.
125.
All chords of a circle which touch an interior concentric circle
are equal, and are bisected at the points of contact.

126.
If
two
circles intersect,
and a secant
is
drawn through each
point of intersection, the chords which join the extremities of the secants
are parallel.
HINT. By drawing the common chord, two inscribed
quadrilaterals are obtained.
127.
If
is
inscribed in a circle, the distance of
each side from the centre of the circle

128.
is
equal to half the radius.
Through one of the points of
diameter of each circle
is
drawn.
intersection of two circles a

Prove that the straight line joining
the ends of the diameters passes through the other point of intersection.
EXERCISES.
A circle touches two sides of an angle BAG at B, C\

the arc BC a tangent is drawn, meeting AB
129.
point
at F.
127
D in
Prove
(i.)
all positions of
through any
Jând
at
AQ
that the perimeter of the triangle ^.EFis constant for

in BC\ (ii.) that the angle EOF\& also constant.
Loci.
130.
131.
Find the locus of a point at three inches from a given point.

Find the locus of a point at a given distance from a given
circumference.
132.
Prove that the locus of the vertex of a right
given hypotenuse as base,

hypotenuse as diameter.
r
is
triangle,
the circumference described
upon
having a
the given
133. Prove that the locus of the vertex of a triangle, having a given
base and a given angle at the vertex, is the arc which forms with the
base a segment capable of containing the given angle.
134.
Find the locus of the middle points of
length that can be drawn in a given

135.
drawn through a given point

jv
t>e
136.
137.
chords of a given
all
chords that can be
in a given circumference.
drawn from
all
circle.
a given exterior point
all straight lines
that ca.n
to a given circumference.
A straight line
and touches
at one
moves so that it remains parallel to a given line,

end a given circumference. Find the locus of the
other end.
138.
1
fi&ed rods
139.
straight rod
which are
In a given
moves
_L to
so that its ends constantly touch two

each other. Find the locus of its middle point.
circle let
the perpendicular from

locus of the point J/as
AOB
be a diameter,
00 any
C to AB. Upon 00 take OM=CD.

00 turns about 0.
radius,
CD
Find the
CONSTRUCTION OF POLYGONS.
To construct an
140.
142.
To construct an
144.
equilateral A,
The perimeter.
The altitude.
The angle
141.
having given
The radius of the circumscribed
143.
The radius
isosceles triangle,
at the vertex
having given:
and the
circle.
of the inscribed circle.
base.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
128
145.
The angle at the vertex and the
146.
The base and the radius
BOOK
II.
altitude.
of the circumscribed circle.
147.
The base and the radius of the inscribed
148.
The perimeter and the
circle.
alti
tude.
ABC be the A re
EF the given perimeter.
Let
HINTS.
quired, and
The altitude
CD passes through the

middle of EF, and the A AJSG,
FO&Te
,.
.-
isosceles.
To construct a
right triangle, having given
150.
The hypotenuse and one

The hypotenuse and the
151.
One
153.
The radius
of the inscribed circle
and one
154.
The radius
of the inscribed circle
and an acute angle.
155.
An
An
149.
leg.
altitude
upon the hypotenuse.

the
the
altitude
and
upon
hypotenuse as base.
leg
%152. The median and the altitude drawn from the vertex of the
l||
156.
acute angle and the
sum
of the legs.
acute angle and the difference of the legs.
To construct a
triangle,
having given
base, the altitude, and the
V157. The
at the vertex.
**
158.
The
159.
base, the corresponding median,
and the
at the vertex.
160.
The perimeter and the angles. vQ

One side, an adjacent Z, and the sum of
161.
One
162.
The sum of two
163.
One
164.
The angles and the radius of the circumscribed O.

The angles and the radius of the inscribed O.
165.
rt. Z..
leg.
side,
side,
sides
and the
angles.
an adjacent Z, and radius of circumscribed O.
166.
An
167.
Two
168.
The three medians.
angle, the bisector,

sides
the other sides.
an adjacent Z, and the difference of the other sides/-
and the altitude drawn from the vertex.
and the median corresponding
To construct a square, having given:

169. The diagonal.
170^The sum
to the other side.
of the diagonal
and one
side.
129
EXERCISES.
To construct a
rectangle, having given:
173.
Z formed by the diagonals.

The perimeter and the diagonal.
The perimeter and the Z
the diagonals.
174.
The
171.
172.
One
side
and the
"of
difference of the
two adjacent
sides
and the
of the
diagonals.
To construct a rhombus, having given

175. The two diagonals.
...
176.
One
177.
One angle and the radius

One angle and one of the
178.
To
side
and the radius of the inscribed
circle.
of the inscribed circle.

diagonals.
construct a rhomboid, having given:
179.
One
side
and the two diagonals.
The diagonals and the Z formed by them.

181. One side, one Z, and one diagonal.
180.
182.
The base, the
To construct an
altitude,
and one
isosceles trapezoid,
angle.
having given:
The bases and the
183.
The bases and one
185.
The bases and
186.
The bases and th radius of the circumscribed
To construct a
187.
184.
angle.
altitude.
the diagonal.
circle.
having given
The two bases and the two diagonals.
The bases, one diagonal, and the Z formed by the
diagonals.
The four
trapezoid,
sides.
188.
CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCLES.
Find the locus of the centre of a
190.
191.
circle
Which has a given radius r and passes through a given

point P.
Which has a given radius r and touches a given straight line AE.
P and
192.
Which
193.
Which touches a given straight line AB at a given point P.

Which touches each of two given parallels.
Which touches each of two given intersecting lines.
194.
195.
passes through two given points
Q.
130
BOOK
PLANE GEOMETRY.
To construct a
circle
which has the radius
II.
and which
AB and
also
CD.
196.
Touches each of two intersecting
197.
Touches a given line
198.
Passes through a given point -P and touches a given line
199.
Passes through a given point
To construct a
circle
AB and
which
shall
lines
a given circle K.
P and
AB.
touches a given circle K.
Touch two given parallels and pass through a given point

201. Touch three given lines two of which are parallel.
200.
202.
203.
204.
205.
206.
207.
Touch a given
Touch a given
line
P.
A B at P and pass through a given point

P and pass through a given point Q.
Touch two given lines and touch one of them at a given point
Touch a given line and touch a given circle at a point P.
Touch a given line AB at P and also touch a given
To inscribe a circle in a given sector.
208. To construct within a given circle three equal

each shall touch the other two and also the given circle.
*
X209. To describe
Q.
circle at
circles
P.
circle.
circles, so
that
about the vertices of a given triangle as
centres, so that each shall touch the
two
others.
CONSTRUCTION OF STRAIGHT LINES.

210.
211.
To draw a common tangent to two given circles.

To bisect the angle formed by two lines, without producing the
lines to their point of intersection.
212. To draw a line through a given point, so that

j
the sides of a given angle an isosceles triangle.
213.
through
it shall
form with
P between the sides of an angle BAC. To draw

terminated by the sides of the angle and bisected at P.
Given a point
P a line
Given two points P, Q, and a line AB; .to draw lines from P
^214.
and Q which shall meet on AB and make equal angles with AB.
HINT. Make use of the point which forms with P a pair of points
symmetrical with respect to AB.
215.
,
216.
To find the shortest path from Pto Q which shall touch a line AB.
To draw a tangent to a given circle, so that it shall be parallel
to a given straight line.
BOOK
III.
PROPORTIONAL LINES AND SIMILAR

POLYGONS,
THE THEORY OF PROPORTION.
292,
proportion
equal ratios.
proportion
ing forms
is
may
an expression of equality between two
be expressed in any one of the follow
a:b = c:d; a:b

-=-;
b
d
and
"
is
read,
the ratio of
::c:d;
to b equals the ratio of c to
d"
The terms of a proportion are the four quantities com

pared the first and third terms are called the antecedents, the
second and fourth terms, the consequents ; the first and fourth
terms are called the extremes, the second and third terms, the
293,
means.
294,
In the proportion a b
:
tional to a, b,
and
In the proportion
a and
=c
d,
is
a fourth propor
c.
a:b
= b:c,
c is a third proportional to
a:b
= b :c,
b.
In the proportion
between a and c,
is
mean
proportional
BOOK
PLANE GEOMETRY.
132
PROPOSITION
III.
I.
In every proportion the product of the extremes

equal to the product of the means.
Let a:b = c-.d.
295,
is
ad
To prove
be.
a=C
AT
Now
7
b
-y
whence, by multiplying both sides by bd,
ad =
be.
PROPOSITION
o. E. D.
II.
two
A mean
quantities
-proportional between
their
root
product.
is equal to the square
of
296,
In the proportion a
=b
c,
V = ac,
the extremes
(the product of
is
equal
Whence, extracting the square

1)
295
to the
product of the means).
root,
a E. D.
Va<?.
PROPOSITION
III.
is equal to the
// the product of two quantities
two may be made the
product of two others, either
in which the other two are
a
extremes
297,
made
proportion
of
the -means.
To prove
Let ad=bc.
a:b
= c:d.
bd.
Divide both members of the given equation by
Then
=c
Q.E.D.
THEORY OF PROPORTION.
133
PROPOSITION IV.
298,
If four quantities of the same kind are in pro
portion, they will be in proportion by alternation ;

that is, the first term will be to the third as the sec
ond
to the fourth.
Let a:b =
= b:d.
a:c
To prove
c:d.
f-j
Multiply each
member
of the equation
by
-.
=*
Then
a:c = b:d.
or,
Q.E.D.
PROPOSITION V.
299, If four quantities are in proportion, they will
be in proportion by inversion ; that is, the second term
will be to the first as the fourth to the third.
Let a:b = c:d.

b:a = d:c.
To prove
Now
Divide each
bo
member
295
of the equation
by
ac.
*=
Then
a
or,
= ad.
a=d
c.
at.*
BOOK
PLANE GEOMETRY.
134
III.
PROPOSITION VI.
300, If four quantities are in proportion, they will
be in proportion by composition ; that is, the sum of
the first two terms will be to the second term as the
sum
term.
of the last two terms to the fourth
Let a:b = c:d.
a + b :b
To prove
Now
Add
T
b
1 to
each member
-f-
In like manner,
f
a+
is,
or,
~y
of the equation.
+lr= | +1
d
b _c
Then
that
= c + d:d.
~~d~
=c+d
d.
+b b
d:c.
b
:a=c
+
+
:
^^
PROPOSITION VII.
will
// four quantities are in proportion, they
the
that
division
is,
difference
;
be in proportion by
be to the second term as
of the first two terms will
the difference of the last two terms to the fourth
301,
term.
To prove
Let a:b =
a b:b = c
h~"f7
Subtract 1 from each
member
of the equation.
- 1=1-1;
Then
a-b__c-d
7
is,
In like manner,
d:d.
a_c
Now
that
c:d.
-5
a=c
d .c.
135
PROPOSITION VIII.
In any proportion the terms are in proportion
302,
by composition and division ; that is, the sum of the

as the sum of
ftrst two terms is to their difference
their
to
two
terms
the last
difference.
Let a-.b = c: d.
Then, by
And, by
v
By
,.
300,
301,
cd
c-}-d: c
division,
a-\-b
or.
d.
Q.E. D.
PEOPOSITION IX.
In a
series of
tecedents is to the
303.
antecedent
is to its
equal ratios, the sum of the an

sum of the consequents as any
consequent.
Let a:b = c:d = e :f= g

To prove
a+ c+ e+g
Denote each
ratio
by
Then
Whence,
Add
br,
b.
= ? = = i = f.
c
= dr,
=fr,
g=
hr.
these equations.
Then
a+c+e+g
Divide by
Then
h.
r.
a=
+ d+f+h = a
(b
= (b + d+f+ h)r.
+ d+f+h).
or,
Q. E. D.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
136
BOOK
III.
PROPOSITION X.
The products of the corresponding terms of
304,
two or more proportions are in proportion.
Leta:b = c:d, e:f=g:h,

To prove
aek
= cgm
bfl
a c e
T =T 7
b
d f
vr
NOW
= m-.n.
dhn.
=m
--
Ic
hi
k:l
Whence, by multiplication,
_ cgm
aek ~~
dhn
bfl
aek bfl
or,
= cgm
dhn.
Q.E.D.
PROPOSITION XI.
Like powers, or like
305,
of the terms of
roots,
proportion are in proportion.
Let
n
I
n
and
Q>
NT
NOW
By
raising to the nth power,
^-=~
n
b
dn
By
= c:d.
= cn :d n
I
1
i
b = C* d*.
a=c
7
-y
a :b
To prove
a-.b
n
or
extracting the nth root,
or,
,1
:
= ci
,1
Q.E.O.
the products ob
Equimultiples of two quantities are
same number.
the
them
tained by multiplying each of
by
306,
Thus,
ma and mb
are equimultiples of
a and
b.
137
PROPOSITION XII.
Equimultiples of two quantities are in the
307,
same
Let
ratio as the quantities themselves.

a
and
be any two quantities.
To prove
ma :mb
a:b.
HMultiply both terms of first fraction
by m.
ma- = a-
mi
Then
mo
ma :mb = a:b.
or,
Q.E.D.
SCHOLIUM. In the treatment of proportion it is as

may be found which will represent the
It is evident that the ratio of two quantities may be
ratios.
represented by a fraction when the two quantities compared
can be expressed in integers in terms of a common unit. But
when there is no unit in terms of which both quantities can be
sumed
that fractions
expressed in integers, it is possible to find a fraction that will

represent the ratio to any required degree of accuracy.
(See
251-256.)
Hence, in speaking of the product of two quantities, as for
instance, the product of two lines, we mean simply the product
of the numbers which represent them when referred to a com
mon
unit.
An
of
interpretation of this kind must be given to the product

any two quantities throughout the Geometry.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
138
BOOK
III.
PROPORTIONAL LINES.
PROPOSITION
If a line
309,
angle
is
I.
THEOREM.
drawn through two
sides of
tri
parallel to the third side, it divides those sides
proportio nally.
FIG.
1.
In the triangle
FIG.
ABC
let
EF
2.
be drawn parallel to BC.
EB = FC
Toprove
ZS Zp
CASE
When AE and EB (Fig. 1) are commensumble.
Find a common measure of AE and EB, as BM.
Suppose BMiQ be contained in BE three times,
and in AE four times.
I.
Then
At
AE
(1)
the several points of division on
straight lines
II
to
contain three, and A.
(if parallels intercept
draw
AC mto seven
These lines will divide
FC will
BE and AE
BC.
ill
equal parts, of which

187
contain four,
equal parts on any transversal, they intercept equal

parts on every transversal).
FC
AF
Compare
(1)
and
(2)
(2),
AE
Ax.
1.
139
PROPORTIONAL LINES.
CASE
When
II.
Divide
AE
AE and EB (Fig. 2) are incommensurable.

any number of equal
measure to
into
parts,
and apply one
EB as many times as it
of these parts as a unit of

will be contained in EB.
AE and EB are incommensurable, a certain number

E
K, leaving a
KB
Since
to a point
of these parts will extend from
less than the unit of measure.
remainder
Draw
KH
II
to
BO.
the
Suppose the unit of measure indefinitely diminished,
ra tios =?==
AE
and =-== continue equal

AJb
Tt
Therefore
T-?
- and
Jf
COR.
1.
by a straight
One
indefi-
nitely the limiting ratios
310,
and approach
side of
-,
respectively.
26
a triangle
is to either
part cut
off
line parallel to the base as the other side is to the
corresponding part.
For
EB AE= FC: AF, by the theorem.

EB + AE .AE=FC+AF:AF,
AB:AE=AO:AF.
:
300
/.
or
COR.
311.
2.
If two
lines are cut
by any number of parallels,
the corresponding intercepts are proportional.
Let the
Draw
and N.
lines
AN
II
be
to
AB and CD.
CD, cutting the
Us at
AL= GG, LM= GK, MN= KD.

By
L,
M,
Then
187
the theorem,
AIT: AM= AF:AL = FIT: LM= HB MN.

AF:CG= FH: GK= HB KD.
That
If the two lines AB and CD were parallel, the correspond
:
is,
ing intercepts would be equal, and the above proportion be true.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
140
PROPOSITION
BOOK
III.
THEOREM
II.
>
// a straight line divides two sides of a
312,
angle proportionally,
In the triangle
ABC
tri
parallel to the third side.
it is
EF be drawn
AB = AC
AE AF
let
so that
Proof,
EF \\toBG.
From E draw EH
Then
AB AE-= AC:
To prove
to
II
A is
(one side of a
to either
part cut
off
BO.
AH,
by a line
II
310
to the base,
as the other
side is to the corresponding part).
AB AE = AC
But
The
each to
AF.
Hyp.
two proportions have the first three terms equal,

each therefore the fourth terms are equal that is,
last
AF=AH.
.*.
.KFand
EH\s
But
/.
EF, which
EH coincide.
II
to
BC.
coincides with
EH,
Cons.
is
||
to
BC.
Q.E.Q.
141
PROPORTIONAL LINES.
PROPOSITION
III.
THEOREM.
313, The bisector of an angle of a triangle divides

the opposite side into segments proportional to
other two sides.
A
Let
CM
the angle C of the triangle GAB.
"bisect
MA MB = CA CB.
Proof, Draw AE
to MC to meet BC produced at E.
to AE of the A BAE, we have
Since MC
To prove
II
is
II
MA:MB=CE:CB.
Since
MC
is
II
(1)
AE,
to
ZACM=ZCAE,
(being alt.-int.
of\\ lines)
Z BCM= Z
and
(being
But
ext.-int.
104
;
CEA,
of
II
A CM= Z BCM.
the Z CAE = Z CEA.
.-.
/.
Putting
two
CA
of a
for
A are
CE in
CE=
106
lines).
the Z.
(if
309
Hyp.
Ax.
156
CA,
equal, the opposite sides are equal),
(1),
we have
MA:MB=CA:
CB.
Q.E.D.
BOOK
PLANE GEOMETRY.
142
III.
THEOREM.
PROPOSITION IV.
314, The bisector of an exterior angle of a triangle

meets the opposite side produced at a point the dis
tances of which
from the extremities of this side are

proportional to the other two sides.
A
ACE
CM bisect the exterior angle

angle CAB, and meet BA produced at
Let
M A M B = CA
To prove
Draw
Proof,
Since
AFis
Since
AF
is
II
of the tri
f
.
OB.
BC&t F.
AF to CM
to OH of the A BOM we have
WA\WB=CF\CB.
to
II
meet
II
to
(being ext.-int.
the
CM
bisects the
:.
the
Putting
II
of
I!
Z AFC = Z
A of a A are
CA for CF in
two
of
lines)
106
CAF,
104
lines).
Z ECA,
/.
(if
Z M CA = Z
(being alt.-int,
Since
(1)
CM\
theZM CE = ZAFC,
and
309
CAF.
CA = CF,
Ax.
156
are equal).
equal, the opposite sides
(1),
we have
WA M B = CA
:
CB.
Q.E.D.
PROPORTIONAL LINES.
SCHOLIUM.
315,
If a given line
AB
143
is
and B, it
and
divided internally into the segments
divided at
MA
MB
MA
be
said to
is
a point in the prolongation of AB,

and
to be divided externally into the segments
is
M,
divided at
point between the extremities
and
if it
it is
said
M B.
f
In either case the segments are the distances from the point
If the line is divided
of division to the extremities of the line.
to the line
and
internally, the sum of the segments is equal
if the line is divided externally, the difference of the segments
;
is
equal to the
line.
required to divide the given

Suppose
and
externally in the same ratio; as,
nally
ratio of the two numbers 3 and 5.
it is
cc.
___
We
AB
divide
parts from
into 5
inter
.i.i......
A
B
M
AB
line
for example, the
y;
+ 3,
we then have
or 8, equal parts, and take 8

the point J/j such that
MA: MB = 3: 5.
Secondly, we divide
AB
into
two equal
on the prolongation of AB, to the

equal parts we then have the point
;
(1)
left of
f
,
M A M B -3:5.
:
Comparing
(1)
and
parts,
and lay
off
A, three of these
such that
(2)
(2),
316, If a given straight line is divided internally and

the line is
externally into segments having the same ratio,
said to be divided harmonically.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
144
COR.
317.
1.
The
bisectors of
BOOK
an
III.
and an
interior angle
a triangle
divide the opposite side harmoni
313 and 314, each
cally. For, by
exte
rior angle at one vertex of
\o
bisector divides the opposite side

into segments proportional to the
318.
COR.
2.
If
the points
harmonically, the points

monically.
For,
by
M and M
and
The
M and M
M and M
from
from
1
AB
har
298
four points A, B, M, and

points, and the two pairs, A, B, and
MM
M B,
M
the ratio of the distances of
is,
equal to the ratio of the distances of
divide the line
divide the line
MA MB = M A
MA M A = MB
if
alternation,
That
o^her two sides of the triangle.
is
are called harmonic
M,
M\
are called con
jugate harmonic points.
SIMILAR POLYGONS.
Similar polygons are polygons that have their homol
319.
ogous angles equal, and their homologous sides proportional.
ED
Thus,
if
the
ABODE and A B C D E are similar

C etc.
etc., are equal to A A
the polygons
A A,
B,
C,
CD
and
320.
A JB
etc.
In two similar polygons, the ratio of any two homol

is called the ratio of similitude of the polygons.
ogous sides
145
SIMILAR TRIANGLES.
SIMILAR TRIANGLES.
THEOREM.
PROPOSITION V.
321,
Two mutually equiangular
ilar.
triangles are
sim
In the triangles*
equal to angles A
ABC and A B C
B C
Apply the
Proof,
so that
AABC
Z
Now
similar.
C* to the
A AEG,
Z
shall coincide with
will take the position of
AEJI(ssime
:.
as
Elf is
Z B)=Z
A.
A AEH.
B.
108
ioBC,
II
lying in the same plane, are cut by a third straight

are equal the lines are parallel).
if the ext.-int.
(when two straight

Line,
AAB
ZA
G be
respectively.
A ABC and A B C
To prove
Then the
let angles A, B,
lines,
AB AE= AC: AH,

AB:A B = AC:A C
/.
310
or
AABC
In like manner, by applying

shall coincide with Z B, we
ZB
may
the two
Therefore
A ABC,
so that
prove that
AB A B = BC: J3
:
to
<7
A are similar.
319
Q. E. D.
322,
COR.
1.
Two
triangles are similar if two angles of the

to two angles of the other.
one are equal respectively
2.
Two right triangles are similar if an acute
one
the
is
equal to an acute angle of the other.
angle of
323,
COR.
146
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
PROPOSITION VI.
THEOREM.
III.
If two triangles have their sides respectively

proportional, they are similar.
324,
In the triangles
To prove
Proof,
ABC and A B let

AB = AC = BC
AB A C B C
f
C>
A ABC and A B C similar.

Take AE= A B and AH= A O
Draw EH.
Then from the given
proportion,
AB = AC
AE AH
:.
(if
line divide
Hence
Effis
two sides of a
in the
II
to
312
BC,
A proportionally,
it is
II
to the
third
side).
A ABC&nd. AEH
106
and
(being ext.-int.
.-.
of
A ABC and AEH
II
lines).
A of one are equal respectively

(two A are similar if two
other).
.:AB\
that
AE=
AB A B =
1
is,
322
are similar,
to
two
of the
SIMILAR TRIANGLES.
147
But by hypothesis,
The
last
two proportions have the
each to each
Hence
first
three terms equal,

that is,
therefore the fourth terms are equal
in the
AE=A B
160
(having three sides of the one equal respectively
But
.-.
to three sides
A AEH is similar to A ABC.

A A 3 is similar to A ABO.
of the other).
aE
SCHOLIUM. The primary idea of similarity is likeness

and the two conditions necessary to similarity are
ofform
I.
For every angle in one of the figures there must be an
325,
equal angle in the other, and

II.
The homologous
sides
must be
in proportion.
In the case of triangles, either condition involves the other,

it does not follow that if one
but in the case of other polygons,
condition exist the other does also.
Thus in the quadrilaterals Q and Q the homologous sides

are proportional, but the homologous angles are not
equal.
In the quadrilaterals
and It 1 the homologous
are
1
equal, but the sides are not proportional.
angles
PLANE GEOMETKY.
148
PROPOSITION VII.
BOOK
III.
THEOREM.
If two triangles have an angle of the one equal

the other, and the including sides pro
portional, they are similar.
326,
to
an angle of
In the triangles
ABC and A B C
AB ~
= AC
AB
Proof,
Apply
the
shall coincide with
AB
so that
A AEH.
AC
AC
AB__
Therefore the line
AC^
EH divides the
sides
AB
and
A C pro
toC,
(if a
ZA
AE AH
is,
portionally
A ABC,
to the
will take the position of
AB
Now
similar.
A.
AABC
Then the
That
AABC
let
AC
A ABC and A B C
To prove
line divide
Hence the
and similar.
A ABC and AEH are

.-.
AABC
312
A proportionally,
two sides of a
is
similar to
it is
\\
to the
third side}.
mutually equiangular
A ABO.
Q. E. D.
149
SIMILAR TRIANGLES.
PROPOSITION VIII.
THEOREM.
// two triangles have their sides respectively

parallel, or respectively perpendicular, they are sim
327,
ilar.
be
In the triangles A B C and ABC let A B A C B
respectively parallel, or respectively perpendicular,
to AB, AC, BC.
,
AABC
To prove
Proof,
and
The corresponding
ABC similar.
A are either equal
jf
or supplements
112, 113
of each other,
(if
two
<y
have their sides
II,
or
_L,
they are equal or supplementary).
Hence we may make three suppositions
A + A = 2rt.A, B + B = 2rt.A
B + B = 2rt.A
A=A
2d.
C= C
B= B\
A-A
3d.
Since the sum of the A of the two A cannot
1st.
right angles, the third supposition only

. .
the two
is
A ABC and A B C
(two mutually equiangular
&
140
exceed four
admissible.
138
are similar,
321
are similar).
150
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
PROPOSITION IX.
THEOREM.
III.
328, The homologous altitudes of two similar tri

angles have the same ratio as any two homologous
sides.
A o
A
ABC and A B C
In the two similar triangles

altitudes be CO and C O
let the
CO
CO
To prove
In the
Proof,
rt.
AC
AB
AC
AB
CO A and C O A
ZA=Z A
(being homologous
.-.
(two
rt.
&
A CO A
of the similar
and
having an acute Z
319
COA
& ABC and A B C
323
are similar,
of the one equal to
an acute
}.
of the other
are similar).
AC
AC
CO
CO
In the similar
A AB C and A B C
AC
AC
Therefore,
CO
_
~=
319
AB
AB
AC = _.
AB
=_
Q. E. O.
151
SIMILAR TRIANGLES.
THEOREM.
PROPOSITION X.
drawn through
Straight lines
329,
the
same point
intercept proportional segments upon two parallels.
/B
ABC
E
A E cut the straight
Let the two parallels AE and

lines OA, OB, OC, ODt and OE.
_ = ---_=
AE
Toprove
Proof,
\E
\D
/C"
Since
OA B OBC
,
is
to
II
OB C
and
similar,
BO
DE
CD
A OAB
AE,
etc.,
the pairs of
are mutually equiangular
and
and
AS
"
OB
ff
sides of similar
(homologous
&
are proportional).
Ax
In a similar way
BC
BO
it
may
be shown that
_ CD
CD
DE
CD
D
Q. E. D.
REMARK.
condensed form of writing the above
AB
\OB
_^
B C \00
=
J
is
==== D E^
^
\OD
where a parenthesis about a ratio signifies that this ratio is used to

and following it.
prove the equality of the ratios immediately preceding
152
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
PBOPOSITION XI.
THEOREM.
III.
more non-parallel
straight lines intercept proportional segments upon
two parallels, they pass through a wmrrwn, point.
If three or
CONVERSELY:
AC
Let AB, CD, EF, cut the parallels AE and
AC BD=CE
:
To prove that
Proof,
AB, CD,
that
Prolong
EF prolonged meet in a point.
AB and CD until they meet in

Join
we
If
BF so
DF.
designate by
shall have by
329,
F the
0.
OE,
point where
AC:BD=CE:DF
OE
cuts
BF, we
But by hypothesis
AC:BD = CE.DF.
These proportions have the first three terms equal, each to

therefore the fourth terms are equal that is,
each
..
.-.
F coincides with F.
.EF prolonged
AB, CD, and
O.
passes through
EF prolonged meet in the point
0.
153
SIMILAR POLYGONS.
SIMILAR POLYGONS.
THEOREM.
PROPOSITION XII.
If two polygons cure composed of the same num

ber of triangles, similar each to each, and- similarly
placed, the polygons are similar*
331,
In the two polygons ABODE and A B C D E let the

triangles AEB, BEG, CED be similar respectively to
the triangles A E B B E C C E D*.
,
ABODE similar to A B C D E
ZA=ZA
To prove
319
(being homologous
Also,
of similar A).
Z ABE = Z A B E
Z EEC = Z E B C
Z ABC = Z A B C
we may prove Z BCD = Z B C D
319
and
By
Proof,
adding,
In like manner
etc.
Hence the two polygons are mutually equiangular.
Now
AE = AB ^( EB\
AE
AB
(the
BO ^( EC\
B
C \E &)
\E &)
homologous
sides of similar
Hence the homologous

(having their
CD = ED
C
ED
A are proportional).
sides of the polygons are proportional.
Therefore the polygons are similar,

319
homologous A equal, and their homologous sides proportional).
Q. E. D,
PLANE GEOMETRY.
154
BOOK
PROPOSITION XIII.
332,
of the
If two polygons
cure
III.
THEOREM.
similar, they are composed

to each,
same number of triangles, similar each
and similarly
B
Let the
placed.
B
DE
B
ABODE
A
C
and
polygons
C
From two homologous
vertices, as
E and E
1
,
be similar.
draw diagonals
EB EC
A EAB, EEC, ECD
To prove
A EAB EB C E CD
similar respectively
Proof, In the A EAB and E A B
EB, EC, and
to
Z.A=/.A
(being homologous
and
319
of similar polygons)
AE
AB
AE
AB
319
(being homologous sides of similar polygons ).

.
(having an
A EAB and E A B
are similar,
and
of the one equal to an /. of the other,

proportional).
ZABC=ZA B C
Also,
(being homologous
And
Subtract (2) from
(1)
of similar polygons).
ABE= Z A B E
(being homologous
326
the including sides
of similar A).
/.
EBC
(2)
(1),
1
.
Ax. 3
SIMILAR POLYGONS.
155
EB _ AB
Now
(being homologous sides of similar A).
BO = AB
BC A^
And
(being homologous sides of similar polygons).
Av
XIA.
(having an
-r~ttT~\i
*~T\I
A EBCw& E B C
we may prove
326
are similar,
of the one equal to an

of the other,
proportional).
In like manner
1
JL
~7f"
and
the including sides
A ECD and E C D
similar.
Q. E. D.
PROPOSITION XIV.
The perimeters of two similar polygons have

ratio as any two homologous sides.
333,
the
THEOREM.
same
Let the two similar polygons be ABODE and A B C D E

and let P and P represent their perimeters.
P P = AB A B
= CD
AB A B = EG:
To prove
(the
.-.
(in
homologous
AB+BC,etc.
AB
CD
319
etc.,
polygons are proportional).
+B C
etc.
=AB: A B
303
equal ratios the sum of the antecedents is to the sum of the

n
conse
equents as any antecedent is to its consequent).
series of
"
That
P:f = AB:A B
t
is,
sides of similar
PLANE GEOMETRY.
156
BOOK
III.
NUMERICAL PROPERTIES OF FIGURES.

PROPOSITION XV.
THEOREM.
If in a right triangle a perpendicular is drawn

vertex of the right angle to the hypotenuse :
the
from
The perpendicular is a mean proportional be
I.
tween the segments of the hypotenuse.
334,
leg of the right triangle is a mean pro

between
the hypotenuse and its adjacent
portional
segment.
II.
Each
F
In the right triangle ABC, let BF be drawn from the
vertex of the right angle B, perpendicular to AC.
I.
AF: BF= BF: FO.

A BAFwd BAC
To prove
In the
Proof,
rt.
the acute /.
is
common.
A are similar.
In the
rt.
the acute /.
Hence the
Now
as the
rt.
(7 is
II.
and
AF,
BF,
BF,
CBF,
the shortest side of the one,
the shortest side of the other,

the
FO, the
To prove
323
A ABF and CBF&re both similar to ABO,

A
common.
A are similar.
they are similar to each other.

ABFsiul
In the similar
323
Hence the
OF and BCA
medium
medium
side of the one,
side of the other.
AC AB = AB
:
AF,

In the similar
157
A ABO and ABF,
AB,
AB,
longest side of the one,

the longest side of the other,
A F,
the shortest side of the other.
AC, the
:
Also
in the similar
A AfiCand FBC,
AC, the longest side of the one,

BC, the longest side of the other,
EC, the medium side of the one,
FCj the medium side of the other.
Q E
.
o.
The squares of
the two legs of a right triangle

are proportional to the adjacent segments of the hypotenuse.
COR.
335,
1.
The proportions
in II. give,
AB* = ACxAF,
By
by
and
295,
BC* = ACxCF.
we have
dividing one by the other,
AGx CF
COR.
336,
2.
are proportional
The squares of
to
l^
COR.
337,
angle
3.
264).
the hypotenuse and either

leg
and the adjacent segment.
the hypotenuse
-^L
-r^
OF
An
_/lL/ /\ ^J_
I77>o4>
_/T_
ZF
angle inscribed in a semicircle
is
a right
Therefore,
The perpendicular from any point in

the circumference to the diameter of a circle
I.
is
a mean proportional between
the segments ^_
of the diameter.
II.
&
_^
The chord drawn from the point to either extremity of the

is a mean proportional between the diameter and the
diameter
adjacent segment.
REMARK. The pairs of corresponding sides in similar triangles may be
called longest, shortest, medium, to enable the beginner to see quickly
these pairs but he must not forget that two sides are homologous, not
;
because they appear to be the longest or the shortest

they
lie
opposite corresponding equal angles.
sides,
but because
BOOK
PLANE GEOMETRY.
158
III.
THEOREM.
PROPOSITION XVI.
The sum of the squares of the two
338,
triangle
is
to the
equal
legs of a right
square of the hypotenuse.
Let ABC
fee
a right triangle with its right angle at B.

= AC*AB* +
B&
To prove
BF to AC.
=
A& ACxAF
Draw
Proof,
Then
= ACX OF
= AC(AF+
By adding, AB* + SO*
BC*
and
339,
to
334
COR.
The square
of either leg
CF)
= AC\
the difference of the squares of the hypotenuse

340,
The
is
square
ber V2.
ABCD,
For
if
AC
and the other leg.
ratio of the diagonal of a

the incommensurable num
SCHOLIUM.
to the side
is
a E. D.
is equal
of a right triangle
the diagonal of the square
then
AC* = IB* + BC\

Divide by AJ3\
we have
AC = 2
2
or
AC*
~
= 2,
or
AC
-^-g
=--
V2.
Since the square root of 2 is incommensurable, the diagonal

and side of a square are two incommensurable lines.
341.
The projection of a
line
CD
upon a straight
AB
that part of the line

comprised
and
between the perpendiculars
let fall from the extremities of
CP
DR
PR
CD.
Thus,
CD
upon AB.
is
the projection of
A~
line
AB
is
PROPOSITION XVII.
159
THEOREM.
342, In any triangle, the square of the side opposite

an acute angle is equal to the sum of the squares of
the other two sides diminished Ijy twice the product

of one of those sides and the projection of the other
upon that side.
Let G be an acute angle of the triangle ABC, and

the projection of AC upon BC.
DC
To prove
Proof,
If
AB* ^ BC* + AC* -2BCx DO.
fall
upon the base
(Fig. 1),
DB = BC- DCIf
D fall upon the base produced (Fig.

DB = DC- BC.
2),
In either case,
JOB*
Add
AD
= BC* + DC* -2BCx
to both sides of this equality,
DC.
and we have
AD* + DB* = BC* + AD*+DC*-2BCx DC.

But
AD* + DB = AB\
338
and
AD* + DC* = AC*,
A is equal to the square
(the sum of the squares of the two legs of a
2
rt.
of the hypotenuse}.
Put
AH* and AC*
for their equals in the
BC* -}- AC*-
2BCx
above equality,
DC.
Q. E. D.
160
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
PROPOSITION XVIII.
THEOREM.
III.
triangle, the square of the side

obtuse
the
angle is equal to the sum of the
opposite
squares of the other two sides increased by twice the
product of one of those sides and the projection of
the other upon that side.
343,
In any obtuse
Let C be the obtuse angle of the triangle ABC, and

projection of AC upon BC produced.
CD be the
To prove
+ Iff + 2Cx
DB = BC+DC.
A3* =
Proof,
Squaring,
Add Alf
DB* =
C*
to both sides,
AD* + 52? =
+ DO* + 2Cx
DO.
DO.
and we have
W*+AD +D
i
AD* + ~DS = AB\
But
338
and
(the
sum
Put
a rt.
of the squares of the two legs of
of the hypotenuse).
A is equal to
the square
AS and AC? for their equals in the above equality,

AW = C + AC* + 2Cx DC.
2
Q.E.O.
NOTE. The last three theorems enable us to compute the lengths of

if the lengths of the three sides of a triangle are known.
the altitudes
PROPOSITION XIX.
161
THEOREM.
The sum of the squares of two sides of a tri

angle
equal to twice the square of half the third
side increased ~by twice the square of the median upon
344,
I.
is
that side.
II.
The difference of the squares of two sides of a
triangle is equal to twice the product of the third

side by the projection of the median upon that side.
the triangle ABC let AM

the median, and
the projection of AM upon the side BO. Also let
be greater than AC.
In.
"be
I.
Toprove
II.
Since
Proof,
the
A& + AC* = 2 3M* + 2 AM\

A?-A(T = 2CxMD.
AB>AC,
AME
will be obtuse,
=M + AM + 2JBMx MD,
and
152
343
any obtuse A the square of the side opposite the obtuse /. is equal to the
sum of the squares of the other two sides increased by twice the product
of one of those sides
and
(in
the
AMC will be acute.
Then
(in
MD
AS
and
the projection of the other
on that
side)
AC = MC + AM-2MCx MD,
342
the square of the side opposite an acute

is equal to the sum
of
the squares of the other two sides diminished by twice the product
of one
of those sides and the projection of the other upon that side).
any
Add
Then
these two equalities, and observe that

i
Subtract the second equality from the
Then
BM=- MC.
AS + AC = 2 BM + 2AM\
2
first.
Z&-AO* = 23Cx MD.
aE D
NOTE. This theorem enables us to compute the lengths of the medians
if
the lengths of the three sides of the triangle are
known.
162
PLANE GEOMETRY.
PROPOSITION XX.
BOOK
III.
THEOREM.
345, If any chord is drawn through a fixed

point
within a circle, the product of its segments is constant in whatever direction the chord is drawn.
Let any two chords AB and CD intersect at
OAxOB=ODx
To prove
Draw
Proof.
In the
0.
00.
A O and ED.
A AOC and BOD,

^C=Z.B,
263
(each being measured by j arc
Z A - Z D,
AD}.
263
(each being measured by % arc BC).
A are similar,
(two
&
are similar
Whence
:
/. the
when two A of
322
the one are equal to two
of the other).
the longest side of the one,

00, the shortest side of the one,
OA,
OD,
OB,
.-.
OAxOB = ODxOO.
295
Q.E. D.
346,
SCHOLIUM.
This proportion
OA = 00
OD
OB
OA
may
be written
OD~OB
00
is, the ratio of two corresponding segments is equal to

the reciprocal of the ratio of the other two corresponding
that
segments.
In this case the segments are said to be reciprocally
proportional.
163
XXL
PROPOSITION
THEOREM.
If from a fixed point without a circle a secant

drawn, the product of the secant and its external
segment is constant in whatever direction the secant
is drawn.
347,
is
Let OA and OB be two secants drawn from point

OA X 00= OB X OD.
To prove
0.
EC and AD.
OBC
Draw
Proof.
In the
A OAD and
is
common,
A = Z.B,
263
(each being measured by % arc CD).

.
(two
the two
A are similar when
Whence
:
two
A are similar,
322
of the one are equal to two
of the other).
OA, the longest side of the one,

OB, the longest side of the other,
OD, the shortest side of the one,
0(7,
/.
OA x 00= OB x OD.
295
Q. E. D.
EEMABK. The above proportion

about
until
B and D approach
the theory of limits,
it is
true
continues true
if
the secant
each other indefinitely.
when
and
D coincide
at
OA x 00= OH\
This truth
is
demonstrated directly in the next theorem.
OB
turns
by
Whence,
Therefore,
H.
164
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
PROPOSITION XXII.
THEOREM.
III.
348, If from a point without a circle a secant and

a tangent are drawn, the tangent is a mean propor
and
tional between the whole secant
the external
segment*
Let OB
a tangent and OG a secant drawn from

the circle MBC.
"be
the point
to
OG OB = OB
To prove
Draw
Proof.
In the
M.
EM and BO.
A OB M and OBO
/.
OEM
Z.
(being
an
Z.
is
is
common.
measured by % arc
Z C is
measured by
(being
an
-J-
263
O.
of the one equal to two
322
of the other).
OB,
OB,

OM,
OC,
:
B M,
A OBC and OEM are similar,
(having two
Whence
arc
269
chord).
inscribed Z).
.\/.OBM=Z.
.-.
MB,
formed by a tangent and a
Q. E. D.
165

PROPOSITION XXIII.
THEOREM.
bisector of an angle of a
product of the sides of this
angle diminished by the product of the segments
determined by the bisector upon the third side of the
The square of the
349,
triangle
is
equal
to the
triangle.
AD
Let
bisect the angle
AD* =
To prove
Proof,
BAG
of the triangle ABC.
ABxAC~DBx DC.
Circumscribe the
O ABO about the A
AD to meet the circumference in

Then in the A ABD and AEC,
Produce
ABO.
^BAD = ZCAE,
Z.B =
285
E, and draw EG.
Hyp.
263
E,
(each being measured by ^ the arc AC}.

.-.
(two
A ABD and AEC are similar,
are similar if two
Whence
:
But
322
of the one are equal respectively to two

the other).
AB,
AE,
AD,

A 0,
.-.
(the
AB x A0= ADxAE
= AD(AD+DE)
= AI?+ADxDE.
of
295
ADxDE=DBxDC,
345
product of the segments of a chord drawn through a fixed point in
Q is
constant).
.-.ABxAC=AD + DBxDC.
AD* = AB X AC DB x DC.
i
Whence
NOTE. This theorem enables us

of the angles of a triangle
if
E D
.
compute the lengths of the bisectors

the lengths of the sides are known.
to
PLANE GEOMETRY.
166
PROPOSITION
350,
BOOK
XXIV.
III.
THEOREM.
In any triangle the product of two
sides is
product of the diameter of the circum

equal
scribed circle by the altitude upon the third side.
to the
Let ABC be a triangle, AD the altitude, and

the circle circumscribed about the triangle ABC.
Draw the diameter AE, and draw EG.
AB xAC=AEx AD.
In the A ABD and A EC,
Z BDA a Z,
ABO
To prove
Proof,
is
Z EGA
is
(being inscribed in
and
.-.
(two
rt.
&
rt.
Z B-Z
264
Z,
semicircle),
263
E.
A ABD and AEG are similar,
having cm acute
Whence
Cons.
rt.
/.
of the one equal to

are similar).
an acute
AB,
AE,
AD,

AC,
.:.
323
Z.
of the other
ABxACÂExAD.
295
Q.E. D.
NOTE. This theorem enables us to compute the length of the radius of

a circle circumscribed about a triangle, if the lengths of the three sides
of the triangle are
known.
167
PROPOSITION
XXV.
PROBLEM.
To divide a given straight line into parts pro

portional to any number of given lines.
351,
7?
and p, be given straight
Let AB,
m,
To divide
AB into parts proportional
n,
Draw AX, making an
Construction,
On
AX take AC=m,
lines.
m,
n,
and p.
acute
with
to
AB.
CE=n, EX^p.
Draw EX.
From
E and
JTand
(a line
draw
.5"
UK and GH
to
II
BX.
are the division points required.
drawn through two
sides of
II
to the
third side divides those
sides proportionally).
/.
AH UK KB = AC
:
Substitute m, n, and
Then
AIT
CE EX.
:
for their equals
HK KB - m
:
AC, CE, and EX.
n p.
:
Q. E.
F.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
168
PROPOSITION
BOOK
XXVI.
PROBLEM.
a fourth proportional
352, To find
straight lines.
Let the three given lines be
m,
n,
To find a fourth proportional
m,
n,
Draw Ax and Ay
Construction,
III.
On Ax
to
to three
given
andp.
andp.
containing any acute angle.
take
On Ay
AB equal to m, BQn.
take
AD=p.
Draw BD.
From C draw
DF
is
\\
to
BD,
to
meet
Ay
at F.
the fourth proportional required.
Proof,
(a line
CF
AB
drawn through two
BG = AD
sides of
II
309
DF,
to the
sides proportionally}.
Substitute m, n,
Then
and^>
for their equals
=p
AB,
JBC,
and
AD.
DF.
Q. E. F.
XXVH.
PROPOSITION
To
353,
PROBLEM.
a third proportional
-find
169
to
two given
straight lines.
Let m and
two given straight
n be the
To find a third proportional
Construct any acute angle A,
Construction,
and take
Produce
AB
AB to D,
D draw DE
making
CE is the
(a line
A E ED = A C
:
drawn through two
sides of
=--
AC.
EC.
third proportional to
Proof,
ED
0to meet
to
II
AC=n.
m,
Join
Through
lines.
m and n.
to
II
AC produced
AB and AC.
CE.
to the
at
E.
309
sides proportionally}.
AC for its equal ED.

Then AB AC = AC CE.
That
m:n= n CE.
Substitute, in the above proportion,

:
is,
Q.E.
Ex. 217. Construct
x, if (1)
=
,
(2)
Special Cases
2,
(4)
(1)
2,
3, c
= 3,
;
(5)
= 4;
a = 2c.
c
F.
c
(2)
= 3,
7,
c=ll;(3)
PLANE GEOMETRY.
170
BOOK
PROPOSITION XXVIII.
To find a
354,
mean
III.
PROBLEM.
proportional between two given
straight lines.
H
m
A~--
ra
-^
-TT
Let the two given lines be m and

To find a mean proportional between
On
Construction,
the straight line
AC= m,
take
and
n.
m and n.
AE
OB = n.
AB as a diameter describe a semi-circumference.

At erect the _L CH to meet the circumference at H.
On
CHis
Proof,
.-.
AC CH = CH
337
CB,
to the
diameter of a
a mean proportional between the segments of
the diameter).
(the _L let fall

is
n.
proportional between in and
mean
from a point in a circumference
Substitute for
A O and OB
their equals
m CH = CH
Then
circle
m and n.
n.
Q. E.
355,
mean
straight line
ratio,
when
Ex.
21 8.
(1)
is
to the greater
and
segment as
to the less.
is
Construct x
:
said to be divided in extreme
the whole line
the greater segment
Special Cases
is
if
a;
=
= 3; (2)a=l,
2, 6
= 5-
(3)a
F.
3,
7.
171
PROPOSITION
XXIX.
PROBLEM.
To divide a given line in extreme and mean
356,
ratio.
"
X.
.--
.%"""
A
Let AB be the given
line.
AB in extreme and mean ratio.

At B erect a J_ BE equal to one-half of AB.
Construction,
To divide
From E as a centre, with a radius equal to EB, describe

Draw AE, meeting the circumference in .Fand G.
On AB take A C = AF.
= AG.
BA
On
produced take AC
a 0.
Then
AB
is
divided internally at
extreme and mean
in
AG AB - AB
Proof,
and externally
at
ratio.
:
348
AF,
from a point without a O a secant and a tangent are drawn,

gent is a mean proportional between the whole secant and the
(if
the tan
external
segment).
Then by
301 and
300,
AG-AB:AB = AB-AF
AF,
AG + AB: AG=AB+AF AB.

construction
FG = 2 EB == AB.
By
AG-AB = AG-FG--=AF=AC.
:
(1)
(2)
.-.
Hence
or,
by
(1)
becomes
inversion,
Again, since
(2)
becomes
AC AB = BC AC;
AB AC= AC BC.
C A = AG = AB + AF,
C B C A == C A AB.
:
299
Q.E.F.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
172
XXX.
PROPOSITION
Upon a given
357,
BOOK
line
III.
PROBLEM.
to
homologous
a given side
of a given polygon, to construct a polygon similar to

the given polygon.
Let A E be the given line homologous to AE of the

given polygon ABODE.
To construct on A
a polygon similar to the given polygon.
E
Construction, From E draw the
diagonals EE and EC.
From E draw E B E C and E D\
making AA E B B E C and C E D equal respectively to
1
A AEB,
BEG, and OED.

draw A
A B =ÊAB,
making Z
and meeting
B at Bf
From Bf draw
B C = Z EBC,
making Z
and meeting
C at C
= ZECD,
From C draw C
C
making Z
and meeting
at D
Then A B C
is the
required polygon.
From
E D
j5"Z>
DE
The corresponding
Proof,
E B C ECD and
,
(two
^"(7
A A BE and A B E EBC and

,
322
Z) are similar,
are similar if they have two

of the one equal respectively
of the other}.
to
two
Then the two polygons
are similar,
similar
(two polygons. composed of the same number of
similarly placed, are similar).
to
331
each other and
PROBLEMS OF COMPUTATION.
173
219.
To compute the
altitudes of a triangle in terms of
its sides.
At
least
one of the angles
A or B is acute.
Suppose
it is
the angle B.
4 c2
-6 )(2ac-a -c
2
4c3
2 2
2
= {(a + c) b } {b* -(a- c) }
4c2
_ (a
c)
(a
5) (6
+a
c) (6
+ c)
4c2
c = 2s.
b = 2(sc
Let
a-f6 +
Then
-f
a +
Hence
2s
2 (s
a)
2(s
2(s
6),
a).
- 6) x
2(s
-c)
4c2
By
simplifying,
220.
and extracting the square
To compute the medians
root,
of a triangle in terms of its sides.

r
By?
344,
Whence
-Y+ 6 = 2m2 -h2/

-h2-4 m2 = 2 (a 2 + 6 2 - c2
2
(Fig. 2)
.
BOOK
PLANE GEOMETRY.
174
To compute the
221.
By
I 349,
By
313,
P - ab
III.
bisectors of a triangle in terms of the sides.
- AD x BD.
*
^1=^ =
be
,
J?Z>
a+b
a+b
BD =
and
a + b
abc2
Whence
(a
6)
c2
/!_
ab (a
c)
(a
(a
c)
2
Z>)
a5x2sx2(s-c)
(a
+ by
Whence
222.
To compute the radius of the
circle
circumscribed about a
tri
sides of the triangle.

angle in terms of the
By
350,
ABxAC=AExAD
be
But
R x AD.
(s-a)(s-b}(s-c).
abc
Whence
223.
If the sides of a triangle are 3, 4,
or obtuse
right, acute,
and
5, is
the angle opposite 5
If the sides of a triangle are
7, 9,
and
12, is the
12 right, acute, or obtuse ?

225. If the sides of a triangle are
7, 9,
and
11,
224.
11 right, acute, or obtuse
is
angle opposite
the angle opposite
The legs of a right triangle are 8 inches and 12 inches find the
the projections of these legs upon the hypotenuse, and the dis
of
lengths
tance of the vertex of the right angle from the hypotenuse.
226.
227.
If the sides of a triangle are 6 inches, 9 inches, and 12 inches,

bisec
(3) of the
find the lengths (1) of the altitudes

(2) of the medians
of the radius of the circumscribed circle.
tors
;
(4)
175
EXERCISES.
THEOREMS.
Any two
228.
altitudes of a triangle are inversely proportional to
the corresponding bases.
Two
229.
ing one
circles
circle in
that the triangles
Through P three lines are drawn, meet

and the other in A B / C respectively. Prove
touch at P.
A, B,
C,
ABC,
chord
AB
is
are similar.
intersect at M, and A is the middle point of

remains the same if the
Prove that the product AB X
made to turn about the fixed point A.
^230. Two chords AB, CD

the arc CD.
AB C
AM
HINT. Draw the diameter AE, join BE/qpd. compare the triangles
thus formed.
The sum of the squares of the segments
231.
chords
is
HINT.
AC
233.
234.
that
AC = ED.
ABCD,
In a parallelogram
diagonal
Prove that
in their
two perpendiculai
CD
ED, BD, and prove

232.
of
equal to the square of the diameter of the circle.

are the chords, draw the diameter
If AB,
in F, the side
a line
in G,
DE
and the
BE,
join
AC,
338.
is
drawn, meeting the

AB produced in E.
side
DF* = FGx FE.
The tangents
common chord
intersecting circles drawn from

produced, are equal, (g 348.)
to
two
The common chord
bisect their
BO
Apply
common
of
tangents.
two intersecting
circles, if
any point
produced, will
($ 348.)
two circles touch each other, their common tangent is a mean

proportional between their diameters.
HINT. Let AB be the common tangent. Draw the diameters AC, BD.
Join the point of contact P to A, B, C, and D. Show that APD and BPC
are straight lines _L to each other, and compare A ABC, ABD.
235.
""
If
236. If three circles intersect one another, the
flhrough the same point.

HINT. Let two of the chords
AB and CD
meet at 0. Join the point of intersection

to 0, and suppose that EO produced meets
the same two circles at two different points P
and
Q.
Then prove that OP- OQ; hence,

P and Q coincide,
that the points
common
chords
all
pass
PLANE GEOMETRY.
176
If
two
BOOK
TTI.
tangent internally, all chords of the greater

the point of contact are divided proportionally by the
circumference of the smaller circle.
237.
circle
circles are
drawn from
HINT. Draw any two of the chords, join the points where they meet
A thus formed are similar.
the circumferences, and prove that the
In an inscribed quadrilateral, the product of the diagonals
238.
equal to
th.e
sum
is
of the products of the opposite sides.
HINT. Draw DE, making
& ABD and CDE are
Z CDE= /.ADB. The
similar.
Also the
& BCD and
ADE are similar.

The sum
of the squares of the four sides of

is
equal to the sum of the squares
of the diagonals, increased by four-iimes the square
of the line joining the middle points of the diagonals.
239.
any quadrilateral
HINT. Join the middle points F, E, of the diag

Draw EB and ED. Apply \ 344 to the
onals.
A ABC
BE
and ADC, add the results, and eliminate

1
by applying 343 to the A BDE.
DE
240. The square of the bisector ofan exterior angle of a triangle

equal to the product of the external segments deter
mined by the bisector upon one of the sides.diminished by the product of the other two sides.
HINT. Let
CD
bisect the exterior
BCH
is
II
of
A ABC. Circumscribe a about the A, produce DC to meet the circumference in F, and draw
BCF similar. Apply 347.
the
<
241.
If a point
BF.
Prove
joined to the vertices of a triangle
is
&ACD,
ABC, and
AB is drawn, meeting OB
/through any point A in OA a line parallel to
at B
and then through B f a line parallel to BC, meeting OC at C
and C/ is joined to A the triangle A B C will be similar to the tri
/
angle
ABC.
242.
two circles meets the circumferences at

D, and meets the common exterior tangent at P, then
If the line of centres of
the
t
points A, B,
C,
PAxPD = PBxPC.
243. The line of centres of two circles meets the common exterior
from P, cutting the circles at the
tangent at P, and a secant is drawn
= PFx PQ.
that
H.
Prove
consecutive points E, F, G,
PExPH
EXERCISES.
177
NUMERICAL EXERCISES.
A line is drawn
AC in D, BC in
*P 244.
Cutting
id
DE.
(g
h.
legs
-.
tree casts a
Find the segments made by
313.)
shadow 90
high casts a shadow 4 feet long.

247.
AB of a triangle ABC, and

3, and AB= 20 inches,
HAD DC= 2
sides of a triangle are 9, 12, 15.
bisecting the angles,

i-.2246.
E.
The
245.
parallel to a side
The bases of a trapezoid
when
feet long,
How
high
is
a vertical rod 6 feet
the tree
and the altitude

Find the altitudes of the two triangles formed by producing the
till
\248.
are represented
by
a, b,
they meet.
The
homologous
sides of a triangle are 6,

to 8
is
equal to 40.
7, 8.
In a similar triangle the side
Find the other two
sides.
249. The perimeters of two similar polygons are 200 feet and 300 feet.
-j
If a side of the first polygon is 24 feet, find the
side of the
homologous
second polygon.
**/
^,
How long must a ladder be to reach a window 24 feet high,

lower end of the ladder is 10 feet from the side of the house ?
250.
line
251.
If the side of
252.
If the altitude of an equilateral triangle
a, find
if
the altitude.
h, find
the side.
Find the lengths of the longest and the shortest chord that can
bo drawn through a point 6 inches from the centre of a circle whose
?
253.
radius
7
/
is
254.
equal to 10 inches.
is
The distance from the centre of a
12 inches.
255.
The radius of a
a chord 10 inches
long
chord 24 inches long.
to a
is 5 inches.
Through a point 3 inches from
drawn, and also a chord perpendicular to the
Find the length of this chord, and the distance from one end
the centre a diameter
diameter.
circle to
Find the distance from the centre

circle
is
of the chord to the ends of the diameter.

256. The radius of a circle is 6 inches.
Through a point 10 inches
from the centre tangents are drawn. Find the
lengths of the tangents,
and also of the chord joining the points of contact.
V 257.
If a chord 8 inches long is 3 inches distant from the centre of

the circle, find the radius and the distances from the end of the chord
to
the ends of the diameter which bisects the chord.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
178
The radius of a
258.
fif6m the centre
ments of the chord

be
drawn through
From
259.
circle
any chord
?
is
13 inches.
drawn.
is
What
is
the point
BOOK
What
is
ITI.
Through a point 5 inches

the product of the two seg
the length of the shortest chord that can
the end of a tangent 20 inches

long a secant is drawn
circle.
If the exterior segment of this secant
through the centre of the

is
8 inches, find the radius of the circle.
The radius of a circle is 9 inches the length of a tangent is 12

Find the length of a secant drawn from the extremity of the
^ 260.
inches.
tangent to the centre of the
The
261.
radii of
two
tance between their centres
mon
circle.
15 inches.
is
tangents.
Find the segments of a

and mean ratio.
-
and 3 inches, and the dis

Find the lengths of their com
circles are 8 inches
^262.
The
263.
line 10 inches long divided in exirerne
sides of a triangle are 4, 5, 6.
right, or obtuse
Is the largest angle acute,
PROBLEMS.
To divide one
264.
to the adjacent sides.
265.
To produce a
266.
To
side of a given triangle into segments proportional

(
313.)
line
AB to a point C so that AB AC= 3

-.
5.
find in one side of a given triangle a point whose distances

to each other in a given ratio.
from the other sides shall be
Given an obtuse triangle
267.
to
draw a
line
from the vertex of the
obtuse angle to the opposite side which shall be a

between the segments of that side.
Through a given point
268.
ABso
that
269.
P within
PAB so
271.
PAB so
272.
To draw through a given point
To draw through a point

that
PA:
a given circle to draw a chord
P in the arc subtended by a chord

AB.
P, exterior to a given circle, a secant
AB = 4: 3.
To draw through a point

3
that ZB = PA X PB.
To
proportional
AP:5P=2:3.
AB a chord which shall be bisected by

270.
mean
find a point
P in
P, exterior to a given circle, a secant
the arc subtended by a given chord
AB
so
EXEECISES.
179
273. To draw through one of the points of intersection of two circles

a secant so that the two chords that are formed shall be to each other
in the ratio of 3
5.
To divide a
274.
line into three parts proportional to 2, f, $.
275. Having given the greater segment of a

and mean ratio, to construct the line.
276. To construct a circle which
and touch a given straight line.
277.
To construct a
circle
touch two given straight
line divided in extreme
shall pass through
two given points
which shall pass through a given point and
lines.
278.
To
inscribe a square in a semicircle.
279.
To
inscribe a square in a given triangle.
HINT. Suppose the problem solved, and DEFQ the inscribed square.
to AB, and let
produced meet
AF
CM
CM in M. Draw Gffand MN to AB, and
produce AB to meet MN at N. The & ACM,
AOF are similar; also the A AMN, AFE
Draw
II
are similar.
the figure
By
these
CMNH
triangles
show that
a square. By construct
can be found.
ing this square, the point
is
280.
To
A.
DH E B
inscribe in a given triangle a

rectangle similar to a given
rectangle.
281.
To
inscribe in a circle a triangle similar to a

given triangle.
282.
To
inscribe in a given semicircle a rectangle similar to a

given
rectangle.
283.
To circumscribe about a
circle
a triangle similar to a given
triangle.
284.
285.
To construct the
expression, x
To construct two straight
= ^^
that
~x
is
de
lines,
having given their sum and
their ratio.
286.
and
To construct two
straight lines, having given their difference
their ratio.
287.
and
Having given two circles, with cef*W6s
draw through the point A a straight
B and C, so that AB AC= 1 2.
in their plane, to
circumferences at
HINT. Suppose the problem solved, join
making
OA AD -.
2.
Join
DC;
and a point
line,
meeting the
OA
and produce
& OA 5, ADC are
similar.
it
to D,
BOOK
IV.
AREAS OF POLYGONS.
The area
358,
of a surface
is
the numerical measure of the
surface referred to the unit of surface.

The unit of surface is a square whose side
is
a unit of length ;
as the square inch, the square foot, etc.
Equivalent figures are figures having equal areas.
359,
PKOPOSITION
THEOREM.
I.
360, The areas of two rectangles having equal alti

tudes are to each other as their bases.
Let the two rectangles
same
B
be AC and
E
AF, having the
altitude AD.
^t^=4|lect.AF AE
Toprme
AB and AE are commensurable.

Suppose AB and AE have a common measure, as AO,
contained in AB seven times and in AE four times.
which
AB ^7
Then
CASE
Proof,
I.
When
is
Apply
this
measure
points of division erect
The
and the
AE
to AB
(1)
and
AE, and
at the several
Js.
rect.
A C will
rect.
AF will be divided into four rectangles.
be divided into seven rectangles,
AREAS OF POLYGONS.
These rectangles are
181
all equal.
186
Hence
From
(1)
CASE
II.
and
(2)
When
Ax
AE
AB and AE are incommensurable.
Dl
F
B
AB into any number of equal parts, and apply one

AE as often as will be contained in AE.
Since AB and AE are incommensurable, a certain number
Divide
of
them
to
it
of these parts will extend
remainder
Draw
Since
from
to a point
KE less than one of the parts.
KH
II
to
K, leaving a
EF.
AB and AK &TQ commensurable,

Case
These ratios continue equal, as the unit of measure

nitely diminished,
rect.AF
and
and approach
AE respectively.
..
-_
(if
indefi
indefinitely the limiting ratios
AB
is
I.
rect.
AF AE
two variables are constantly

equal, and each approaches a
limits are
equal).
limit, the
Q E D
COB. The areas of two
bases
are
rectangles having equal
to each other as their altitudes.
For
and
be
con
may
sidered as the altitudes,
and
as the bases.
361,
AB
AD
AD
NOTE.
"
In propositions
relating
etc., are often used for
triangle,"
angle,"
etc.
to
"
areas,
area of
AE
the
words
"rectangle,"
"
rectangle,"
area of
tri
BOOK
PLANE GEOMETRY.
182
PROPOSITION
IV.
THEOREM.
II.
362, The areas of two rectangles are to each other

as the products of their bases l)y their altitudes.
Let R and E be two rectangles, having for their

bases b and b and for their altitudes a and a
.
m
To
E = aXb-E a Xb
prove
Construct the rectangle S, with its base the same as

that of E, and its altitude the same as that of
Proof,
Then
a
a
361
1
rectangles having equal bases are to each other as their altitudes)
Sb
and
360
(rectangles having equal altitudes are to each other as their bases)
By
multiplying these two equalities,
E
E
Ex. 288.
Find the
aXb
a
ratio of a rectangular
by 14 inches.
Q. E. O.
lawn 72 yards by 49 yards
to a grass turf 18 inches
Ex. 289. Find the ratio of a rectangular courtyard 18 yards by 15

yards to a flagstone 31 inches by 18 inches.
Ex. 290. A square and a rectangle have the same perimeter, 100 yards.
The length of the rectangle is 4 times its breadth. Compare their areas.
Ex. 291. On a certain map the linear scale is 1 inch to 5 miles. How
many acres are represented on this map by a square the perimeter of
which is 1 inch ?
AREAS OF POLYGONS.
PROPOSITION
363,
of
its
THEOREM.
III.
The area of a rectangle

base
and
183
is
equal to the product
altitude.
Let E be the rectangle, b the base, and a the alti

tude; and let U be a square whose side is equal to
the linear unit.
R=aX
a X o=
aXb,
the area of
To prove
Jii,
b.
c
IXl
(two rectangles are to each other as the product of their bases
But
..
364.
SCHOLIUM.
= the area of R.
the area of R = a X
When
and
altitudes).
358
b.
Q. E. D.
the base and altitude each contain
the linear unit an integral number of times, this proposition is

rendered evident by dividing the figure into squares, each
equal to the unit of measure.

linear units,
and the altitude
Thus,
if
the base contain seven
four, the figure
may
be divided
into twenty-eight squares, each equal to the unit of measure

units of surface.
and the area of the figure equals
7x4
184
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
PROPOSITION IV.
THEOREM.
The area of a parallelogram
365,
product of
its
IV.
is
equal to the
and altitude.
C F
base
BE
Let AEFD be a parallelogram, AD
its base,
and CD
its altitude.
H AEFD = ADx CD.

AB to DC to meet FE produced.
ABCD will be a rectangle, with the same
To prove the area of the
From
Proof,
Then the
figure
draw
II
base and altitude as the
In the
rt.
AEFD.
A ABE and DCF

AB = CD and A E = DF,
(being opposite sides of a
179
ZZ7).
.-.AAJBE=ADCF,
(two
rt.
A are equal when

respectively to
Take away the

Take away the
.-.
A DCF, and we have left the rect. ABCD.

A ABE, and we have left the O AEFD.
rect.
But the area

.-.
161
hypotenuse and a side of the one are equal

the hypotenuse and a side of the other).
tlic,
ABCD
of the
the area of the
=c=
O AEFD.
rect. ABCD = axb,

O AEFD = axb.
Ax. 3
363
Ax.
Q. E. D.
366,
COR.
1.
Parallelograms having equal bases and equal
altitudes are equivalent.

367,
COR.
2.
Parallelograms having equal bases are
are
to
to
to
each
parallelograms having equal altitudes

each other as their bases ; any two parallelograms are
other as their altitudes
each other as the products of their bases by their altitudes.
185
AREAS OF POLYGONS.
THEOREM.
PROPOSITION V.
368,
The area of a triangle
is
equal to one-half
the product of its base by its altitude.
Let ABC be a
AB
triangle,
its base,
and DC
its
altitude.
To prove the area of the

Proof,
CH
AH
From
The
&ABC=%ABx DC.
From C draw
figure
(hawing
and
draw
ABCHis
its
II
to
BA.
II
to
BO.
168
a parallelogram,
opposite sides parallel),
AC
is its
diagonal.
178
(the
The area
base,
diagonal of a CU divides
of the
O ABCH
is
it
into two equal A).
equal to the product of
its altitude.
by
Therefore the area of one-half the

the
A ABC,
is
its
365
equal to one-half the
O,
that
the area of
is,
product of its base
by
its
altitude.
Hence,
the area of the
A ABC= %AB X
369, COR. 1
Triangles having equal bases
tudes are equivalent.
.
370,
COR.
2.
DC.
Q. E. D.
and equal
Triangles having equal bases are
to
alti
each other
;
triangles having equal altitudes are fo each
other as their bases ; any two triangles are to each other as the
as their altitudes
their altitudes.
products of their bases by
186
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
PROPOSITION VI.
THEOREM.
IV.
371, The area of a trapezoid is equal to one-half

the sum of the parallel sides multiplied by the alti
tude.
TT
EJ)
.A
F
B
b
Let ABCH be a trapezoid, and EF the altitude,
To prove
area of
ABCH =
Draw
Proof,
(J3~C+
the diagonal
AB) EF
AC.
ABC= % (AB X EF),

AHC= \ (HUX EF).
area of ABCH= \ (AB + HO) EF.
Then the area of the A

and
the area of the A
By
adding,
372,
COR. The area of a trapezoid
median by the altitude.

l(HG+AB)\ and hence
of the
the area of
373,
SCHOLIUM.
For,
is
by
equal
191,
to
368
E D
.
the product
OP is equal
to
ABCH= OP X EF.
The area
of an irregular polygon
may
be
found by dividing the poly
gon into
triangles,
and by
finding the area of each of

these triangles separately.
But the method generally
employed in practice is to
draw the longest diagonal,
and to let fall perpendiculars upon
this diagonal from the

other angular points of the polygon.
The polygon is thus divided into right triangles and trapezoids the sum of the areas of these figures will be the area
;
of the polygon.
AEEAS OF POLYGONS.
PROPOSITION VII.
187
THEOREM.
The areas of two triangles which have an angle

one equal to an angle of the other are to each
the
of
other as the products of the sides including the equal
374,
angles.
Let the triangles ABC and ADE have the common

angle A.
A ABC ABxAC
A ADE ADxAE
To prove
Draw BE.
Proof,
A ABC AC
A ABE ~AE
A ABE AB
A ADE AD
Now
and
(& having
By
the
same
370
altitude are to each other as their bases).
multiplying these equalities,
AABC_ÂBxAO
A ADE AD x AE
Q. E. D.
Ex. 292. The areas of two triangles which have an angle of the one
to an angle of the other are to each other as the products
supplementary
of the sides including the supplementary angles.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
188
BOOK
IV.
COMPARISON OF POLYGONS.
PROPOSITION VIII.
THEOREM.
375, The areas of two similar triangles are to each

other as the squares of any two homologous sides.
A o
Let the two triangles be ACB and A O B
A ACB
AA CB
To prove
Draw
T
the perpendiculars
A ACB
(fo;o
are
to
AB
CO and C O
ABx
A^L^ -^
CO
1
.
AB
XW = :Z^ X W
CO
o 7n
each other as the products of their bases by their altitudes).
But
(the
homologous altitudes of similar A have the same ratio as

gous bases).
Substitute, in the above equality, for
then
A ACB
AB
AA C B
AB
AB
CO
its
their
equal
homolo
Al?
AB
Q. E. O.
189
COMPARISON OF POLYGONS.
THEOREM.
PROPOSITION IX.
376, The areas of two similar polygons are to each

other as the squares of any two homologous sides.
Let S and 8 denote the areas of the two similar

polygons ABC etc., and A B C etc.
To prove
Proof,
vertices
/S"
= A$
1*1?.
the diagonals from the homologous

By drawing
and
the two similar polygons are divided into
all
E\
triangles similar
AB*
332
and similarly placed.
A ABE
ABOE
AJJ C E
fBE*\
AA J?
A CPE
A CDE
(similar
& are
to
each other as the squares of any two homologous
A ABE
AA B E*
ABCE
AB O E
A ABE+ BCE+ ODE

E +B CE +CDE
(in
375
1
_~
A ODE
A ODE
A ABE = AB
AA B E ^ B
1
equal ratios the sum of the antecedents is to the

consequents as any antecedent is to its consequent).
series of
.:
8:8 = 13*: AW
sides).
*
1
sum
of the
377. COR. 1. The areas of two similar polygons are

other as the squares of any two homologous lines.
to
E D
.
each
378, Con. 2. The homologous sides of two similar polygons

have the same ratio as the square roots of their areas.
190
379.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
PROPOSITION X.
THEOREM.
IV.
The square described on the hypotenuse of a
right triangle is equivalent to the

on the other two sides.
sum
of the squares
Let BE, CH, AF, be squares on the three sides of the

right triangle ABC.
To prove
C*
=c=
Proof,
Through
CE, and draw
AS -f AC*.
A
draw AL\\io
AD and FO.
A BAG, BAG,
Since
are
rt.
A,
GAG
and
CAH
and
BAH
are
straight lines.
BD =
Since
BG, being sides of
the same square, and
BF,
for the same reason, and since
BA =
Z ABD = Z FBC,
sum
of a
rt. Z.
each being the
and the
Z.
ABC,
A ABD = A FBC.
double the A ABD,
rectangle BL
the
Now
the
150
is
(having the same base
BD, and
Us
the
AL
same
altitude, the distance between the
and
D),
and
the square-4-Fis double the

FBC,
(having the same base FB, and the same altitude, the distance between the
\\s FB and
OG).
Hence the rectangle
is
equivalent to the square AF.
BL
In like manner, by joining
AE and BK,
it
may
be proved
that the rectangle CL is equivalent to the

square CH.
Therefore the square BE, which is the sum of the rectangles
BL
^
and CL,
380,
is
equivalent to the
sum
of the squares
CH and
COR. The square on either leg of a right triangle
equivalent
to
the other leg.
the difference of the

squares
is
on the hypotenuse and
191
COMPAEISON OF POLYGONS.
Ex. 293. The square constructed upon the sum of two straight lines
these two lines,
equivalent to the sum of the squares constructed upon
increased by twice the rectangle of these lines.
their sum.
Con
and BC be the two straight lines, and
Let
is
AC
AB
struct the squares
ACGK
AB
Prolong
respectively.
meet
KG
square
CG
and
EFGH,
Then
respectively.
with sides each equal to
ACGK
the square
ABED upon AC and

BE and DE until they
and
is
the
sum
BC.
DEHK and
EFGH,
to
the
Hence,
of the squares
and the rectangles

the dimensions of which are equal
and
we have
AB and
ABED
I)
BCFE,
**
BC.
Ex. 294. The square constructed upon the difference of two straight
these two
is
equivalent to the sum of the squares constructed upon
lines
lines,
diminished by twice the rectangle of these lines.

AB and A C be the two straight lines, and BC their difference.
Let
Construct the square
ABFG
ACKHnyon. AC, and
the square
shown
Prolong
in the figure).
upon AB, the square

BEDC upon BC (as
ED until
it
meets
H K
AG
in L.
The dimensions of the rectangles

AB and AC, and the square
the difference between the whole
are
LEFG and HKDL

BODE is evidently
figure and the sum
F
G
that
the square constructed
the
sum
of
the
to
constructed
AB
BC
squares
equivalent
upon
upon
and AC diminished by twice the rectangle of AB and AC.
of these rectangles
is,
is
Ex. 295. The difference between the squares constructed upon two
is
equivalent to the rectangle of the sum and difference of
straight lines
these lines.
Let
ABDE and BCGF be the squares constructed

AB and BC. The difference between
straight lines
these squares
ACGFDE,
which poly
to
is seen to be
CG
H,
by
prolonging
composed of
gon,
and
the rectangles ACHE and GFDH. Prolong
is
the polygon
upon the two
_,
K
H
AE
CHto Jand
^"respectively,
making Eland
HK each
The rectangles GFDH

The difference between the
equal to BC, and draw IK.
EHKI are equal.

squares ABDE and BCGF
and
rectangle
ACKI, which
AB- BC.
is then
equivalent to the
has for dimensions AI
AB + BC,
C
and
EH
PLANE GEOMETRY.
192
BOOK
IV.
PROPOSITION
XL
PROBLEM.
To construct a square equivalent

two
given squares.
of
381,
sum
to the
Let R and R be two given squares.

Construction,
Construct the
Take
AB equal
AC equal
to
rt.
It
-f-
to a side of
to a side of
1
,
and draw BC.
Construct the square S, having each of
S is
R.
A.
its
sides equal to
the square required.
Proof,
on the hypotenuse of a rt. A

squares on the two
(the square
BC.
379
equivalent to the
sum
s).
:.& +
Ex. 296. If the perimeter of a rectangle
of the
Q.E.F.
is
72
feet,
and the length
is
"
to twice the width, find the area.

tiles 9 inches long and 4 inches wide will be
8
feet wide surrounding a rectangular court 120
a
pave path
feet long and 36 feet wide ?
How many
Ex. 297.
required to
Ex.
is
298.
equal to
The bases of a trapezoid are 16 feet and 10

Find the area of the trapezoid.
feet.
feet;
each leg
193
PEOBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION.
PROBLEM.
PROPOSITION XII.
382, To construct a square equivalent to the differ

ence of two given squares.
s
i
-J-
._
%/_
"""
Let R be the smaller square and R the

1

Construct the
Construction,
Take
From
to
rt.
JR.
A.
AB equal to a side
of
describe an arc cutting the line
Construct the square S, having each of
R.
(the square
on
AX
&\>
its sides
R\
O.
A 0.
equal to
AC
Proof.
larger.
JB as a centre, with a radius equal to a side of
is
~?7*,~~~-A
=0=
W - A3
380
either leg of a rt.

is equivalent to the difference of the
squares on the hypotenuse and the other leg).
==
R - R.
1
Q. E.
Ex. 299. Construct a square equivalent

whose sides are 3 inches and 4 inches.
to the
sum
Ex. 300. Construct a square equivalent to the

whose sides are 2 inches and 2 inches.
of
two squares
difference of
Ex. 301. Find the side of a square equivalent to the

squares whose sides are 24 feet and 32 feet.
F.
sum
of
two
two
Ex. 302. Find the side of a square equivalent to the difference of two
squares whose sides are 24 feet and 40 feet.
Ex. 303.
diagonal
is
A
10
rhombus contains 100 square feet, and the length of one

Find the length of the other diagonal.
feet.
194
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
PROPOSITION XIII.
TV.
PROBLEM.

any number of given squares.
383,
of
Let
m,
n, o, p,
sum
to the
be sides of the given squares.
To construct a square
=c=
-f n* -f o -f
-f r
2
.
Take AB = m.
Draw AC = n and _L to AB at A, and draw BG.
Draw GE = o and J_ to BG at O, and draw BE.
Draw EF =p and _L to BE at E, and draw BF.
Construction,
Draw
FH= r
and
J_ to
The square constructed on
BF at ^,
BH\s
and draw
BH.
Proof,
^ FIT + EF +
^F + EF* + ^C
2
=0=
* FH* + EO
(the
sum
That
of the squares
is,
-^r
EF + CA* + AB\
on the two leas of a rt. A

on the hypotenuse).
BH*
=c=
m + n*
-f-
o -f
is
379
equivalent to the square
+ r.
Q.E.F,
195
PROPOSITION XIV.
PROBLEM.
384, To construct a polygon similar to two given

similar polygons and equivalent to their sum.
"
A!
B"
.......
"Li
Let E and R be two similar polygons, and AB and

A B two homologous sides.
To construct a similar polygon equivalent
Construct the
Construction.
Take
PH= A
Draw OH, and

Upon
Then
Proof,
A"H",
J?"
is
homologous to
and
AB,
IV.
Z P.
PO = AB.
rt.
take
to JR-\-
A""
OH.
construct
It"
similar to
E.
the polygon required.
PO*
\r
fr=^
and
&"
(similar polygons are
:**
By
addition,
each other as the squares of their homologous sides).
^^ = ^ + ^ =1
to
B76
A""*
-B"
A""
.Sf-o-K +
Sf.
BOOK
PLANE GEOMETRY.
19G
PROPOSITION XV.
IV.
PROBLEM.
385, To construct a polygon similar to two given

similar polygons and equivalent to their difference.
/*
A!
13
A"
Let R and R be two similar

A B two homologous sides.
f
polygons,
To construct a similar polygon equivalent
and take
H.
R*
rt. Z P,
PO = AB.
as a centre, with, a radius equal to
describe an arc cutting
Take
to
and AS and
Construct the
Construction,
From
B"
A""
= PIT,
and on
construct
Then
R"
PX at IT,
is
P"
A B\
and join OH.
homologous
similar to R.
A"J3",
to
AB,
Proof,
E
other as the squares of their homologous sides).
(similar polygons are to each
By
subtraction,
72
E F
.
PROPOSITION XVI.
197
PROBLEM.
To construct a triangle equivalent
386,
polygon.
to
a given
Let ABGDHE be the given polygon.

Construction,
to the
given polygon.
From D draw DE,

and from J7draw EF to DE.
II
HF at F, and draw DF.
AEto
meet
Again, draw CF, and draw
duced at K, and draw CK.
Produce
DK
CF
to
II
to
meet
AF pro
In like manner continue to reduce the number of sides of

we obtain the
CIK.
the polygon until

Proof,
polygon
The polygon
ABGDHE,
ABCDF
For the part

and the A
(for the base
DE
is
ABODE
ABCK
II
their vertices
to the
base}.
common,
and
369
H are in
the line
has one side less than the

polygon
but the two are equivalent.
ABCF common,
CFK^ A CFD,
369
base CF
K and D are in the
common, and their
KD
the
In like manner the A CIK^= ABCK.
For the part
and the A
(for the
is
DEF^ A DEE,
common, and
FH
The polygon
ABCDF,
has one side less than the
but the two are equivalent.
is
is
vertices
II
to
line
base}.
Q. E.
F,
198
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
PROPOSITION XVII.
PROBLEM.
IV.
To construct a square which shall have a given

a given square.
387,
ratio to
/ /
m
IB
"V..
R be the given
square, and
___^
To construct a square which shall be
the given ratio.
R as n
to
is to
AB
Take
equal to a side of R, and
AB.
with
acute
angle
making any
Construction,
On Ay
take
AE=m, EF
n,
and join
m.
draw Ay,
EB.
FG to EB to meet AB produced at C.
On A C as a diameter describe a semicircle.
Draw
At
B erect
\\
the J.
BD,
meeting the semicircumference at D.
a side of the square required.

Then BD
and BD by x.
Denote AB by a, BO by
is
Proof.
b,
Now
a x
:
that
Hence, a will have the same

Therefore
(a straight line
2
:
is,
= ab.
ratio to x*
= a ab = a
:b = m:n,
2
x2
and
337
to ab.
b.
309
sides of a A, parallel to the third side,

divides those sides proportionally).
drawn through two
2
Therefore a
By
inversion, x*
Hence the square on

n has to m.
BD will
= m n.
a = n m.
x2
have the same ratio to
R as
Q. E.
F.
PROBLEM.
PROPOSITION XVIII.
388,
To construct a polygon similar
gon and having a given
199
ratio to
a given poly
to
it.
^x
\
_ ./
V.
A
Let R he the given polygon and
n

m.
to
the given ratio.
H, which shall be
R as
to
is to
Construction,
structed upon
as n is to m.
Upon
gon
AB
S similar
Find a
it
line
AB
such that the square con
shall be to the square constructed
upon
AB
387
as a side
to
homologous to
AB,
construct the poly
R.
Then
S is the polygon required.

S R = A B AB\
2
Proof,
376
(similar polygons are to each other as the squares of their homologous sides).
AB =n:m.
S R = n m.
AB
But
Therefore
Cons.
Q. E. F.
Ex. 304. Find the area of a right triangle

is 17 feet, and the length of one
leg is 8
nuse
if
the length of the hypote
feet.
Ex. 305. Compare the altitudes of two equivalent

base of one
is
triangles, if the
three times that of the other.
Ex. 306. The bases of a trapezoid are 8 feet and 10 feet, and the alti
Find the base of an equivalent rectangle having an equal
is 6 feet.
tude
altitude.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
200
BOOK
PROPOSITION XIX.
IV.
PROBLEM.
389.
a given
to
^parallelogram.
f)
Let ABCD be a parallelogram,
b its
altitude.

Construction,
Upon
and
a its
O ABCD.
to the
the line J/lTtake
base,
MN=
a,
and
N0 = b.
MO as a diameter, describe a semicircle.

At N erect NP -L to MO, to meet the circumference at P.
Upon
Then the square R, constructed upon a

is
equivalent to the
O ABCD.
MN NP = NP
Proof,
(a JL let fall
line equal to
337
NO,
from any point of a circumference
to the
NP,
diameter
is
a mean
the diameter).
proportional between the segments of
That
390,
ABCD.
is,
COR.
1.
square
may
be constructed equivalent to a
side a mean proportional be-
its
given triangle, by taking for
tween the base and one-half the altitude of the triangle.
square may be constructed equivalent

the polygon to an equivalent
polygon, by first reducing
to the
then
constructing a square equivalent
triangle, and
391,
i>m
<7z
triangle
COR. 2
to
201
PROPOSITION XX.
PROBLEM.
To construct a parallelogram equivalent to a

given square, and, having the sum of its base and
altitude equal to a given line.
392,
J JV
Let R be the given, square, and let the sum of the

base and altitude of the required parallelogram be
equal to the given line MN.
To construct a
and
equivalent
Construction,
At
Upon
erect a J_
Draw
PQ
II
MN&s
MP,
to
having
equivalent to R.
the
sum
of
equal to a side of the given square R.
MN cutting the circumference

t
CM for
its
to
at 8.
MN.
altitude
and
ON for
its
80= PM.
Proof,
MC:SC=SC:
But
ON.
NOTE. This problem
sum and product
may
be stated
of which are known.
is
337
ON,
any point in the circumference lo the diameter

proportional between ilic, segments of the diameter).
Then
base
100, 180
(a J_ let fall from
the
base
its
a diameter, describe a semicircle.
Draw SO A.
Any.O
R, with
to
MN.
altitude equal to
is
a mean
Q. E. F.
lines
PLANE GEOMETKY.
202
BOOK
PROPOSITION XXI.
IV.
PROBLEM.
To construct a parallelogram equivalent to a

given square, and having the difference of its base
and altitude equal to a given line.
393,
s
\
Afp-
JN
Let R be the given, square, and let the difference of

the base and altitude of the required parallelogram
be equal to the given line MN.
To construct a
base
and
Construction.
equivalent
Upon
to
with the difference of the
MN.
altitude equal to
the given line
JOTas
a diameter, describe
circle.
From
M draw
MS, tangent
of the given square
to the
O, and equal to a side
R.
Through the centre of the O draw SB intersecting the cir

(7 and B.
Then any O, as R having SB for its base and SC for its
cumference at
R.
altitude, is equivalent to
SB
Proof,
(if from
a point without
SM= SM
348
SO,
aQa secant and a tangent are drawn, the tangent
a mean proportional between
the whole secant
and
the
is
part without the O).
SM - SB X SC,
1
Then
and the
-difference
O, that
MN.
NOTE.
is,
between
SB
and
SO
is
the diameter of the

Q.E.F.

This problem may be stated
and product of which are known.
the difference
lines
PKOBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION.
PROPOSITION XXII.
203
PROBLEM.
394, To construct a polygon similar to a given poly

gon P, and equivalent to a given polygon Q.
fr
m-
W
Let
P and
Q be two polygons, and AB a side of P.

to P and
equivalent to Q.
Find squares equivalent to P and Q,
391

Construction,
and
let
AB
Upon A B
Find
m and n respectively
a fourth proportional to m, n, and
homologous
Then
Proof.
.
But
denote their sides.
P
m
m
1
,2
is
n
^2
AB,
to
construct
AB.
P similar
351
to
P.
= AB A B\
:
Cons.
P=c=m
P: Q=--m
and
Cons.
:tf--=
But
376
(similar polygons are to each other as the squares of their homologous sides).
:.P:Q=P:P.
/.
is
equivalent to Q, and
is
similar to
Ax.
P by construction.
Q. E.
F.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
204
BOOK
IV.
Ex. 307. To find the area of an equilateral triangle in terms of
its
side.
Denote the side by
a,
the altitude
by
h,
and the area by
S.
O ~2
_5>
Then
axh
But
\/3~
Ex. 308. To find the area of a triangle
By Ex.
219,
= f V7(s -
-X-
Hence,
a)
(s
in terms of its sides.
- b) (s -
Vs(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)
Vs (s
a)
(s
b) (s
c).
Ex. 309. To find the area of a triangle

circumscribing
Tf
c).
in terms of the radius of the
circle.
R denote
of the triangle,
the radius of the circumscribing circle, a*nd h the altitude
we
have, by Ex. 222,
A
Multiply by
But
a,
and we have
2 S.
abc
NOTE. The radius of the circumscribing
circle is
equal to
48
EXERCISES.
205
THEOREMS.
310. In a right triangle the product of the legs is equal to the product
of the hypotenuse and the perpendicular drawn to the hypotenuse from
the vertex of the right angle.
311.
If
BD a line
ABC
a right triangle, C
of the right angle,
the_vertex_
~
rr
D, then BD* + AC* = AB* +
is
cutting
AC in
312. Upon the sides of a right triangle as homologous sides three

similar polygons are constructed.
Prove that the polygon upon the
hypotenuse is equivalent to the sum of the polygons upon the legs.
Two
313.
of
its
altitude of one
is
each
equal to half the base of the other.
The area of a circumscribed polygon
314.
.>\
isosceles triangles are

equivalent if their legs are equal
and the
to each,
is
perimeter by the radius of the inscribed
equal to half the product
circle.
315. Two parallelograms are equaît-jfa^ adjacent sides of the one

are equal respectively to two adjacent sidjfcf the other, and the included
^**^^m$\
angles are supplementary.
316.
divides
Every
it
317.
into
straight line
two equal
If the middle points of
318. If
sum
\\
the, centre of a parallelogram
parts.
joined, a triangle is formed

entire parallelogram.
the
^"^
Hf~
drawn through
two adjacent
which
is
sides of a parallelogram are

equivalent to one-eighth of the
any point within a parallelogram is joined to the four vertices,

having parallel bases is equivalent to
of either pair of triangles

one-half the parallelogram.
319. The line which joins the middle

points of the bases of a trapezoid divides the trapezoid into two equivalent
parts.
320. The area of a trapezoid is equal to the
product of one of the
and the distance from this leg to the middle point of the other leg.
-
321.
The
lines joining the
middle point of the diagonal of a quadri
lateral to the opposite vertices divide the

quadrilateral into
lent parts.
\,
322.
The
figure
any quadrilateral
legs
two equiva
whose
is
vertices are the middle points of the sides of

equivalent to one-half of the quadrilateral.
323. ABC is a triangle, M the middle point of AB, P any point in

AB between A and M. If MD drawn parallel to PC, and meeting
BC at D, the triangle BPD is equivalent to one-half the triangle ABC.
is
206
BOOK
PLANE GEOMETRY.
IV.
324. Find the area of a rhombus,
4,
and their ratio is 3 5.
Find the area of an
325.
is
20 feet
sum
is
13
and 35
A house
its
feet
feet,
is
40
feet long,
30
feet,
is
feet.
if
one side
if
the
= b, and leg = c.
= 8. /(rU
altitude = h.
feet
to the eaves,
25
feet wide,
high
Find the number of squarefeet
high to the ridge-pole.
The
12
hypotenuse
one leg
Y>
in f
^S
entire exterior surface.
331.
is
isosceles triangle if the base
Find the area of an equilateral triangle

329. Find the area of an equilateral triangle
328.
330.
diagonals
Find the area of an
327.
its
isosceles right triangle if the
In a right triangle, the hypotenuse
326.
Find the area.
of
the
if
^fl^T
sides of a right triangle are as 3

Find the area.
is 12 feet.
5.
The altSrae upon
the hypotenuse
Find the area of a right triangle
332.
the hypotenuse
upon
*"^
Find the area of a triangle

111 feet, and 175 feet.
333.
feet,
feet respectively.
335.
feet,
ABCD
336.
What
whose radius
is
is
is
"/
and the
altitude
V-.
the lengths of the sides are 104
î=S7
AC=* 200 feet.
feet,
Find the
BC= 119
feet,
feet
CD = 41
area.
the area of a quadrilateral circumscribed about a circle

is 400 feet?
feet, if the perimeter of the quadrilateral
25
hexagon having an equal perimeter and circum

same circle ?
the area of a
scribed about the
337. The base of a triangle

the perimeter of an equivalent
338.
if
= a,
is 700
square feet. The bases are 30
Find the distance between the bases.
a trapezium;
is
DA = 169 feet,
What
one leg
The. area of a trapezoid
334.
and 40
if
h.
Upon
is
15
feet,
rhombus
and
if
its
altitude
the altitude
is
is
8 feet.
feet.
Find
c
the diagonal of a rectangle 24 feet by 10 feet a triangle

What is its altitude?
is constructed.
equivalent to the rectangle

339.
Find the side of a square equivalent to a trapezoid whose bases

and 44 feet, and each leg is 10 feet.
$
are 56 feet
a line is
Through a point Pin the side AB of a triangle ABC,
drawn parallel to BC, and so as to divide the triangle into two equiva
Find the value of AP in terms of AB.
lent parts.
340.
207
EXERCISES.
341.
What
cut off by a line

part of a parallelogram is the triangle
to the middle point of one of the opposite sides ?
drawn from one vertex

342.
25
feet.
In two similar polygons, two homologous sides are 15 feet and

The area of the first polygon is 450 square feet. Find the area
of the other polygon.
What is
343. The base of a triangle is 32 feet, its altitude 20 feet.
the area of the triangle cut off by drawing a line parallel to the base
and at a distance of 15 feet from the base ?
344. The sides of two equilateral triangles are 3 feet and 4
the side of an equilateral triangle equivalent to their sum.
345.
another,
346.
the
If the side of one equilateral triangle

what is the ratio of their areas ?
The
al^K
angle^êd by
which the triangle

two sides.
the
first
trapejaoid,
one base
is
10
feet,
v Find
is
348.
and 21
feet.
Find
feet.
divided by bisecting the
the altitude
the length of a line

and distant 1 foot from it.
parallel to the base
is
equal to the altitude of
sides of a triangle are 10 feet, 17 feet,
of the parts, into
347. In a
32 square
is
Find
feet.
is
feet,
the area
drawn between the
legs
If the altitude A of a triangle is increased by a length m, how

the base a in order that the area may remain
much must be taken from

the same
Find the area of a right triangle, having given the segments p,

into which the hypotenuse is divided by a perpendicular drawn to the
q,
hypotenuse from the vertex of the right angle.
349.
PROBLEMS.
350.
having one side equal
to a given. length
to
a given triangle, and
I.
an equivalent right
351.
To transform a triangle
into
352.
into an equivalent isosceles triangle.
353.
ABO
ing one side equal

HINTS. Upon
CD, and
to
a given length
I,
triangle.
into an equivalent
and one angle equal
triangle,
to angle
hav
BAG.
AB (produced if necessary), take AD = draw BE to

meeting AC (produced if necessary) at E\ A BED^&BEC.
I,
II
To transform a given triangle into an equivalent right triangle,

one
leg equal to a given length.
having
354.
BOOK
PLANE GEOMETRY.
208
IV.
To transform a given triangle into an equivalent right triangle,

the
hypotenuse equal to a given length.
having
355.
356. To transform a given triangle into an equivalent isosceles

angle, having the base equal to a given length.
tri
To construct a triangle equivalent to

The sum of two given triangles.
357.
two given
358.
The
359.
To transform a given
difference of
triangles.
triangle into an equivalent equilateral
triangle.
To transform a parallelogram
360.
361.
362.
A
A
A
363.
An
364.
A
A
into
366.
y^
equilateral triangle.
right triangle having one leg equal to a given length.
rectangle having one side equal to a given length.
>867.
rectangle having a given altitude.
To transform a square
365.
into
parallelogram having one side equal to a given length.

parallelogram having one angle equal to a given angle.
to
Five-eighths of a given square.

Three-fifths of a given pentagon.
To draw a
line through the vertex of a given triangle so. as to

divide the triangle into two triangles which shall be to each other as 2:3.
""368.
5* 369.
To divide a given triangle into two equivalent parts hy drawing
a line through a given point
in one of the sides.
370.
To
find
a point within a triangle, such that the lines joining this
point to the vertices shall divide the triangle into three equivalent parts.
"""371.
To divide a given
triangle into
two equivalent parts by drawing
a line parallel to one of the sides.

372. To divide a given triangle into two equivalent parts by drawing
a line perpendicular to one of the sides.
To divide a given parallelogram into two equivalent parts by

drawing a line through a given point in one of the sides.
374. To divide a given trapezoid into two equivalent parts by draw
^>373.
ing a line parallel to the bases.

"^375.
To divide a given tranezoid into two equivalent parts by draw
ing a line through a given point iu one of the bases.
BOOK
V.

395,
regular polygon
and equiangular
CIRCLES.
a polygon which
is
is
equilateral
as, for example, the equilateral triangle,
and
the square.
PROPOSITION
396,
An
THEOREM.
I.
equilateral polygon inscribed in
circle is
a regular polygon.
c
Let ABC
etc.,
be an equilateral polygon inscribed in
a circle.
To prove
Proof,
t fie
polygon
The
arcs
(in the
Hence
and
ABC
etc.,
regular.
AE, EC, CD,
etc.,
are equal,
same O, equal chords subtend equal
arcs
the
ABO, BCD,
A, B,
etc.,
230
arcs).
are equal,
Ax. 6
C, etc., are equal,
(being inscribed in equal segments).
Therefore the polygon
ABC,
equilateral and equiangular.
etc., is
a regular polygon, being
aE
Dt
210
PLANE GEOMETRY.
PROPOSITION
397,
circle
V.
THEOREM.
and a
any regular polygon.
be circumscribed about,
may
circle
may
II.
BOOK
be inscribed in,
Let ABODE be a regular polygon.

I.
To prove
that
circle
may
be
circumscribed about
ABODE.
Proof,
A, B,
be the centre of the circle passing through
Let
a
OA, OB, 00, and OD.
Join
Since the polygon
is
equiangular, and the
A OBCis isosceles,
154
and
By
Z OB A = Z. OCD.
subtraction,
Hence
in the
A OB A and OCD
Z OB A = Z OCD,
radius OB = the radius
the
the
AB=OD.
OAB = A OCD,
and
.-.A
(having two sides
and
OC,
the included
included
,
Z of the one equal

Z of the other).
395
to
two sides
.OA = OD.
Therefore the circle passing through A, B, and
D.
passes through
150
and the
C,
also

In like manner
it
through
C,
be proved that the circle passing

E\ and so on
may
and D,
Therefore a circle described from
II.
211
also passes through

all the vertices in succession.
through
radius
CIRCLES.
OA,
as a centre,
and with a
will be circumscribed about the polygon.
To prove that a
may
circle
be inscribed in
ABODE.
Since the sides of the
Proof,
regular polygon are equal

chords of the circumscribed circle, they are equally distant
from the centre.

Therefore a circle described from
the distance from
to a side of the
236
and with
as a centre,
polygon as a radius, will
be inscribed in the polygon.
The radius
398,
Q. E.D.
of the circumscribed circle,
OA,
called
is
the radius of the polygon.
The radius
399,
of the
apothem
scribed circles
is
side, as
is
called the
of the circumscribed
and
in
called the centre of the polygon.
The angle between
401,
OF,
polyyon.
The common centre
400,
any
of the inscribed circle,
angle
AOB,
is
radii
drawn
to the extremities of
called the angle at the centre of the
polygon.
By joining the centre to the vertices of a regular polygon,

the polygon can be decomposed into as many equal isosceles
Therefore,
triangles as it has sides.
1.
The angle at the centre of a regular polygon is
four right angles divided by the number of sides of
COR.
402,
equal
to
the polygon.
403,
polygon
404,
Con.
2.
The radius drawn
bisects the
COR.
3.
to
any
vertex of
a regular
angle at the vertex.
The
interior angle of
a regular polygon
is
the
supplement of the angle at the centre.
Z ABC = 2 Z ABO = Z ABO + /.BAO.

Z ABC is the supplement of the Z AOB.
For the
the
Hence
PLANE GEOMETRY.
212
PROPOSITION
BOOK
V.
THEOREM.
III.
If the circumference of a circle is divided into

parts, the chords joining the
405,
any number of equal
form a regular inscribed

and the tangents drawn at the points of
form a regular circumscribed polygon.
H
I
D
successive points of division
polygon,
division
F
Let the circumference be divided into equal
AJ3,
I.
arcs,
BC, CD, etc., be chords, FBG, GCH, etc., be tangents.

To prove that
is a regular
polygon.
ABODE
Proof,
The
(in the
sides
same
AB, EC, CD,
etc.,
230
are equal,
equal arcs are subtended by equal chords).
is
396
regular,
O is regular).
II. To prove that the polygon FGIIIKis a regular
polygon.
Proof, In the A AFB, BGC, CUD, etc.
(an equilateral polygon inscribed in a
AB - BC= CD,
Also,
Z BAF= Z
395
269
etc.
ABF= Z CBG = Z BOO,
etc.,
(being measured by halves of equal arcs).
Therefore the triangles are
Hence
all
equal isosceles triangles.
Z.F=/.G = Z.H,
etc.
FB = BG=GC = CH, etc.

Therefore FG = GH, etc.
a regular polygon.
/. FGH1K
Also,
is
395
Q. E. D.
1. Tangents to a circumference at the vertices of a

inscribed
regular
polygon form a regular circumscribed poly
gon of the same number oj
406.
COR.
REGULAR POLYGONS AND CIRCLES.

407,
COR.
the tangents
2.
213
If a regular polygon is inscribed in a

at the middle points
circle,
drawn
of the arcs subtended by the sides of the
polygon form a circumscribed regular

polygon, whose sides are parallel to the
polygon and whose
on the radii (prolonged) of
the inscribed polygon. For any two cor
sides of the inscribed
vertices lie
AB
and A B perpendicular to OM,

and the tangents
and
intersecting at a
from
&nd
0_ZV( 246), intersect upon the
point equidistant
bisector of the Z. MON( 163)
that is, upon the radius OB.
sides, as
responding
MB
are parallel,
NB
OM
If the vertices of a regular inscribed

are joined to the middle points of the arcs sub
tended by the sides of the polygon, the joining
408,
COR.
3.
lines form a regular inscribed polygon

double the number of sides.
of
409, COR. 4. If tangents are drawn at the

middle points of the arcs between adjacent
points of contact of the sides of
a regular
polygon
D K
cir
cumscribed polygon, a regular circumscribed
polygon of double the
number of
sides
is
formed.
SCHOLIUM. The perimeter of an inscribed polygon is

than the perimeter of the inscribed polygon of double the
number of sides; for each pair of sides of the second polygon
410,
less
is
(
greater than the side of the
first
polygon which they replace
137).
The perimeter of a circumscribed polygon is greater than

the perimeter of the circumscribed polygon of double the num
ber of sides for every alternate side FG, HI, etc., of the
poly
;
gon FGJTI,
etc., replaces portions of two sides of the circum

scribed polygon ABCD, and forms with them a
triangle, and
one side of a triangle is less than the sum of the other two sides.
214
411,
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
PROPOSITION IV.
THEOREM.
same number of
the
Two regular polygons of
V.
sides are similar.
Let Q and Q be two regular polygons, each having

1
n sides.
Q and Q
To prove
The sum
Proof,
similar polygons.
of the interior
A of each polygon
205
O-2)2rt,Zs,
(the
sum
of the interior
times
Each angle
(
for the
to 2 rt.
of a polygon is equal
less 2 as the polygon has sides).
of either polygon
equal to
is
= (n
*
2) 2
taken as
rt.
R
S
all equal and hence each

of a regular polygon are
divided by their number).
to the sum of the
many
is
nA
AJO
equal
Hence the two polygons

Since
AB = BO,
etc.,
AE\ A
Q and Q
and
are mutually equiangular.
AB =
C:
Hence the two polygons have
BC
their
395
etc.,
etc.
homologous sides
proportional.
319
Therefore the two polygons are similar.
412,
number
COR.
The areas of two regular polygons of
of sides are
homokgous.
sides.
to
a E. D.
the
same
each other as the squares of any two
THEOREM.
PROPOSITION V.
413,
215
CIECLES.
The perimeters of two regular polygons of the
same number of sides are
to
each other as the radii
of their circumscribed circles,

of their inscribed circles.
and
A M B
also as the radii
Let P and P denote the perimeters,

centres, of the two regular polygons.
From
P P = OA
To prove
Proof,
draw OA, O
0,
OB, O
OA
and
= OM: O M
and
Ja
O>
OM, O
the
411
Since the polygons are similar,
333
In the
isosceles
A OAB and
and
.
OAB
OA OB = O A O B
A OAB and O A B are similar.

.:A:A =OA:0 A
the
AB A B = OM:
Also
(the
homologous altitudes of similar

/.
P:P =OA:
O
A have the same ratio
O A = OM: OM
326
319
328
as their bases).
.
Q. E. D.
COR. The areas of two regular polygons of the same

number of sides are to each other as the squares of the radii
414,
of their circumscribed circles,

radii of their inscribed circles.
and
also as the squares of the
376
216
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
PROPOSITION VI.
THEOREM.
V.
The difference between the lengths of the perima regular inscribed polygon and of a similar
circumscribed polygon is indefinitely diminished as
415.
eters of
the
number of the sides of
the polygons is indefinitely
increased.
Let P and P denote the lengths of the perimeters,

corresponding sides, OA and OA the
r
AB and A B two
radii, of the polygons.
To prove
indefinitely
Proof,
that,
number
as the
P
increased, f
of the sides of the polygons

diminished.
is
is indefinitely
Since the polygons are similar,
P:P=OA
P
Whence
OA(P
Now OA
is
:OA.
P P OA
Therefore
333
OA
P) = P(OA
OA.
301
- OA).
295
the radius of the circle, and P,
though an
increasing variable, always remains less than the circumference

of the circle.
Therefore
is
Pis
indefinitely diminished,
if
OA
OA
Draw
the radius
In the
A OA C,
Substituting
OA
00 to
OA
the point of contact of
for its equal
OA
AC.
00, we have
OC<
OA<A O.
A JB
137
217
CIRCLES.
But as the number of sides of the polygon is indefinitely

increased, the length of each side is indefinitely diminished
and consequently
that is,
C, is indefinitely diminished.
;
AE
Therefore
OA
OA, which
P P
is
is less
than
C, is
indefinitely
diminished.
1
Therefore
The
COR.
416,
E D
areas of a regular
difference between the
and
inscribed polygon
of a similar circumscribed polygon
is
the number of the sides of the poly

indefinitely diminished as
gons
increased.
is indefinitely
if
For,
and
S
By division, S
denote the areas of the polygons,
8= OZ OA = OA
- S: S= OA - 00*
2
*
:
00\
414
00*.
S -8= 8x OA *IL OC = 8x 4
00
OO
Whence
C can be indefinitely diminished by increasing the

of the sides, /S
can be indefinitely diminished.
Since
number
SCHOLIUM. The perimeter P is constantly greater

and the area S is constantly greater than 8\ for the
than
radius OA is constantly greater than OA. But
constantly
decreases and
constantly increases ( 410), and the area S
constantly decreases, and the area S constantly increases, as
1
417,
the
number
of sides of the polygons
Since the difference between
we
small as
since
P
is
and
is
please, but cannot
is
indefinitely increased.
can be made as
and
be made absolutely
the length of the circumference.

Also, since the difference between the areas
made
zero,
as small as
and since
evident that
common
zero,
and
is
decreasing while
increasing, it is evident that
This common limit
tend towards a common limit.
limit
is
/S"
we
is
and
259
and
S can
be
please, but cannot be made absolutely

decreasing, while S is increasing, it is
tend towards a
the area of the circle.
common
limit.
This
218
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
PROPOSITION VII.
THEOREM.
Two circumferences have
418.
the
V.
same
ratio as
their radii.
Let C and C be the circumferences, R and R the

two circles Q and Q
radii, of the
C\C = E\
To prove
Iff.
two similar regular polygons, and

and P.
perimeters by
Inscribe in the
Proof,
denote their
P-P = R:R
Then
P= R
X P.
413) that is, Iff X
Conceive the number of the sides of these similar regular
polygons to be indefinitely increased, the polygons continuing
to have an equal
RXP
Then
will
approach
(l
number
of sides.
Rx
will continue equal to

and
P, and
and C 1 as their respective limits.
indefinitely
R XC= RxC
/.
260)
that
C:
is,
=R
Iff.
Q. E. D.
419.
COR.
diameter
is
The
ratio of the circumference of a circle to its

For, in the above proportion, by doubling
constant.
both terms of the ratio
J3
By
This constant ratio

is
we have
C:2R=C
alternation,
whose diameter
=2:2
C:C
is
2 J2
denoted by
IT,
so that for
R and circumference
-- = or
SCHOLIUM. The
ratio
C,
any
circle
we have
C=2>rrR.
ir,
420,
TT is
incommensurable, and there
fore can be expressed in figures only approximately.
REGULAR POLYGONS AND CIRCLES.
219
THEOREM.
PROPOSITION VIII.
421, The area of a regular polygon is equal to onehalf the product of its apothem by its perimeter.
Let P represent the perimeter, R the apothem, and

8 the area of the regular polygon ABC etc.
8= % E X P.
To prove
Draw OA, OB, OC,
Proof.
The polygon
The apothem
and the area
is
is
divided into as
the
common
many
A as
it
altitude of these
is
equal to
of all the
is
of each
etc.
-J
has
A,
R multiplied
base.
Hence the area

the
sum
sides.
by the
368
equal to ^ It multiplied by
of all the bases.
But the sum
of the areas of all the
is
equal to the area
of the polygon.
and the sum
of all the bases of the
is
equal to the perim
eter of the polygon.
Therefore
S=
RX P.
Q. E. D.
422,
In different circles similar arcs, similar
sectors,
and
similar segments are such as correspond to equal angles at

the centre.
220
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
PROPOSITION IX.
THEOREM.
The area of a
423,
equal to one-half the

circumference.
circle is
radius by
its
product of
V.
its
BMC
Let E represent the radius, C the circumference,

and S the area, of the circle.
S=%RxC.
To prove
Circumscribe any regular polygon about the

and denote its perimeter by P.
Proof,
Then the area
of this polygon
=|EX
P,
circle,
421
Conceive the number of sides of the polygon to be indefi

then the perimeter of the polygon approaches
nitely increased
the circumference of the circle as its limit, and the area of the
;
polygon approaches the circle as its limit.

But the area of the polygon continues to be equal to onehalf the product of the radius by the perimeter, however great
the
number
of sides of the polygon.
Therefore
S - %R X &
260
Q. E. D.
COR.
424.
of
its
1.
radius by
circle as its arc
425,
COR.
2.
The area of a sector equals one-half the product

For the sector is such a part of the
its arc.
is
of the circumference.
The area of a
of its radius.
For the area of the
circle equals
IT
O = | R X O= $ E X
times the square

The areas of two
426, COE. 3.
squares of their radii.

and JR the radii,
For,
are
circles
8 and S
if
221
CIRCLES.
each other as the
to
denote the areas, and
Con.
427,
4.
Similar arcs, being like parts of their respective

to each other as their radii ; similar sectors,
circumferences, are
being like parts of their respective circles, are
to
each other as
the squares of their radii.
PROPOSITION X.
THEOREM.
428. The areas of two similar segments are to each

other as the squares of their radii.
^.4^
JL~
JB
P
Let AC and A C be the radii of the two similar seg

ments ABP and A B P
1
ABP A B P = AC* A C
To prove
Proof.
The
A* C B are
centre, C and C
ACB and
sectors
*.
422
similar,
A at the
equal).
In the A ACBsuiAA C B
Z.0=/. C AC= CB, and A C = C B
Therefore the A ACB and A C B are similar.
Now sector ACB sector A C B = AC* A C
(having the
and
TT n
That
AACJ3:AA C B = AC: A^
sector ACS- A AC3
_ AC*
~~
-A
sector A C
ABP A B P = AC
1
is,
326
427
*,
375
qm
AW
Q.E.O.
222
PLANE GEOMETKY.
BOOK
V.
PROBLEM.
PROPOSITION XI.
To inscribe a square in a given
429.
Let
To
be the centre of the given
inscribe
a square in the
Draw
Construction,
circle.
circle.
circle.
the two diameters
AC
and
ED
J_ to
each other.
Join
AE, EC, CD, and DA.
AECD
The A ABC,
Then
Proof.
is
BCD,
etc.,
are
rt,
264
A,
(being inscribed in a semicircle),
and the
(in the
same
sides
AE, EC,
etc.,
230
are equal,
equal arcs are subtended by equal chords ).
Hence the
figure
A BCD
is
5m
a square.
Q. E. F.
COR.
430.
polygon
By
bisecting .the arcs
of eight sides
may
AE, EC,
etc.,
a,
regular
be inscribed in the circle ; and, by
continuing the process, regular polygons of sixteen, thirty-two,

sixty-four,
etc.,
sides
may
be inscribed.
Ex. 376. The area of a circumscribed square
is
equal to twice the
area of the inscribed square.
Ex. 377. If the length of the
what
is
side of
an inscribed square
the length of the circumscribed square
is
2 inches,
223
PROBLEM.
PROPOSITION XII.
431,
To inscribe a regular hexagon in a given
Let
be the centre of the given
To inscribe in the given
From
Construction,
From
(7
circle
circle.
circle.
a regular hexagon.
draw any
radius, as OC.
as a centre, with a radius equal to 00,
describe an arc intersecting the circumference at F.
Draw Oând OF.

Then
Proof,
CF is
The
Hence the
And
a side of the regular hexagon required.
A OFC
is
Z FOO is
FO is
the arc
-jt
equilateral
of 2
rt.
and equiangular.
A, or \ of 4
of the circumference
rt,
138
ABCF.
Therefore the chord FC, which subtends the arc FC,

side of a regular hexagon
is
and the
figure
times as a chord,
COR.
CFD
is
etc.,
formed by applying the radius
a regular hexagon.
By
joining the alternate vertices A, O, D,

inscribed in the circle.
equilateral triangle
432,
1.
six
E F
.
an
is
433,
COR.
2.
By
bisecting the arcs
AB, BO,
etc.,
a regular
polygon of twelve sides may be inscribed in the circle ; and, by

continuing the process, regular polygons of twenty-four, fortybe inscribed.
eight, etc., sides may
224
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
PROPOSITION XIII.
434,
V.
PROBLEM.
To inscribe a regular decagon in a given
circle.
B
Let
be the centre of the given circle.

To inscribe a regular decagon in the
given circle.
Draw
Construction,
and divide
be to OS. as
OS is
From C as
the radius OC,
extreme and mean
in
it
ratio, so that
00 shall
356
to SO.
a centre, with a radius equal to OS,
describe an arc intersecting the circumference at B,
and
draw EG.
Then BC\$ a
side of the regular decagon required.
Draw
Proof,
BS and
BO.
OC:OS=OS: SO,
BC=OS.
construction
By
and
OC\BC--=BC:SC.
Z 0GB = Z SCB.
0GB and BC8 are similar,
Moreover, the
Hence
(having an
the
of the one equal
But the
(its sides
.
A BCS,
is
and
A 0GB
00 and OB
which
an
of the other,
proportional).
to
is
and
Iden.
isosceles,
being radii of the same
A OCB,
CB^BSÔS.
similar to the
326
the including sides
circle).
is
isosceles,
225
the
. .
But the
Hence
the
is isosceles,
and the
#<?.(=
and
/.
Z = Z SBO.
145
ext. Z CSB = Z
+ Z 50 = 2 Z 0.
Z OS5) - 2Z 0,
Z
154
154
Z OBC(= Z flCS) = 2 Z 0.
= 2 rt. A,
of the A of the A OCB = 5 Z
A SOB
sum
and
of 2
Therefore the arc
and the chord BCia a
rt.
A, or
of 4
BG is -fa of the
rt.
circumference,
side of a regular inscribed decagon.
Hence, to inscribe a regular decagon, divide the radius in

extreme and mean ratio, and apply the greater segment ten
times as a chord.
Q.E.
435,
COR.
1.
By
inscribed decagon,
F.
joining the alternate vertices of a regular
a regular pentagon
is
inscribed.
436, COR. 2. By bisecting the arcs BG, OF, etc., a regular

polygon of twenty sides may be inscribed; and, by continuing
the process, regular polygons offorty, eighty, etc., sides may be
inscribed.
Let R denote the radius of a regular inscribed polygon, r the apothem,

the angle at the centre show that
a one side, A an interior angle, and
;
Ex. 378. In a regular inscribed triangle a
= R \/3,
r =
R,
A = 60,
C= 120.
Ex.379. In an inscribed square a
= R V2,
Ex. 380. In a regular inscribed hexagon a =
= %ftV2,
= %R V3, A = 120,
^1
0=60.
Ex. 381. In a regular inscribed decagon
,
A=
144,
(7=36.
= 90,
226
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
PROPOSITION XIV.
PROBLEM.
V.
To inscribe in a given circle a regular pentedecagon, or polygon of fifteen sides.

437,
E
Let Q be the given
To inscribe in
Construction,
F
circle.
a regular pentedecagon.
Draw
EH equal to a side of a regular inscribed

431
hexagon,
and
EF equal to a side of a regular inscribed decagon.

Join
Then
434
FH.
FH will be a side of a regular inscribed pentedecagon.

The
Proof,
arc
EH\&
and the arc
Hence the
arc
EF
FJIis
and the chord FIT
is
J-
is
of the circumference-,
-^
of the circumference.
y^, or
-j^,
of the circumference,
a side of a regular inscribed pente
decagon.
By
applying
FH
fifteen times as a
chord,
we have
the
polygon required.
438,
COR.
By
bisecting the arcs
polygon of thirty sides
may
FH, HA,
etc.,
a regular
be inscribed; and, by continuing
the process, regular polygons of sixty, one

sides, may be inscribed.
hundred twenty,
etc.>
PROPOSITION
XV.
227
PROBLEM.
To inscribe in a given circle a regular polygon

similar to a given regular polygon.
439,
Let ABCD etc., be the given regular polygon, and

C D E the given circle.
To inscribe in the
a regular polygon similar
circle
to
ABCD,
etc.
Construction,
From
0, the centre of the given polygon,
draw
From
OD
and 00.
the centre of the given circle,
draw
aO
making
the
and
Then C
is
CDE
will
have as many
rt. A.
contained times in 4
gon
will be a side of the regular poly^
Each polygon
Proof,
(= Z
=Z 0.
Draw C
OD
DE
etc., is
similar to the poly
411
etc.,
(two regular polygons of the same
number of sides are
similar).
228
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
PROPOSITION XVI.
PROBLEM.
V.
440, Given the radius and the side of a regular

inscribed polygon, to find the side of the regular
inscribed polygon of double the number of sides.
LetAB be a side of the regular inscribed polygon.

To find the value of AD, a side of a regular inscribed poly
gon of double
the
number of sides.
D draw DH through the centre 0, and draw OA, AH.

DITis _L to AB at
middle point C.
123
From
its
Inthert.A(L4<?,
That
OC*= OA* - A0\
339
OC=
is,
hence
Therefore,
In the
rt.
00=
A DAH,
264
334
= 20A(OA-OC),
AD = V2 OA (OA-00).
and
If
for
we denote
the radius by R, and substitute
Vj?
00, then
AD =Q.E.F.
229
PROPOSITION XVII.
441,
PROBLEM.
To compute the ratio of the circumference of a

diameter approximately.
circle to its
Let C be the circumference, and
the radius.
To find the numerical value of IT.
419
Therefore
We
when
E = I,
ir
= %C.
make
the following computations by the use of the

formula obtained in the last proposition, when
1, and
R=
AB = 1
(a side of a regular hexagon).
No.
Form
Bides.
of Computation.
Length of Side.
Length of Perimeter.
=2-V4-
0.51763809,
6.21165708
ca
=V2-V4-(0.5176380l^
0.26105238
6.26525722
48
c,
= V2 - V4~- (0261052^7
0.13080626
6.27870041
96
=2-4-
0.06543817
6.28206396
12
24
0.03272346
6.28290510
c6
= V2- V4^(0706543817f
= V2 - V4 - (0.03272346)
0.01636228
6.28311544
cT
=V2-Vi- (0.016362217
0.00818121
6.28316941
192
Cft
384
768
Hence we may consider 6.28317

cumference of a
Therefore
442,
whose radius
TT
as approximately the cir
unity.
= -J(6.28317) = 3.14159 nearly.
SCHOLIUM. In
<*
is
practice,
= 3.1416,
we
generally take
1 = 0.31831.
7T
aE
F.
BOOK
PLANE GEOMETRY.
230
MAXIMA AND MINIMA.

443,
Among
is
greatest
the
of a circle
inscribed straight lines
all straight lines
is
the
maximum among
all
and a perpendicular is the minimum

drawn from a point to a given line.
Isoperimetric figures are
444,
SUPPLEMENTARY.
magnitudes of the same kind, that which is

maximum, and that which is smallest is the
minimum.
Thus the diameter
among
V.
figures
which have equal
perimeters.
PROPOSITION XVIII.
THEOREM.
445, Of all triangles having two given sides, that

in which these sides include a right angle is the
maximum.
Let the triangles ABC and EEC have the sides AB

and EG equal respectively to EB and EC ; and let the
ABC
angle
be a right angle.
To prove
Proof,
A ABC
From
E let
>
fall
A EEC.
the -L
ED.
A ABC
and EEC, having the same base BO, are to

The
370
and ED.
each other as their altitudes
Now
By
AB
EB ED.
EB = AB.
AB ED.
114
>
hypothesis,
.-.
>
Q.E.O
MAXIMA AND MINIMA.
PROPOSITION XTX.
231
THEOREM.
446, Of all triangles having the same base and equal

perimeters, the isosceles triangle is the maximum.
Let the A ACB and

let the
&ACB
To prove
Proof,
circle
equal perimeters, and
A A CB A ADB.
AC to H, making CH= AC, and join HB.
>
Produce
ABH\&
ADB have
be isosceles.
a right angle, for
whose centre
is C,
it
will be inscribed in the semi
and radius CA.
HB, and take DP= DB.

Draw CK and DM\\ to AB, and join AP.
Now AH= AC+ CB = AD+DB = AD + DP.
Produce
Rut
AD +
Z>P>AP,
Therefore
But
KB = HB
i
Hence
By
180,
KB = CE
and
hence
HB
and
>
AH>
AP.
BP.
120
MB =IBP.
121
JT.>Jf..
MB = DF,
the altitudes of the
& ACB and ADB.

Therefore
ABC>
A ADB.
370
Q. E. D.
232
Of
447,
the
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
PROPOSITION XX.
THEOREM.
V.
all polygons with sides all .given

can be inscribed in a semicircle
one,
"but
maximum
has the undetermined side for
which
diameter.
its
Let ABODE be the maximum of polygons with sides

AB, BC, CD, DE, and the extremities A and E on the
straight line MN.
To prove
Proof,
The
ABODE can be inscribed in a semicircle.
From any
vertex, as C,
A AGE must
be the
draw
CA
maximum
and CE.
of all
having the
given sides
CA
increase the
A ACE, while the rest of the polygon will remain
and CE; otherwise, by increasing or diminish

the
Z
ACE,
keeping the sides CA and CE unchanged, but
ing
A and along the line MN, we can
the
extremities
sliding
unchanged, and therefore increase the polygon.
But
the
this is contrary to the hypothesis that the
maximum
Hence the
maximum.
polygon.
A ACE with the given sides CA
Therefore the
(the
maximum
of A
C lies
CE
a right angle,
having two given sides is the

including a rt. Z).
Therefore
Hence
Z ACE is
and
polygon
is
is
the
445
A with the two given sides
on the semi-circumference.
264
that is, the

every vertex lies on the circumference
can be inscribed in a semicircle having the
;
maximum polygon
undetermined side
for a diameter.
o. E. D.
MAXIMA AND MINIMA.
PROPOSITION XXI.
448,
Of
233
THEOREM.
all polygons ivith given sides, that

circle is the maximum.
which
can be inscribed in a
Let ABODE be a polygon inscribed in a circle, and

be a polygon, equilateral with respect to
which
cannot be inscribed in a circle.
ABCDE,
AB CDE
ABCDE greater than A B
To prove
Draw
Proof,
the diameter
Join
Upon O
(= CD)
OS"
and
construct the
and draw
Now
ABCH>
and
(of all
AH.
DIL
AB CH
AEDH>A
= A CHD,
C IT D
447
E D IF,
polygons with sides all given but one, the maximum can be inscribed
in a semicircle having the undetermined side for its diameter).
Add
these
two
ABCHDE>
Take away from the two
Then
inequalities, then
A B C IT D E
A CHD and C H D
ABCDE
Q E D
figures the equal
ABCDE
>
234
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
PROPOSITION XXII.
449,
V.
THEOREM.
Of isoperimetric polygons of the same number
of sides, the
maximum
is equilateral.
Let ABCD etc., be the maximum of isoperimetric

polygons of any given number of sides.
To prove
AB, EC, CD, etc., equal.
Draw^(7.
Proof,
The A ABC must be the maximum of all the
which are
formed upon
AC with
a perimeter equal to that of

AEG.
a greater
could be substituted for
A AKC
Otherwise,
ABC, without changing the perimeter of the polygon.
But this is inconsistent with the hypothesis that the poly
gon
ABCD
(of all
etc., is
the
maximum
/.
the
A AEG
having the same base and equal perimeters, the
In like manner
450,
The
COR.
same number
it
may
of sides
maximum
maximum).
be proved that
maximum
is
446
isosceles
EG= CD,
etc.
is
the
E D
.
of isoperimetric polygons of the
a regular polygon.
449
equilateral,
sides is
number
the
same
of
polygons
of
of isoperimetric
For,
(the
polygon.
is isosceles,
it is
equilateral).
448
circle,
maximum of all polygons formed of given sides can be inscribed in a O).
That is, it is equilateral and equiangular,
395
and therefore regular.
.
Also
(the
it
can be inscribed in a
Q. E. D.
MAXIMA AND MINIMA.
PROPOSITION XXIII.
Of isoperimetric regular
451,
235
THEOREM.
polygons, that which
is the maximum.
has the greatest number of sides

o
Let Q be a regular polygon of three sides, and Q

a regular polygon of four sides, and let the two polygons have equal perimeters,
f
To prove
greater than Q.
CD from
A CD A and
Draw
Proof,
Invert the
D fall at
C"to
any point
place
it
in
AB.
in the position
DCE
let
D, and A at E.
The polygon DBCE is an irregular polygon of four sides,
which by construction has the same perimeter as Q and the
same area as Q.
Then the irregular polygon DBCE of four sides is less than
450
the regular isoperimetric polygon Q of four sides.
In like manner it may be shown that Q is less than a regular
Q E- Dp
isoperimetric polygon of five sides, and so on.
ting
C,
C at
452,
Con. The area of a
any polygon
circle is greater
than the area of
of equal perimeter.
382. Of all equivalent parallelograms having equal bases, the rec

tangle has the least perimeter.
-"
383.
Of
all
rectangles of a given area, the square has the least
perimeter.
384. Of all triangles upon the same base,
tude, the isosceles has the least perimeter.
385.
To divide a
shall be a
straight line into
maximum.
and having the same
two parts such that
alti
their product
PLANE GEOMETRY.
236
XXIV.
PROPOSITION
BOOK
V.
THEOREM.
453, Of regular polygons having a given area, that

which has the greatest number of sides has the least
perimeter.
Let Q and Q be regular polygons having the same

and let Q have the greater number of sides.
1
area,
To prove the perimeter of

Proof,
eter as
Q greater
than the perimeter of
Let Q be a regular polygon having the same

Q and the same number of sides as Q.
perim
>
451
Q",
which has the greatest

(of isoperimetric regular polygons, that
sides is the maximum).
But
.:
But
>
Q = the perimeter of
the perimeter of
the perimeter of
>
that of
The circumference of a
perimeter of any
oj
Q".
>
number
the perimeter of
COR.
To
Q= Q
Q
the perimeter of
/.
386.
Then
454,
circle
Q
is
Q".
Q".
Cons.
a E. D.
less
than the
polygon of equal area.
inscribe in a semicircle a rectangle having a given area;

maximum area.
a rectangle having the
387. To find a point in a semi-circumference such that the sum of

distances from the extremities of the diameter shall be a maximum.
its
237
EXERCISES.
THEOREMS.
388. The side of a circumscribed equilateral triangle is equal to twice
the side of the similar inscribed triangle. Find the ratio of their areas.
The apothem
389.
of an inscribed equilateral triangle
is
equal to half
is
equal to half
the radius of the circle.

390. The apothem of an inscribed regular
the side of the inscribed equilateral triangle.
hexagon
391. The area of an inscribed regular hexagon

fourths that of the circumscribed regular hexagon.
is
equal to three-
392. The area of an inscribed regular hexagon is a mean proportional

between the areas of the inscribed and the circumscribed equilateral
triangles.
The area of an inscribed regular octagon is equal to that of a

rectangle whose sides are equal to the sides of the inscribed and the cir
393.
cumscribed squares.
394. The area of an inscribed regular dodecagon
times the square of the radius.
^ 395.
lar
Every
equal to three
equilateral polygon circumscribed about a circle
has an odd number of
if it
is
396. Every equiangular polygon inscribed in a circle

has an odd number of sides.
is
regu
regular
Every equiangular polygon circumscribed about a
397.
is
sides.
if it
circle
is
regular.
398. Upon the six sides of a regular hexagon squares are constructed
outwardly. Prove that the exterior vertices of these squares are the ver
tices of
a regular dodecagon.
The alternate vertices of a regular hexagon are joined by straight

Prove that another regular hexagon is thereby formed. Find the
ratio of the areas of the two hexagons.
399.
lines.
400.
The radius
between
tional
its
of an inscribed regular polygon is the mean propor

apothem and the radius of the similar circumscribed
regular polygon.
401.
The area
diameter
402.
to the
is
of a circular ring
a chord of the outer
The square of the
sum
circle
is
equal to that of a circle whose

to the inner circle.
and a tangent
side of an inscribed regular

pentagon is equal
of the squares of the radius of the circle and the side of the
inscribed regular decagon.
238
If
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
V.
R denotes the radius of a circle, and a one side of a regular inscribed
polygon, show that
403.
In a regular pentagon, a
~ VlO
=R
404.
In a regular octagon,
405.
In a regular dodecagon, a
2\/5.
406. If on the legs of a right triangle, as diameters, semicircles are

described external to the triangle, and from the whole figure a semicircle
on the hypotenuse is subtracted, the remainder is equivalent to the given
triangle.
407.
The radius
of a circle
408.
The radius of a
= r.
circle
If the radius of a circle
polygon
is
polygon
is
a,
Find one
side of the circumscribed
Find one
side of the circumscribed
^Vv^
regular hexagon.
409.
= r.
-^ y-5
show that the
is r,
and the
side of
an inscribed regular
side of the similar circumscribed regular
2ar
equal to
V4r -a2
= r\ Prove
410.
The radius
regular octagon
411.
The
is
of a circle
that the area of the inscribed
2
equal to 2r \/2.L-
sides of three regular octagons are 3 feet, 4 feet,
and 5
feet,
Find the side of a regular octagon equal in area to the

respectively.
sum of the areas of the three given octagons.
What
is the width of the

ring between two concentric circum
whose lengths are 440 feet and 330 feet?
413. Find the angle subtended at the centre by an arc 6 feet 5 inches
412.
ferences
long, if the radius of the circle
414.
whose length
415.
is
8 feet 2 inches.
Find the angle subtended at the centre of a
What
is
is
equal to the radius of the
circle
by an
arc
circle.
the length of the arc subtended by one side of a regular

in a circle whose radius is 14 feet?
dodecagon inscribed
416.
56
feet.
Find the
side of a square equivalent to a circle
whose radius
is
239
EXERCISES.
Find the area of a
417.
a square containing 196
circle inscribed in
feet.
square
418.
The diameter of a
circular grass plot
is
28
feet.
Find the diam
eter of a circular plot just twice as large.
419.
Find the
cular piece of
420.
The radius
times as large
421.
side of the largest square that can be cut out of a cir

radius is 1 foot 8 inches.
wood whose
?
of a circle
^ as large
The radius of a
is
What
3 feet.
-^ as large
circle is 9 feet.
is
the radius of a circle 25
What
are the radii of the con
centric circumferences that will divide the circle into three

equivalent
parts?
22.
feet.
423.
inches.
The chord of half an arc is 12

Find the height of the arc.
feet,
and the radius of the
The chord of an arc is 24 inches, and the height

Find the diameter of the circle.
424. Find the area of a sector,

and the angle at the centre 22J.
425. The radius of a circle = r.
if
circle is
of the arc
the radius of the circle
28
is
is
feet,
Find the area of the segment sub
tended by one side of the inscribed regular hexagon.

426.
If the
Three equal
common
radius
circles are described,

is r,
each touching the other two.

between the circles.
find the area contained
PROBLEMS.
To circumscribe about a given
427.
An
428..
circle
429.
430.
square.
A
A
regular hexagon.
regular octagon.
To draw through a given point a line so that it

given circumference into two parts having the ratio 3 7.
132. To construct a circumference
equal to the sum
431.
shall divide
of
two given
(^jumferences.
sum
433.
To construct a
circle
equivalent to the
434.
To construct a
circle
equivalent to three times
435.
To construct a
circle
equivalent to three-fourths of a given
of
two given
a given
circles.
circle.
To divide a given circle by a concentric circumference

Into two equivalent parts.
437. Into five equivalent
circle.
436.
parts,
PLANE GEOMETRY.
240
BOOK
V.
MISCELLANEOUS EXEKCISES.
THEOREMS.
The
line joining the feet of the perpendiculars dropped from the

extremities of the base of an isosceles triangle to the opposite sides is
438.
parallel to the base.
439.
AD bisect the angle A of triangle ABC, and BD bisect the

CBF, then angle ADB equals one-half angle ACB.
If
a,
exterior angle
440.
The sum
pointed star)
(five-
441.
The
bisectors of the angles of a parallelogram form a rectangle.
442.
The
altitudes
of the triangle
D,
of the acute angles at the vertices of a pentagram

equal to two right angles.
is
AD, BE, CF of the
triangle
ABC bisect the angles
DEF.
HINT. Circles with AB, BO, AC as diameters will pass through

D and F, respectively.
an^
E and
443.
the portions
of
any
cumferences of two concentric
straight line intercepted between the cir

circles are equal.
AB
of the
444. Two circles are tangent internally at P, and a chord
Prove that PC bisects the
larger circle touches the smaller circle at C.
angle
APB.
Draw
HINT.
common tangent
at P,
and apply \\ 263, 269, 145.
445. The diagonals of a trapezoid divide each other into segments

which are proportional.
446. The perpendiculars from two vertices of a triangle upon the
opposite sides divide each other into segments reciprocally proportional.

447.
If through a point
P in
the circumference of a circle two chords
are drawn, the chords and the segments between

to the tangent at Pare reciprocally proportional.
448.
The perpendicular from any point
and a chord parallel
of a circumference
upon a
mean proportional between the perpendiculars from the same

point upon the tangents drawn at the extremities of the chord.
449. In an isosceles right triangle either leg is a mean proportional
chord
is
between the hypotenuse and the perpendicular upon
it
from the vertex
of the right angle.
The area of a triangle is equal to half the product

by the radius of the inscribed circle.
450.
eter
of
its
perim
241
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES.
The perimeter of a triangle
451.
from the opposite vertex
The sum
452.
is
to one side as the perpendicular
to the radius of the inscribed circle.
is
of the perpendiculars from any point within a convex

upon the sides is constant.
equilateral polygon
453.
diameter of a circle
divided into any two parts, and upon
is
these parts as diameters semi-circumferences are described on opposite

sides of the given diameter. Prove that the sum of their lengths is equal
and that they divide the

two parts whose areas have the same ratio as the two parts
to the semi-circumference of the given circle,

circle into
into
which the diameter
divided.
is
Lines drawn from one vertex of a parallelogram to the middle

points of the opposite sides trisect one of the diagonals.
454.
If
455.
any secant
two
is
straight lines BC,
drawn
BD,
limited
are to each other as the diameters of the circles.
If three straight lines
456.
A and B, and through A

by the circumferences at C and D, the
circles intersect in the points
CAD
A A BB CC f
,
drawn from
ABC
to the opposite sides, pass through a

of a triangle
within the triangle, then
OB
BE
OA
AA
the vertices
common
PC = l
CC*
Two diagonals of a
regular pentagon, not drawn from a

vertex, divide each other in extreme and mean ratio.
457.
point
common
!?
Loci.
458.
points
459.
Find the locus of a point

and B are in a given ratio
OP
is
any straight
cumference of a fixed
is
constant.
circle
line
in
Find the locus of
whose distances from two given
(ra
ri).
drawn from a
OP
a,
point
is
to the cir
fixed point
taken such that
OQ:
OP
Q.
AB
is
a straight line
460. From a fixed point
in a given straight line CD, and then divided at
(m n). Find the locus of the point P.
drawn
in
to
any point
a given ratio
461.
Find the locus of a point whose distances from two given straight
(The locus consists of two straight lines.)
lines are in a given ratio.
462.
Find the locus of a point the sum of whose distances from two
given straight lines
is
equal to a given length
k.
(See Ex. 73.)
PLANE GEOMETRY.
242
BOOK
Y.
PROBLEMS.
463. Given the perimeters of a regular inscribed and a similar circum
scribed polygon, to compute the perimeters of the regular inscribed and
circumscribed polygons of double the number of sides.
464. To draw a tangent to a given circle such that the segment inter
cepted between the point of contact and a given straight line shall have
a given length.
465.
To draw a
466.
To
straight line equidistant from three given points.
between two given

(See Ex. 137.)
inscribe a straight line of given length
circumferences and parallel to a given straight line.
467. To draw through a given point a straight line so that its dis
tances from two other given points shall be in a given ratio (ra n).
HINT. Divide the line joining the two other points in the given ratio.
:
468.
Construct a square equivalent to the
sum
of a given triangle
and a given parallelogram.

469.
Construct a rectangle having the difference of its base and

and its area equivalent to the sum of a
altitude equal to a given line,
given triangle and a given pentagon.

470.
Construct a pentagon similar to a given pentagon and equiva
lent to a given trapezoid.
471.
To
find a point
shall be as the
472.
numbers
Given two
a secant
whose distances from three given

ra, n, and p.
(See Ex. 461.)
circles intersecting at the point
B AC such
that
AB shall be
to
AC in
HINT. Divide the line of centres in the given

473.
To construct a
straight lines
triangle, given its angles
A.
To draw through
a given ratio
(ra
n).
ratio.
and
its
area.
474. To construct an equilateral triangle having a given area.

475.
To divide a given triangle
into
two equal parts by a
line
drawn
parallel to one of the sides.
7 476. Given three points A, B, C. To find a fourth point

the areas of the triangles
APC, PC, shall be equal.
Psuch
that
AP,
To construct a triangle, given

and the angle included by them.
477.
sides,
478.
To divide a given
circle into
its
base, the ratio of the other
any number of equivalent parts by
concentric circumferences.
479. In a given equilateral triangle, to inscribe three equal
sides of the triangle.
tangent to each other and to the
circles
14
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GIFT OF

High School Arithmetic.

AUTHOR OF A SERIES OF TEXT-BOOKS IN MATHEMATICS.

PUBLISHED BY GINN & COMPANY.

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1888, by

in the Office ot the Librarian of Congress, at Washington,

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

PBESSWOBK BY GINN &

~\ T~OST persons do not

depends mainly upon the form

which the subject

sented whether they pursue the study with

In compiling the present

author has kept this fact con

and such methods have been adopted

attentive observation, combined with repeated trials, have

No attempt has been made

most readily comprehended.

indifference, not to say

All unnecessary discussions and scholia have been

apprehending geometrical concep

easily acquire, the

keeping in mind the successive steps of a continuous

intelligible the simple notions of position,

magnitude, and direc

few symbols, which stand

words and not

been used, but these are of so great

the demonstrations that no

apology seems necessary for

make the page attractive. The

Great pains have been taken to

page, so that they fall

tion with the corresponding text.

lines of the figures are

as aids in the demonstrations are short-

resulting lines are long-dotted.

In each proposition a concise statement of what

required in another, and the

the reason depends

placed at the side of the page.

are carefully marked.

of the section, however,

Moreover, each distinct

demonstration and each particular direction in the

given and what

The pupil perceives

at every step, becomes perfectly familiar with the language of

and accurate expression, rapidly learns

not so difficult as to discourage

have been placed

that the student

derive the full benefit of

a useless and pernicious labor; but to learn their uses and

early part of the

discover, at the outset, that to

mastering the subjects of his reading.

exemplifying their utility

that mathematical training which looks not

attainment oj information as to the discipline of the

for the first time, it will

him write his proofs on the blackboard

care being taken that his language be