A pyranometer is a type of actinometer used for measuring solar irradiance on a planar surface

and it is designed to measure the solar radiation flux density (W/m2) from the hemisphere above
within a wavelength range 0.3 m to 3 m. The name pyranometer stems from the Greek
words (pyr), meaning "fire", and (ano), meaning "above, sky".
A typical pyranometer does not require any power to operate.

Explanation[edit]

The solar radiation spectrum that reach earth surface extends its wavelenght approximately from
300 to 2,800 nm. Depending on the type of pyranometer used, irradiance measurements with
different degrees of spectral sensitivity will be obtained.
To make a measurement of irradiance, it is required by definition that the response to beam
radiation varies with the cosine of the angle of incidence. This ensures a full response when the
solar radiation hits the sensor perpendicularly (normal to the surface, sun at zenith, 0 angle of
incidence), zero response when the sun is at the horizon (90 angle of incidence, 90 zenith
angle), and 0.5 at a 60 angle of incidence. It follows that a pyranometer should have a so-called
directional response or cosine response close to the ideal cosine characteristic.

Classification of pyranometers[edit]

Following the classifications and definitions noted in the ISO 9060, [1] three types of pyranometers
can be recognized and grouped in two different technologies: thermopile technology and silicon
semiconductor technology.
The light sensitivity, known as 'spectral response', depends on the type of pyranometer. The
figure to the right shows the spectral responses of the three types of pyranometer in relation to
the Solar Radiation Spectrum. The Solar Radiation Spectrum represents the spectrum of sunlight
that reaches the Earths surface at sea level, at midday with A.M. (air mass) = 1.5.
The latitude and altitude influence this spectrum. The spectrum is influenced also by aerosol and
pollution.

Thermopile pyranometers[edit]

A solar radiation sensor that can be applied in scientific grade solar radiation observations. It complies with
the "secondary standard" specifications within the latest ISO and WMO standards. The scientific name of
this instrument is pyranometer.

A thermopile pyranometer is a sensor based on thermopiles designed to measure the

broadband of the solar radiation flux density from a 180 field of view angle. A thermopile
pyranometer thus usually measures 300 to 2800 nm with a largely flat spectral sensitivity (see
the Spectral Response graph) The first generation of thermopile pyranometers had the active
part of the sensor equally divided in black and white sectors. Irradiation was calculated from the

differential measure between the temperature of the black sectors, exposed to the sun, and the
temperature of the white sectors, sectors not exposed to the sun or better said in the shades.
In all thermopile technology, irradiation is proportional to the difference between the temperature
of the sun exposed area and the temperature of the shadow area.
Design[edit]
In order to attain the proper directional and spectral characteristics, a thermopile pyranometer is
constructed with the following main components:

Line drawing overview of a thermopile pyranometer, including: (1) cable; (2) thumb screw for the sun
screen; (3) inner dome; (4) thermal sensor; (5) outer dome; (6) sun screen; (7) humidity indicator; (8)
desiccant holder; (9) levelling feet; (10) bubble level

A thermopile sensor[2] with a black coating. It absorbs all solar radiation, has a flat
spectrum covering the 300 to 50,000 nanometer range, and has a near-perfect cosine
response.

A glass dome. It limits the spectral response from 300 to 2,800 nanometers (cutting off
the part above 2,800 nm), while preserving the 180 field of view. It also shields the
thermopile sensor from convection.

In the modern thermopile pyranometers the active (hot) junctions of the thermopile are located
beneath the black coating surface and are heated by the radiation absorbed from the black
coating.[3] The passive (cold) junctions of the thermopile are fully protected from solar radiation
and in thermal contact with the pyranometer housing, which serves as a heat-sink. This prevents
any alteration from yellowing or decay when measuring the temperature in the shade, thus
impairing the measure of the solar irradiance.
The thermopile generates a small voltage in proportion to the temperature difference between
the black coating surface and the instrument housing. This is of the order of 10 VW/m 2.
Typically, on a sunny day the output is around 10 mV. Each pyranometer has a unique sensitivity,
unless otherwise equipped with a board for signal calibration.
Usage[edit]
Thermopile pyranometers are frequently used in meteorology, climatology, climate
change research, building engineering physics and in photovoltaic systems. They are usually

installed horizontally in meteorological stations; when they are mounted beside solar panels, they
are typically mounted with the sensor surface on the plane of the panel.

Photodiode-based pyranometer[edit]
Also known as a silicon pyranometer in the ISO 9060,[4] a photodiode-based pyranometer can
detect the portion of the solar spectrum between 400 nm and 900 nm, with the most performant
detecting between 350 nm and 1100 nm. The photodiode converts the aforementioned solar
spectrum frequencies into current at high speed, thanks to the photoelectric effect. The
conversion is influenced by the temperature with a raise in current produced by the raise in
temperature (about 0,1% C)
Design[edit]
A photodiode-based pyranometer is composed by a housing dome, a photodiode, and a diffuser
or optical filters. The photodiode has a small surface area and acts as a sensor. The current
generated by the photodiode is proportional to irradiance; an output circuit, such as a
transimpedance amplifier, generates a voltage directly proportional to the photocurrent. The
output is usually on the order of millivolts, the same order of magnitude of thermopile-type
pyranometers.
Usage[edit]
Photodiode-based pyranometers are implemented where the quantity of irradiation of the visible
solar spectrum, or of certain portions such as UV, PAR, or IR, needs to be calculated. This is
done by using diodes with specific spectral responses. Photodiode-based pyranometers are the
core of luxmeter used in photography, cinema and lighting technique. Sometimes they are also
installed close to modules of photovoltaic systems.

Photovoltaic pyranometer[edit]
Built around the 2000s concurrently with the spread of photovoltaic systems, the photovoltaic
pyranometer is a derivation of the photodiode pyranometer. It answered the need for a single
reference photovoltaic cell when measuring the power of cell and photovoltaic modules.
[5]

Specifically, each cell and module is tested through flash tests by their respective

manufacturers, and thermopile pyranometers do not possess the adequate speed of response
nor the same spectral response of a cell. This would create obvious mismatch when measuring
power, which would need to be quantified.[6][7] In the technical documents, this pyranometer is also
known as "reference PV cell", "irradiance sensor", "solarimeter", "solar sensor", as bibliographies
are more recent than the ISO 9060.

A Photovoltaic-based pyranometer, model LM1-C2

The active part of the sensor is composed of a photovoltaic cell working in near short-circuit
condition. As such, the generated current is directly proportionate to the solar radiation hitting the
cell in a range between 350 nm and 1150 nm. When invested by a luminous radiation in the
mentioned range, it produces current as a consequence of the photovoltaic effect. Its sensitivity
is not flat, but it is same as that of Silicon photovoltaic cell. See the Spectral Response graph.
Design[edit]
A photovoltaic pyranometer is essentially assembled with the following parts:

A metallic container with a fixing staff

A small photovoltaic cell

Signal conditioning electronics

Silicon sensors such as the photodiode and the photovoltaic cell vary the output in function of
temperature. In the more recent models, the electronics compensate the signal with the
temperature, therefore removing the influence of temperature out of the values of solar
irradiance. Inside several models, the case houses a board for the amplification and conditioning
of the signal.
Usage[edit]
Photovoltaic pyranometers are used in solar simulators and alongside photovoltaic system for
the calculation of photovoltaic modules effective power and system performances. Thanks to its
spectral response, obviously similar to that of a photovoltaic module, it is used also in preliminary
diagnosis of malfunction in photovoltaic systems.

Signal conditioning[edit]
The natural output value of these pyranometers do not usually exceed tens of millivolt(mV). It is
considered a weak signal, and as such, rather vulnerable to electromagnetic interferences,
especially where the cable runs across decametrical distances or lies in photovoltaic systems.

Thus, these sensors are frequently equipped with signal conditioning electronics, which allows
them to amplify its natural output value by 100 or 1000 times.
Another solution implies greater immunities to noises, like a current loop or RS-485 output,
suitable for ambiances with electromagnetic interferences typical of medium-large scale
photovoltaic systems. The equipped electronics often concur to normalize the signal output into a
predetermined value.

Standardization and calibration[edit]

Both thermopile-type and photovoltaic pyranometers are manufactured according to standards.
Thermopile Pyranometers follow the ISO 9060 standard, which is also adopted by the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO). This standard discriminates three classes. Rather
confusingly, the best is confusingly called "secondary standard" (i.e., calibrated by direct
comparison with the single primary instrument). The second best is defined as "first class" and
the last one "second class.".[8]
Photovoltaic pyranometers are standardized under IEC60904-4, its metrological traceability.
For thermopile pyranometers, the calibration is typically done having the World Radiometric
Reference (WRR) as absolute reference. This is maintained by PMOD in Davos,Switzerland.[9] In
addition to the World Radiometric Reference there are private laboratories such as such as ISOCal North Americawho have acquired accreditation for these unique calibration. For the
"secondary standard" pyranometer, calibration is done following ASTM G167, or ISO 9846.
[10]

First and second class pyranometers are usually calibrated according to ASTM E824, and ISO

9847.
Photovoltaic pyranometers are calibrated under IEC 60904-4 for primary reference samples and
under IEC 60904-2 for secondary reference samples and the instruments intended for sale.
In both standards, their respective traceability chain starts with the primary standard known as
the Group of Cavity Radiometer by the World Radiometric Reference (WRR)