Unit 1

1. Describe the working principle of electronic distance meter. Also, specify the
instrumental errors in EDM.
Ans)
The general principle involves sending a modulated Electro-magnetic (EM) beam
from one transmitter at the master station to a reflector at the remote station and receiving it
back at the master station. The instrument measures slope distance between transmitter and
receiver by modulating the continuous carrier wave at different frequencies, and then
measuring the phase difference at the master station between the outgoing and the incoming
signals. This establishes the following relationship for a double distance (2D):
2 marks

Where m is unknown integer number of complete wavelengths contained within

double distance, ; is the measured phase difference and is modulation wavelength, and k is
constant. Multiple modulation frequencies are used to evaluate m, the ambiguity .
Various EDMIs in use are based on two methods:
Using timed pulse techniques such as those used in variety of radar instruments.
Using measurements of a phase difference which may be equated to one part of a
cycle expressed in units of time or length.
Pulse methods have advantages over the phase difference methods but their weight and power
requirement is such that they cannot be classed lightweight portable instruments.
2 marks

(i) Pulse techniques

All such measurements incorporate a very precise measurement of time usually
expressed in units of nanoseconds (1x10-9 s), which a EM wave takes to travel from one
station to another. In this method, a short, intensive pulse radiation is transmitted to a
reflector target, which is immediately transmitted back to the receiver, the distance (D) is
computed as the velocity of light (V) multiplied by half the time (t/2) the pulse took to
travel back to the receiver (D = V x t/2).
2 marks

(ii) Phase difference techniques

The relationship between wavelength and associated phase difference which shows
that for a given complete cycle of EM wave, the phase difference can be expressed both in
terms of angular (degrees) and linear (fraction of wavelengths) units. In phase difference
method used by majority of EDMI, the instrument measures the amount by which the
reflected signal is out of phase with the emitted signal
2 marks

2 marks

Instrumental errors in edm:

Systematic instrumental errors occurring in electro-optical systems include uncertainties in

the position of the electrical centre of the transmitter, uncertainties in the effective centre of
the reflector, frequency drift, and instrument nonlinearity. The first two sources of errors must
be taken into account in all survey measurements, the third requires monitoring and the fourth
is critical only for measurements of high precision.
Instrument Offset
If the electric centre of the instrument does not lie along its plumb line, a constant systematic
error gets introduced in each measurement. This is known as instrument offset.
Calibration of EDM
A precisely measured base line is required to find the instrument constant of an EDM. In
determining the instrument constant, repeated measurements (say 10 to 15) of the base line
are be taken using the EDM. Meteorological data during measurement should be gathered
with extreme care. The average of the EDM measurements corrected for meteorological
conditions and for slope of the line should agree with the length of the base line. The
difference between the two measurements represents the instrument offset.
Frequency Offset
The tuned frequency of the electromagnetic waves may not be exact as required. An error in
the frequency of modulated waves produces an error in the scale of electronic measurement
of distance. For example, if the correct modulated frequency is 10 MHz and if the actual
frequency departs from this by 10 Hz, a relative error of 1 ppm affects each measurement.
Non-Linearity of EDM Systems
As the length a line goes on increasing, the error in measurement of distance using EDM
repeatedly changes to a maximum and a minimum value non-linearly. This non-linearity of
error in measurement is determined by making use of a series of stations placed at precise
intervals. The distance between the first and the last point at which reflector has been placed
should be at least equivalent to the half wavelength of maximum modulated frequency.
2. A) what is a total station? How it works and explain.
B) explain the potential of total station in surveying.
Ans)
A) These instruments can record horizontal and vertical angles together with slope distance
and can be considered as combined EDM plus electronic theodolite. The microprocessor in
TS can perform various mathematical operations such as averaging, multiple angle and
distance measurements, horizontal and vertical distances, X, Y, Z coordinates, distance
between observed points and corrections for atmospheric and instrumental corrections.
Due to the versatility and the lower cost of electronic components, future field instruments
will be more like total stations that measure angle and distance simultaneously having:
all capabilities of theodolites
electronic recording of horizontal and vertical angles
storage capabilities of all relevant measurements (spatial and non-spatial attribute data) for
manipulation with computer.

Nowadays surveying systems are available which can be use in an integrated manner with
Global Positioning System (GPS). Hence, future theodolites/total stations may have
integrated GPS receivers as part of the measurement unit.
Generally following types of total stations are available in the market:
Mechanical/manual
Motorized
Autolock
Robotic/automatic
Mechanical/manual TS: The conventional multipurpose manual TS are used for routine
works with powerful built-in applications program and are cheaper than the other types TS.
Motorized TS: The motorized TS are equipped with servo to allow for fast, smooth and
accurate aiming. This increases the productivity by about 30%. The servo technology enables
automated measurement. For example, during angle measurement one can simply aim the
instrument at each point. The instrument can then repeat the measurements automatically as
may times as required. Servo equipped TS act as base for autolock and robotic surveying.
Autolock TS: Autolock TS allow for a semi-automatic measurement where measuring and
recoding takes place at the TS. In this case the instrument searches for an active remote
positioning target (RMT), locks to it and follows the target as it moves to different points.
Autolock technology eliminates the need for time-consuming error prone focusing and allows
you to work effectively even in poor and low visibility environment. It improves the time
efficiency by up to 50%.
Automatic/Robotic TS: This a true one person surveying TS and is ideal for surveying and
stakeout operations. In this TS, the control unit can be taken to the prism to record
measurements and collect other data. Generally a radio communication is used between TS
and the prism. The control unit, battery, antenna and radio modem are integrated to allow full
control over instrument and its operation. The prism used may be omni-directional (usually
for short distance up to 500 m) which is always aligned to the instrument or directional for
longer distances. During stakeout, the control unit is used to move to point of interest. It
improves the time efficiency by up to 80%.
B) Potential of TS:
Field techniques with TS: Various field operations in TS are in the form of wide variety of
programs integrated with microprocessor and implemented with the help of data collector. All
these programs need that the instrument station and at least one reference station be identified
so that all subsequent stations can be identified in terms of (X, Y, Z). Typical programs
include the following functions:
Point location
Slope reduction
Missing line measurement
(MLM)
Resection
Azimuth calculation
Remote distance and elevation measurement
Offset measurements
Layout or setting out operation
Area computation
Tracking
Stakeout

Unit 2
3. A) how would you determine the capacity of a reservoir from the contour plan?
B) discuss the following methods of computation of area of a tract with straight but
irregular boundaries.
i) mid ordinate rule
ii) average ordinate rule
iii) trapezoidal rule
Ans)
a)
The storage capacity of a reservoir is determined from contour map. The contour line
indicating the full reservoir level (F.R.L) is drawn on the contour map. The area enclosed
between successive contours are measured by planimeter. The volume of water between
F.R.L and the river bed is finally estimated by using either Trapezoidal formula or Prismoidal
formula.

b) i) Mid ordinate rule:

ii) Average ordinate rule:

iii) trapezoidal rule:

4. a) explain the procedure of setting out a sewer.

b) explain in detail the procedure for setting out a foundation of a building.
Ans)
a)
b) Llll
5. a) What are the various methods of adjustments of a closed traverse? Describe briefly.
b) what do you understand by temporary adjustments? Describe in brief the various
temporary adjustments of a theodolite.

Ans)
a) In these methods, corrections are applied to the individual departures and latitudes to satisfy
for the considered traverse. The operations involved are known as adjustment or balancing a
traverse. The approximate methods usually adopted for balancing a traverse are the
Transit method
Bowditch's method.
Transit method
This method is developed for balancing a traverse in which angles are measured with a higher
degree of precision than the lengths of the sides. It is based on the assumption that the error in
departure (or latitude) of a traverse side is proportional to its departure (or latitude). Thus,
according to the transit rule, the corrections to the departure (or latitude) of a traverse side
can be calculated by using

where
d dij = Correction in departure of a traverse side ij
d lij = Correction in latitude of a traverse side ij
dD = total error in departure (or Algebric sum of the departures of all sides of the traverse)
dL = total error in latitude (or Algebric sum of the latitudes of all sides of the traverse)
dij = departure of the traverse side ij
lij = latitude of the traverse side ij
D = Arithmetic sum of the departures of all the sides of the traverse
L = Arithmetic sum of the latitudes of all the sides of the traverse
The corrections in transit rule do not take into consideration of the algebraic nature of the
departure (or latitude) of traverse sides. This made the transit rule valid when the traverse
lines are parallel with the grid system used for the traverse computations.
Bowditch method
The Bowditch's method is used when both the linear and angular measurements are
compatible to each other, i.e., they are of equal precision. The corrections may be applied
either analytically or may be carried out graphically. This method of balancing of traverse is
widely prevalent and most commonly used
The corrections to the coordinates can be calculated by using

where
d Xi = Correction to Xi coordinates of a station i;
d Yi = Correction to Yi coordinates of a station i;
dX = total closure correction of the traverse in departure;
dY = total closure correction of the traverse in latitude;
Li = distance from the initial station to the station i, measured along
the sides of the traverse;
L = perimeter of the traverse
b)

At each station point, before taking any observation, it is required to carry out some
operations in sequence. The set of operations those are required to be done on an instrument
in order to make it ready for taking observation is known as temporary adjustment.
Temporary adjustment of a vernier theodolite consists of following operations:

Setting,
Centring,
Leveling and
Focussing.
Setting
The setting operation consists of fixing the theodolite with the tripod stand along with
approximate leveling and centring over the station. For setting up the instrument, the
tripod is placed over the station with its legs widely spread so that the centre of the
tripod head lies above the station point and its head approximately level (by eye
estimation). The instrument is then fixed with the tripod by screwing through trivet.
The height of the instrument should be such that observer can see through telescope
conveniently. After this, a plumb bob is suspended from the bottom of the instrument
and it should be such that plumb bob should point near to the station mark.
Centring
The operation involved in placing the vertical axis of the instrument exactly over the
station mark is known as centring. First, the approximate centring of the instrument is
done by moving the tripod legs radially or circumferentially as per need of the
circumstances.
It may be noted that due to radial movement of the legs, plumb bob gets shifted in the
direction of the movement of the leg without seriously affecting the level of the
instrument. On the other hand, when the legs are moved side ways or
circumferentially, the plumb does not shift much but the level gets affected.
Sometimes, the instrument and the tripod have to be moved bodily for centring. It
must be noted that the centering and leveling of instrument is done recursively.
Finally, exact centring is done by using the shifting head of the instrument. During
this, first the screw-clamping ring of the shifting head is loosened and the upper plate
of the shifting head is slid over the lower one until the plumb bob is exactly over the
station mark. After the exact centring, the screw clamping ring gets tightened.
Levelling
Leveling of an instrument is done to make the vertical axis of the instrument truly
vertical. Generally, there are three leveling screws and two plate levels are present in a
theodolite instrument. Thus, leveling is being achieved by carrying out the following
steps.
Step 1: Bring one of the level tube parallel to any two of the foot screws, by rotating
the upper part of the instrument.
Step 2: The bubble is brought to the centre of the level tube by rotating both the foot
screws either inward or outward. The bubble moves in the same direction as the left
thumb. [Figure 20.6(a)]
Step 3: The bubble of the other level tube is then brought to the centre of the level
tube by rotating the third foot screw either inward or outward [Figure 20.6(b)]. [In
step 1 itself, the other plate level will be parallel to the line joining the third foot
screw and the centre of the line joining the previous two foot screws.]

Step 4: Repeat Step 2 and step 3 in the same quadrant till both the bubble remain
central.
Step 5: By rotating the upper part of the instrument through 180, the level tube is
brought parallel to first two foot screws in reverse order. The bubble will remain in
the centre if the instrument is in permanent adjustment.
Otherwise, repeat the whole process starting from step1 to step5.
6. A) how would you determine the constant K and C of a tacheometer
B) what is tacheometry? What are the advantages of tacheometric surveying over
other methods.
Ans)
A)
The stadia interval factor (K) and the stadia constant (C) are known as tacheometric
constants. Before using a tacheometer for surveying work, it is reqired to determine
these constants. These can be computed from field observation by adopting following
procedure.
Step 1 : Set up the tacheometer at any station say P on a flat ground.
Step 2 : Select another point say Q about 200 m away. Measure the distance between
P and Q accurately with a precise tape. Then, drive pegs at a uniform interval, say 50
m, along PQ. Mark the peg points as 1, 2, 3 and last peg -4 at station Q.
Step 3 : Keep the staff on the peg-1, and obtain the staff intercept say s1 .
Step 4 : Likewise, obtain the staff intercepts say s2, when the staff is kept at the peg-2,
Step 5 : Form the simultaneous equations, using Equation (23-2)
D1 = K. s 1 + C --------------(i)
and D 2 = K. s 2+ C -------------(ii)
Solving Equations (i) and (ii), determine the values of K and C say K1 and C1 .
Step 6 : Form another set of observations to the pegs 3 & 4, Simultaneous equations
can be obtained from the staff intercepts s3 and s4 at the peg-3 and point Q
respectively. Solving those equations, determine the values of K and C again say K2
and C2.
Step 7 : The average of the values obtained in steps (5) and (6), provide the
tacheometric constants K and C of the instrument.
B)
It is a method of surveying in which horizontal distances and (relative) vertical
elevations are determined from subtended intervals and vertical angles observed with
an instrument.
The tacheometric methods of surveying are used with advantage over the direct
methods of measurement of horizontal distances and differences in elevations. Some
of the uses are:

Preparation of topographic maps which require both elevations and horizontal

distances.

Survey work in difficult terrain where direct methods are inconvenient

Detail filling

Reconnaissance surveys for highways, railways, etc.

Checking of already measured distances

Hydrographic surveys and

Establishing secondary control.

7. A) What is triangulation? What are the different types of triangulation? Explain

strength of a figure.
B) what is extension of the base line? How is it done?
Ans)
A)
b) The length of a base line is usually not greater then (10-20) km i.e, (8-10) miles. As
it is not possible to obtain a possible side for a long base, the usually practice is to
measure a short base and extend it by means of well conditioned triangles. Suppose it
is required to prolong a base line AB. Let CB, the extremities of the base, is fixed
accurately in line AB prolonged by a theodolite centered over station A or B such that
E and F are dearly visible from it and well shaped triangles are formed.

8. A) How do you account for the following corrections in trigonometric levelling?

i) Correction due to refraction ii) Correction due to curvature iii) Correction due to axis signal
B) what is levelling?

C) problem
Ans) i) Correction due to refraction

2 Marks

ii) Correction due to curvature

2 Marks

iii) Correction due to axis signal

2 Marks

b) The fundamental principle of leveling lies in finding out the separation 2 Marks
of level lines passing through a point of known elevation (B.M.) and that
through an unknown point.
c) rl of inst axis = 150.45 m
height from instr. axis to top of object = d tan
2 Marks
= 3000 tan 830
= 448.35
Rl of Q = 150.45+448.35-3
= 595.8 m
2 Marks
UNIT V
9. A) Establish the relation = 1718.9*C/R
B) Describe the different methods of setting out simple curves.
Ans)

2 Marks

2 Marks

b)

4*0.5 = 2
Marks Marks

2 Marks

2 Marks

2 Marks

10. A) Define the following terms:

External distance
Mid-ordinate
Point of curvature
Point of tangency
B) Problem
Ans) External distance: it is the distance between mid point of curve to intersection point
Mid ordinate: it is the distance between the mid point of long chord and mid point of curve
Point of curvature: it is the point from which tangent changes to curve
Point of tangency: it is the point form which curve changes to tangent
b)