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a
Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Pavia, Italy
Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, University of Granada, Spain
Received 28 February 2006; received in revised form 15 June 2006; accepted 21 June 2006
Available online 9 October 2006
Abstract
The need for safe, therapeutically effective and patient-compliant drug delivery systems continuously leads researchers to
design novel tools and strategies. Clay minerals are widely used materials in drug products both as excipients and active agents.
When administered simultaneously, drugclay interactions have been observed and studied, but until recently were not considered
as a possible mechanism to modify drug release. In recent years, and based on their high retention capacities as well as swelling and
colloidal properties, clays have been proposed as very useful materials for modulating drug delivery. This paper first reviews the
studies on drugclay interactions, and then those focused on the applications of natural clays and their semi-synthetic or synthetic
derivatives to carry out specific functions in new drug delivery systems. In particular, clays are used to delay and/or target drug
release or even improve drug dissolution. Finally, new strategies are reported for increasing drug stability and simultaneously
modifying drug delivery patterns through the use of clay minerals.
2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Clays; Special excipients; Modified drug release; Bioavailability; Cation-exchange
1. Introduction
The main concept in modified delivery technology is
that any pharmaceutical dosage form should be designed
to provide therapeutic levels of drug to the site of action
and maintain them throughout the treatment (Ding et al.,
2002). These goals may be achieved by modifying the
rate and/or time and/or site of drug release in comparison
with conventional formulations. Such modification in
release of active substances is provided to reduce toxic
effects or for some other therapeutic purpose (Quality of
Corresponding author. Departamento de Farmacia y Tecnologa
Farmacutica, Universidad de Granada, Facultad de Farmacia, Campus
de Cartuja, s/n, 18071 Granada, Spain. Tel.: +34 958 249551; fax: +34
958 248958.
E-mail address: cviseras@ugr.es (C. Viseras).
0169-1317/$ - see front matter 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.clay.2006.06.015
23
lease is activated in the body via some feedback mechanisms) and site-targeting drug delivery systems (Chien
and Lin, 2002).
Most of these strategies assume a new concept of
excipient. Thus, excipients (and among them clay
minerals) are not only inert ingredients, but they can
also be used by formulators to provide targets of a
biopharmaceutical (decreasing or increasing dissolution
rate, delaying and/or targeting drug release), pharmacological (prevention or reduction of side effects),
technological (taste masking) or chemical (increasing
stability) nature.
2.1. Mechanisms of claydrug interactions
Among the several approaches proposed to achieve
controlled release formulations, the ion exchange process has received considerable attention from researchers
in recent years (Vikas et al., 2001). It may take place by
mixing solid substrates (namely ion exchangers) with
ionic drugs in solution. In biological fluids, counterions can displace the drug from the substrate and deliver
it into the body. The exchanger may be then eliminated or
biodegraded (Fig. 1).
Clay minerals are naturally occurring inorganic
cationic exchangers and so they may undergo ion exchange with basic drugs in solution. Smectites, especially montmorillonite and saponite, have been the more
commonly studied because of their higher cation
exchange capacity compared to other pharmaceutical
silicates (such as talc, kaolin and fibrous clay minerals).
Nevertheless, there are several mechanisms that may be
involved in the interaction between clay minerals and
organic molecules, as summarised in Table 2. The
relevance of a specific mechanism depends on the clay
mineral involved (Browne et al., 1980) as well as on the
functional groups (Lagaly, 2001) and the physical
chemical properties (Tolls, 2001) of the organic
compounds.
Wai and Banker (1966) investigated the interaction
between montmorillonite and four alkaloids, finding
some differences in bonding mechanisms depending on
molecule size and basicity. In some cases (methapyrilene and triethylamine) drug molecules were quantitatively bound to the clay mineral via cation exchange;
besides ion exchange other mechanisms contributed to
drug adsorption of larger molecules (brucine); and niacinamide was not bounded to the clay, because it mainly
occurred in the neutral form. McGinity and Lach (1976)
confirmed that basic molecules bonded strongly to
montmorillonite; on the other hand, complexes with
anionic and non-ionic drugs exhibited much weaker
24
Table 1
Types of controlled-release drug delivery systems (Chien and Lin, 2002)
Group
Marketed examples
Rate-preprogrammed
systems
Polymer membrane
permeation systems
Polymer matrix systems
Polymer (membrane/
matrix) hybrid systems
Microreservoir partition
systems
Osmotic pressureactivated systems
Hydrodynamic pressureactivated systems
Vapor pressure-activated
systems
Mechanical forceactivated systems
Magnetic-activated
systems
Sonophoresis-activated
systems
Iontophoresis-activated
systems
Hydation-activated
systems
pH-activated systems
Ion-activated systems
Hydrolysis-activated
systems
Enzyme-activated
systems
Bioerosion-regulated
systems
Bioresponsive-regulated
systems
Self-regulating systems
Diffusion
Activation-modulated
systems
Feedback-regulated
systems
Infusaid
Nasal metered dose nebulisers
Pennkinetic, Tussionex
Lupron-Depot, Zoladex
Site-targeting
systems
25
Fig. 1. Idealization of claydrug complexation and in vivo drug release mechanisms (clay mineral surface charge ();compensating cations (a+);
cationic drug (X+); drug associated anions (Y); in vivo counter ions (A+); anions associated with the counter ions (B)).
Table 2
Interactions between clay minerals and organic compounds (adapted from http://esd.lbl.gov/sposito)
Mechanism
Hydrophobic interactions (van der Waals)
Mineral examples
26
Table 3
New Drug Delivery Systems based on clay minerals
Issue
Target parameter
Delivery system
Mechanism
Excipients
Original clay
Release
Pattern
Dissolution rates
Extended
Release Systems
Natural clay
minerals with
high cation
capacity values
Synthetic clay
minerals
Modified clay
minerals
Smectites,
Fibrous clay
minerals
Site of release
Clay swelling
Improved Drug
Adsorption
Solubility Systems
Site-specific
Enteric coated
systems
Bioadhesion
Drug Stability
Hydrophilic ambient
Microparticles
and Targeting (sensible molecules)
nanoparticles
and Distribution Profiles
LDH,
hydrotalcites
Acid/thermal
Bentonite or
activated
kaolinite
Pillared
Montmorillonite
layered structures and others
smectites
Swelling clays
Smectites
Montmorillonite
Montmorillonite
and LDH(oral release)
Smectite and halloysite
(Local release)
Halloysite
Porous-hollow
nanoparticles
Encapsulation
Surface
precipitation,
inclusion, others.
Clay-polymer
Clay-polymer
interaction
nanocomposites
27
tions based on phenformin-loaded bentonite were effective for 1011 h in reducing blood sugar levels in rabbits
(Maheshwari et al., 1988). Microencapsulation of
terbutalinesaponite complexes with cellulose acetate
butyrate provided sustained responses in human patients
suffering reversible chronic air flow obstruction (ElGindy et al., 2000). Abdel-Mohsen et al. (2001) observed an extended duration of the anaestethetic activity
of lidocaine in rabbits from topical buffered poloxamer
gels containing lidocainemontmorillonite complexes.
Kaolin (Delgado et al., 1994) and fibrous clay minerals (Cerezo, 2003) were successfully used to prolong
the dissolution rates of amylobarbitone and timolol.
Levis and Deasy (2003) studied drug release from halloysite loaded with two basic antihypertensives differing
in aqueous solubility (diltiazem and propranol). Propranolol (less soluble) showed a more prolonged release
effect, while for diltiazem drug-loaded halloysite tubes
were coated with different polymers (including chitosan
and cross-linked chitosan) to further reduce the dissolution rate.
2.2.2.2. Layered double hydroxides. Synthetic layered
double hydroxides (LDH, anionic clays) can also be
used as host compounds because of the positively
charged layers and the presence of interlayer anions,
these compounds are especially helpful for retention of
negatively charged biomolecules.
Choy et al. (1999, 2000) studied the intercalation of
nucleosides and DNA into LDH, to develop possible
applications of these complexes as gene delivery carriers. The intercalation of ibuprofen with synthetic hydrotalcite was investigated by Ambrogi et al. (2001).
Hydrotalcite intercalated diclofenac sodium via anion
exchange (Ambrogi et al., 2002). In vitro drug release
from ibuprofen and diclofenac-loaded hydrotalcites
showed that hydrotalcite may be used to prepare
extended release formulations of these anti-inflammatory agents (Ambrogi et al., 2001, 2002). The interaction
of diclofenac sodium (Suzuki et al., 2001) and indomethacin (Yoshiteru et al., 1994) with synthetic mica
has also been reported. Li et al. (2004a) studied in vitro
dissolution of fenbufen from its complexes with
different LDH (Mg/Al, Zn/Al, Fe/Al, Li/Al), finding
that drug release was effectively prolonged, especially
in the case of Mg/Al materials.
2.2.2.3. Modified clays. In the development of claybased extended release formulations, modulation of the
properties of the clay mineral (specific surface area,
porosity, hydrophilic character, kind of exchangeable
cations) may be needed to improve its affinity with the
28
bioactive molecules. Both thermal and chemical (mineral acid dissolutions, intercalation with inorganic or
organic compounds) treatments have been reported to be
useful for this purpose.
Heat-treated sepiolite showed controlled-release of
antifungal and antibacterial isothiocyanates for sanitary
protection in kitchens and food preservation (Corma
Canos et al., 2000). Bojemueller et al. (2001) found that
adsorption of metolachlor onto bentonite was enhanced
by calcinating the clay mineral, because of the enrichment of Al3+ ions at the edges of the silicate.
In acid-treated clay minerals, depopulation of octahedral sheets and formation of amorphous silica was
observed, providing materials with increased surface
area, high porosity and acid character (Vicente-Rodrguez et al., 1996; Dkny et al., 1999). Some authors
reported that acid-treated bentonites were more effective
than the natural ones to reduce the release rate in
extended release formulations (Fernndez-Prez et al.,
1999, 2000; Villafranca-Snchez et al., 2000).
The clay mineral may also be modified with organic
and inorganic compounds, acting as pillars, by permanently holding apart the silicate layers. Inorganic and
organic pillared clays, belong to the general class of
pillared layered structures (PLS), including clay minerals, phosphates and layered double hydroxides (Van
Damne et al., 1995). The great advantage of these
materials is that by a suitable choice of pillar agent, it is
possible to modulate the porosity as well as to change the
surface character from hydrophilic to hydrophobic.
When the hydrophobicity of the clay mineral surface is
increased, the adsorption of hydrophobic molecules is
expected to increase and attain extended release in
aqueous solutions. Thus, organic modified smectites are
widely used as adsorbents of non-polar bioactive substances (Meier et al., 2001). The success of this approach
was shown with alachlor (El-Nahhal et al., 1998),
norflurazon (Undabeytia et al., 2000) and hexazinone
(Celis et al., 2002). Finally, surfactant modified
montmorillonites also showed higher affinity for anionic
species, such as Cr(VI) derivatives, compared to the
unmodified clay minerals (Krishna et al., 2000).
2.2.3. Site-specific systems
2.2.3.1. Colon targeted systems. Site-specific drug
delivery to the colon is attracting increasing attention,
both for therapy of colon-related diseases as well as
systemic drug delivery. For this purpose it is necessary to
incorporate the drug in a formulation able to minimize
premature release in the upper part of the gastrointestinal
tract, and then to optimize drug release into the colon.
29
30
to develop new controlled release systems, as documented by a number of patents (Greenblatt et al., 2004;
Nagasaki et al., 2005; Zhong, 2005). Nanocomposites
based on poly(ethylene-co-vinyl acetate) (EVAc) and
three different organo-silicates (one montmorillonite
and two synthetic micas) have been developed by
Cypes et al. (2003), providing slow release of dexamethasone (a corticosteroid agent widely used to reduce
inflammatory diseases), as well as enhanced mechanical properties (Youngs modulus) in comparison with
the free polymer. Nanocomposite hydrogels for mucoadhesive applications were synthetised by Lee and
Chen (2004), by performing photopolymerization of
acrylic acid (AA), poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether
acrylate (PEGMEA) and an organo-modified bentonite.
The gels showed increased Youngs modulus with
increasing bentonite content while the adhesive force
did not decrease with an increase of the amount of the
clay. In vitro release studies of differently charged
drugs from N-isopropylacrylamide-montmorillonite
(Lee and Fu, 2003) and poly(AA-co-PEGMEA)-bentonite (Lee and Chen, 2004) nanocomposite gels showed
that the amount released was lower when the drug and
hydrogel were oppositely charged. Conversely (drug
and hydrogel showing the same sign of charge), the
amount released was higher. The influence of the
amount of the organic agent intercalated into montmorillonite on the physical properties and drug release
behaviour from N-isopropylacrylamide-montmorillonite nanocomposites was investigated by Lee and Jou
(2004).
Pongjanyakul et al. (2005a) showed that rheological
properties (such as viscosity and flow behaviour) of
sodium alginate or poloxamer 407 gels were improved by
incorporation of magnesium aluminium silicate (MAS),
while less influence was observed for HPMC gels. Drug
release of these composite materials was significantly
decreased in comparison with the pure polymeric gels,
due to both clay-polymer interactions, and drug adsorption onto clay particles (Pongjanyakul et al., 2005a).
Magnesium aluminium silicate has also been applied to
improve physical properties in alginate beads (Puttipipatkhachorn et al., 2005) and to prepare novel composite
films as coating material for modifying drug release from
tablets (Pongjanyakul et al., 2005b). Takahashi et al.
(2005) have developed a new nanocomposite system by
combining Laponite (a synthetic hectorite-type clay
mineral) with a block copolymer containing poly
(ethylene glycol) and polyamine segments. These
nanoparticles were capable of sustained release of
pyrene (hydrophobic model drug molecule) over a
period of 20 days. Flocculation-resistive properties of
31
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