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983
Computation of ElectromagneticTransients
HERMANN W. DOMMEL,
W. SCOTT MEYER,
MEMBER, IEEE
Invited Paper
wn
i dn
i gs.
PROGRAMS
Traveling-wave problems were already studied with graphical methods in the 1920s and 1930s, long before digital computers became available. Basically two techniques evolved,
I.INTRODUCTION
namely, Bewleys lattice diagram technique, and Bergerons
WITCHING OPERATIONS, faults, lightning surges,
method. In the lattice diagram technique
[ 6 ] ,a record is kept
and other intended or unintendeddisturbancescause
of the transmitted and reflected waves; their apportionment
temporary overvoltages and currents in power systems. is computed from reflection and refraction coefficients. The
The system must withstand these overvoltages with
a certain method of characteristics was probably first used by Lowy
probability, or their effects must be reduced and limited with [ 7 ] and Schnyder [8] for hydraulic surges. Bergeron applied
protective devices. The simulation of transient phenomena is it to a wide variety of problems [9] and strongly advocated
therefore important for the proper coordination of the insula- its use; therefore, i t is often called Bergerons method today.
tion, as well as for the proper design of protection schemes.
I t does not need reflection and refraction coefficients: instead,
Simulation studies may be needed to investigate interference i t uses linear relationships between current and voltage
(soin neighboring communication lines, or hazardouscoupling
called characteristics) which are invariant when seen
by a
effects to personnel, livestock, and equipment. Such simulafictitious observer who travels with the wave.
tion is alsoneeded to analyze unexpected transient phenomena
Both techniques for solving traveling-wave problems were
after their occurrence--such as recent cases of ferroresonance
adopted for computer solutions, the lattice diagram technique
[l] andsubsynchronousresonance
[2]-in
order t o avoid [lo] as well as Bergerons method [ l l ] . I t appears that
similar conditions in the future.
Bergerons method is better suited for digital computer soluThe transient phenomena discussed here occur on a scale tions, and most existing general-purpose programs
use it.
of microseconds (e.g., initialtransientrecoveryvoltage),
In these early programs, lumped elements L and C were
milliseconds (e.g., switching surges), or cycles (e.g., ferroresoeither represented by so-called stub lines [lo], or the differena combination of
nance). By nature,thesephenomenaare
tial equationswere transformed into algebraic
difference equatraveling-wave effects on overhead lines and cables, and of
tions with the trapezoidal rule of integration [ l l ] . With stub
oscillationsin lumped-element circuits of generators, translines an inductance L is represented by a lossless line with
formers,andother
devices. T o distinguishthemfromthe
surge impedance Z = L/At and travel time r =At, a shunt caelectromechanical oscillations of generators in transient stapacitance C by an open-ended lossless line with Z = A t / C and
bility studies, they
shall be called electromagnetic transients.
T =At (At = step widthof the time discretization). No stub
line
I t is practically impossible to study electromagnetic tranrepresentationseemsto
existforseries
capacitance.The
sients using hand calculations, except for very simple cases.
choice of the trapezoidal rule almost 15 years ago was fortuThis complexity led to the development of transient network
nate, because of its absolute numerical stability. I t belongs
analyzers (TNAs) in the late 1930s [3]. They are still widely
to a class of implicit integration schemes [12] which are just
used today, and new ones are still being built-[4], [SI. At the
now gaining in importance for the solution of stiff systems
same time, digital computer programs have
been developed
(systems having a large spreadof eigenvalues). Many electroin recent years which, in many cases, make digital computer
magnetic transients problems are stiff in this sense.
simulations competitive with T N A simulations, especially for
Mostprograms were originally written for single-phase
companies which do not own a TNA, but do haveaccess to a
networks, but have since been extended to multiphase condigital computer. This paperdiscusses digital computer methfigurations.Someprogramsarerestrictedtothreephases,
ods only, and no attempt is made to assess the advantages
while others permit any number of phases, and can then be
and disadvantages of computer programs versus TNAs. Cerused to study two-pole HV dc lines as well, without program
tain problems can be studied more economically on a TNA,
modification [131, [ 141.
Both Bergerons method and the lattice diagram technique
Manuscript received January 1, 1974.
are onlyefficient for lossless or distortionless tines. Yet propaH. W. Dommelwaswiththe
Bonneville Power Administration,
gation on overhead lines is far from distortionless, and better
Portland, Oreg. 97208. He is now with the Electrical Engineering Departapproximations for line losses had to be found. Reasonable
ment, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B. C., Canada.
W. S. Meyer is with the Methods Analysis Unit, Bonneville Power
accuracy is often obtained by lumping resistance
a t one or
Administration, Portland, Oreg. 97208.
[IS].
This
technique
is
generally
more
points
along
the
line
Analog and hybrid computations are discussed in a companion
acceptable if the resistance is constant, and small compared
paper by P. C. Krause et d.,this issue, pp. 994-1009,
984
1974
--.
At
{ ~ ( -t At) - ~ 4 ( t At) ] - i l - 4 ( t - A t ) .
(9)
Nextthebranchequation
for transmission line 1-5 is
needed. I t can easily be derived if losses are first neglected, to
be approximated later on. In this case, the wave equations
- va
=:
di1-8
L-
(3)
dt
+ f ( x + at)
u = Z . F ( x - at) - Z * f ( x + a t ) .
i = F ( x - at)
~ l ( t) v,(t)
= L
At
2L
( 10)
(4)
z=&
985
ThetermF(r-at)in
(11) can be interpreted as a wave
traveling at velocity a in the forward direction, whilef(r+at)
is a wavetravelingintheoppositedirection.Thedesired
branch equation is derived by multiplying i in (10) by Z and
adding i t t o u
u
+ z-i = 2 . Z . F ( z - ut).
Note that this is simplya linear algebraic equation in the unknown node voltages, with the right-hand side being known
from previously computed steps.
For a general network with n nodes, a system of n such
linear equations can be formed
(11)
where
Note that the valueu+Zi in (1 1) does not change whenx-ut
d& not change. This can
be interpreted as follows. Let a
[GI
nodal conductance
matrix,
fictitious observer sit on the line and travel along the line with
[v(t)] column vector of the n node voltages,
wave velocity a. Then r-at and consequently o+Zi will re[i(t)] column vector of current sources,
main constant for him all along the line. With the travel time
[I]
columnvector of past historyterms.
(the time for
a wave to travel from the sending to
receiving
the
If the network contains voltagesources connected to ground,
end) being
A withunknown
then (16) can be partitioned into part
line length
voltages, and part B with known voltages. The unknown
7 =
voltages are found from
U
o&)
+ Z * ( - i l - S ( t ) ) = os(t - + Z - i c 1 ( t 7)
7).
(12)
The negative sign on il4 is due toreversal of reference direction compared with icl. Finally, (12) can be rewritten in the
form of the desired branch equation
1
il-o(t) = --.o1(t)
Z
+I M ( t -
7)
(13)
11--5(f
- 7 ) = - - og(t - 7 ) - i c l ( t - 7 ) .
Z
(14)
At
2C
+
-+ __ +
R
2L
At
Z
1
.o1(t)
At
- - o*(t) - 2 L v&)
R
986
ilO-kO) = - na(t)
z.
+ Ila-k(t -
Fig. 2.
tween phases are equal. The series impedance and shunt capacitance matrices of a completely balanced line thus have the
form
7.)
Z, Z,
Z,
Z,
Z.
Z,
1
ile--b(O = - VlC(t)
Z,
+ Ile-zc(t -
(18)
1
Ila-k(t - 7.) = - - ~ % ( t 7).
Za
- ik--1o(f- 70)
[zpq-.[
U p q
[I1_2ph4=]
Z,
I : -1
z,
Z, Z, Z,
Z,
z,
Y,
Y,
(19)
Ym
with similar expressions for modes b and c. Next (18) is transformed back into the phase domain, giving
[il-BPt-=]
Z,
2,
[Z] = Z,
70)
(20)
Ym
where
V. BALANCED
MULTIPHASE LINES
Multiphase lines with distributed parameters are said to
be Yelectromagnetically balancedif the self-impedancesof all
phases are equal among themselves, andif all mutual impedances between phases are equal. Suchlines are similarlycalled
electrostatically balanced if the capacitances to ground of
all phases are equal to each other, and if all capacitances be-
-1
...
- 1,
Relation (24) provides an interpretationfor the modal quantities: The first mode is defined by a loop formed by all phases
connected in parallel, with ground providing the return path.
. , Mth mode is defined by a loopformedby the
The 2nd,
first phase, with the return path through the 2nd, . . . , Mth
987
andfor
modes 2,
,M,
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
VI. PARALLEL
LINES
Theassumption of balancedmatricesis
less useful for
parallel circuits, and, in general, eigenvector matrices must
be
found for eachparticular case (see Appendix).Sometimes
simplificationsmm be made [21]. For example, a double-circuit three-phase line is particularly simple
if the circuits areso
close together that the average distance
betweenphases of
bedifferent circuits is almost equal to the average distance
tween phases within one circuit, as in the exampleof Fig.
3.
Switching surges on such a double-circuit line, with the
transposition scheme of Fig. 4, were simulated for the closing
of circuit breaker 11. The line was first modeled as a cascade
connection of 15 six-phase Pi-circuits. The dotted curve in
Fig. 5 shows the receiving-end voltage on one phaseof circuit
I, for the actual transposition scheme; unbalanced matrices
for the actual tower configuration were used for the Pi-circuits, and the transpositions were made through appropriate
connections of the Pi-circuits. The solid line in Fig. 5 is obtained if the diagonal and off-diagonal elements of the matrices are averaged out, respectively, to make theline appear
balanced. The average difference in the peak values during
the first two cydes, at the 6 receiving-end nodes, is 7 percent
(based on 2.0 pu). Another comparison was made between
lumped and distributed parameter representations, with balanced matrices in both cases (Fig. 6 ) ; the average difference
is about 10 percent (based on 2.0 pu). At least for this case,
the difference between actual transposition and balanced madistricesis less than the difference betweenlumpedand
Fig. 6 . Receiving-end voltage of one phase of arcuit I, using balancedmatrix representation. Solid curve for distributed parameters, dotted
curve for lumped Pi-circuits.
988
tributedparameter representation-or,
fromanother viewpoint, between digital computer simulation with distributed
parameters and T N A results. Solution times for the program
of [IS] on a CDC-6400were 14 ms per timestepfor distributed parameters, and about ten times as much using Picircuits.
Using balanced matrices for double-circuit lines implies
that a) the two circuits are identical in conductor type and
tower configuration, b) that each circuit is transposed within
itself, c) that coupling between the circuits exists only in the
zero sequence,andd)thattheaveragedistancefromone
phase of one circuit to a phaseof the other circuit is approximately equal to the average distance between phases within
one circuit.
If assumptions a)*) are maintained but assumption d) is
dropped, then the double-circuit linewould be described by a
series impedance matrix of the form
1974
$
C
!
Fig. 7. Transposition scheme for double-arcuit line,
produang coupling in zero sequence only.
from the positive sequence of one circuit to the positive sequence of the other circuit, or from the positive sequence of
one circuit to the negative sequence
of the other circuit.
VII. FREQUENCY
DEPENDENCE
OF DISTRIBUTED
PARAMETER
LINES
-z:
z,'
z,' z,'
z,'
z,'
.:-1
1
1 -1
'0
Lo
bk = vk
'
fk
vk
- zlik
+ Zlik
b,
= Vm
fm
+ zlim
Z1 = lim Z ( j o )
-..I
(30)
-1
Dm
- Zli,
--11
11
bk(t)
= JOm
bm(t)
-1,
Other transposition schemes for double-circuit lines produce coupling in addition to that in the zero sequence, e.g.,
O0
{ al(u)fm(t - u)
+ &?(u>fk(t-).
{ al(u)fk(t - u)
+ az(u)frn(t - u)1 du
]
(31)
989
PUTRRS
TABLE I
GROUNDRETURNMODE
OF
where a,(u) and a,(u) are weighting functions which are precalculated by inverse Fourier transformation [25].
I t is the
simple nonrepetitive form of these weighting functions (see
[25, fig. 51) which makes the numerical integration
of (31)
easy. This computation must be performed at each time step,
so bk and b, are known. Then the definitions of (30) provide
the two linear algebraic equations desired. For the line 1-5
of Fig. 1, (13) would be replaced by
) - Zlil--6(f) = bl(t)
(32)
ELIMINATION
IN UPPER PART
ELIMINATION
IN LOWER PART
EOUIVALENT
(b)
(a)
Fig. 9.
unknown branch current ib is then found from the intersection point, which when inserted into (33), produces the complete solution. Not only
is such a procedurevery efficient
numerically, but convergence is certain, provided only that
the branch characteristic is sufficiently regular.
This technique for nonlinear resistances can also be used
for nonlinear inductances, since nonlinear flux-current characteristicscan be transformed to vi characteristics by expressing the flux as the integral of the voltage, and thenusing
the trapezoidal ruleon this integral [26].
The compensation method can also be used for systems
with more than one nonlinearity, provided they are separated
from one another by a distributed-parameter line. The ends
of suchdistributedlinesareudisconnected
byBergerons
method,therebyproducingthe
possibility of disconnected
subnetworks, with one nonlinear or time-varying element alVIII. NONLINEAR ELEMENTS
AND SWITCHES
lowed for each.
The solution techniques discussed so far all apply to timeIf more than one nonlinear branch existsper disconnected
invariant linear networks only. But the representation of cir- subnetwork, the compensation procedure could still be used,
cuitbreakers,transformer.orreactorsaturation,nonlinear
though complications enter. For
L nonlinear elementsin a
resistance (lightning arresters, arcs, etc.), and the like all re- given subnetwork, the preceding scalar
is replaced by an
quire extensions of the basic procedure.
L X L square matrix, and an iterative, simultaneous solution
Little can be said in general about the modeling and solu- of L nonlinemequations would thus be required.
tion of systemswitharbitrary
nonlinearities. Yet iterative
A related but distinct techniqueis that of network equivasolution schemes such as Newtons method can often be used lents [26], wherein elimination of all voltages for nodes not
successfully. Solutionsingularities,uncertain
convergence, incident to nonlinear or time-varying elements is performed
etc., all pose possible complications, however, depending on (see Fig. 9). In this way, an equivalent systemof nonlinear or
the particular typeof nonlinearity.
time-varying equations among the remaining
nodes is proPractical numerical solutiontechniqueshavethus
been duced.Anyiterationduetothenonlinearities,orchanges
tailored to thespecific nonlinearities in question. For example, withtime, need only be appliedtothisreducedsystem
of
the compensation method can readilybe applied if the system equations. The opening and closing of an ideal switch ean be
contains only one nonlinear or time-varying resistance
(see handled in this way, sincea switch can be regarded as a timeFig. 8). Superposition then gives the total network solution
varying linear branch; when closed, columns and rows of the
[ v ( t ) ] as being equal to the value [ e o ( t ) ] found with the nonreduced matrix which correspond to the terminalnodes of the
linear branch (k, m) omitted, plus the contribution produced switchmustsimply
be added together. For other types
of
by branch current i h :
nonlinearities, this reduced system may have tobe triangularized more often, perhaps several times per time step if Newtons method is used.
Vector [z] is a property of the linear network only, found by
Since very detailed characteristics are not always needed,
a single repeatsolutiononce
[GI has been triangularized. it is often possible to use piecewise-linear representations for
from (33) gives the straight line of Fig. them.Saturablereactorsandmagnetizinginductances
Forming v b = u k - v ,
of
8(b), which, of course,representstheTheveninequivalent
transformers can normally be represented in this way, often
load line of the linear network, having slope Zth=z&-&,. The with sufficient accuracy using only two or three slopes[ 1 I n
.z*
1.
990
such cases no iteration is required, and the reduced conductance matrix need only be retriangularized a t times of transition from one slope to the other.
IX. LIGHTNING ARRESTERS
Older types of lightning arresterscould be modeled simply
by a nonlinear vi characteristic in series with a switch which
closed when the voltage across it reached the value of the
sparkover
voltage.
But
modern
lightning
arresters
are
equippedwithcurrent-limitinggaps.Thevoltagebuildup
across these gaps is important, and can
be approximated by a
voltage source with a fixed voltagetime characteristic [27],
[28]. More sophisticated models with dynamic effects have
recently been developed, whichalso reproduce the loops in
the vi characteristics and. their differing shapes for differing
wave fronts [29]. In principle i t is also possible to model the
sparkover voltage as a function of wave front steepness (see
discussion of [29]) though a workable definition-of steepness
may be difficult for arbitrary switching surges.
X. GENERATORS,
TRANSFORMERS,
A N D LOADS
1974
[ Y ] - 1 = [ R ] +~ w [ L ] .
Matrices [R] and [L] canthen be used torepresentthe
coupled windings.
If saturationinthemagnetizingimpedanceisto
be
modeled, then lumping it as a nonlinear shunt inductance a t
oneterminalissometimesaccurateenough.Thisapproach
was used inarriving at thecurves of Fig. 12. Betteraccuracy mightbe obtained by connecting parts toall terminals.
urn. versus
Saturation curves are normally only available as
& characteristics,though
for thesimulationone
needs
flux-current characteristics. One curve can be converted into
the other point-by-point, provided hysteresis effects and frequency dependence are ignored. The modeling of hysteresis,
frequency dependence, and capacitive
coupling between layers
of windings and to the tank of the transformer is beyond the
scope of this paper, and is an appropriate subject for further
research. Thedifficulty seems tobe not so much how well the
that the reality
model corresponds to reality, but rather
itself is not well known [32].
Practically no data are available on composite loads as
seen fromthe high-voltage side of thetransformers,even
though their representation seems to be important in certain
studies where ferroresonance or strong dynamic overvoltages
are present [33].
-tyl
991
Fig. 10. Impulse in ground-return mode of HVdc line. Curve 1Sending-end voltage. Curve 2-Measurement at 13.2 km. Curve 3Digital simulation a t 13.2 km.
APPENDIX
MODALTRANSFORMATION
OF LINE EQUATIONS
The steady-state behavior
of an M-phase transmission line
at a discrete frequency is described by the phasor equations
where
, VM,
[ I ] vector of currentphasors 11,. , IM,
[Z] series impedance matrix per unit length,
[ Y] shunt admittance matrix per unit length.
[ V ] vector of voltagephasors VI,
[ Y]
-4001
= jW[C]
[ Y] can be
(39)
XII. CONCLUSIONS
992
1974
[I]is zero,
tively use
Rmode-i
= - Im { ~ r n ~ d e - i ] .
(5 1)
(47)
where t is used toindicatetransposition.Thisequation
seems to be valid only if all eigenvalues are distinct. Since a
balanced M-phase line (Section V) has M - 1 multiple eigenvalues, (47)will not be used. I t is not valid, for instance, for
symmetricalcomponentsappliedtobalancedthree-phase
lines, where
1 1
[SI = [Q]
1 a2 a ]
1 a
(48)
a2
. . ,M
and
[%I
= jw[D]-l[vm&].
AnordnungenvonFreileitungenimHinblickaufdieForm
der
of
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