I.

Introduction
The immune system consists of organs and cells that functions to protect the body against
invading microorganisms. The body has its ways to resist or destroy the harmful
microorganisms. An important aspect of the immune system are the lymphoid organs and
cells which are part of the lymphatic system. Its function includes protection against
invading organisms, abnormal proteins and autoimmune cells. Microorganisms and other
foreign substances are filtered from lymph by lymph nodes and from blood by the spleen.
In addition, lymphocytes and other cells are capable of destroying microorganisms and
foreign substances.

II.

III.

Schematic Diagram

IV.

Principle and Discussion

The lymphatic organs:
A. Primary Lymphoid organs - where lymphocytes are formed and mature. They
provide an environment for stem cells to divide and mature into B- and T- cells

Bone marrow - the red marrow consists of blood- forming cells. The Bcells primarily mature in the bone marrow
Thymus - The thymus is located in the thoracic cavity, just under the neck.
Its made up of two lobes of lymphoid tissue and each lobe has a medulla
surrounded by a cortex. The cortex is where immature lymphocytes first
develop to become T cells, but their maturation finishes in the medulla.
B. Secondary Lymphoid organs - are arranged as a series of filters monitoring the
contents of the extracellular fluids, i.e. lymph, tissue fluid and blood. Secondary
lymphoid tissues are also where lymphocytes are activated.

Spleen - the spleen filters the blood and entraps foreign materials and
microorganisms. The white pulp of the spleen are stimulated once the
lymph passes. Before blood leaves the spleen, it passes through the red
pulp and the macrophages in the red pulp remove foreign substances and
worn-out red cells thru phagocytosis
Lymph nodes - as the lymph moves through the lymph nodes, two
functions are performed. One function is to activate the immune system.
Microorganisms and foreign substances in the lymph can stimulate
lymphocytes in the lymphatic tissue to divide. The second function of the
lymph nodes is to remove microorganisms and foreign substances from
the lymph through the action of macrophages.
Tonsils - they form a protective ring of lymphatic tissue around the
openings of the nasal and oral cavities and the pharynx. They protect
against pathogens and other potentially harmful material entering from the
nose and mouth
Appendix - The appendix is a pouch of lymphatic tissue thats attached to
the large intestine.
Peyer's patches - These patches of lymphoid tissue are located in the
mucosa and submucosa throughout the small intestine, although theyre
more concentrated in the ileum. Peyers patches contain mostly B cells.

V. QFR
1. Enumerate the primary lymphoid organs and give the functions of each in the
immune system.
Thymus - is the site of maturation of T-cells
Bone marrow - is the site of B- cell maturation and site of production of
blood cells
2. List the two main secondary lymphoid organs and cite at least two functions for
each.
Spleen - the spleen filters the blood instead of lymph. Cells within the
spleen detect and respond to foreign substances in the blood and destroy
worn -out red blood cells.
Lymph nodes - as lymph moves through lymph nodes, two functions are
performed. One function is to activate the immune system.
Microorganisms and foreign substances in the lymph stimulates the
lymphocytes in the lymphatic tissue to divide. The second function of the
lymph nodes is to remove microorganisms and foreign substances from
the lymph through the action of macrophages.
3. What does the term "Bursal Equivalent" mean? Which lymphoid organ was
labelled as such? Indicate justification for considering such lymphoid organ the
bursal equivalent?
The Bursal equivalent is a hypothesized lymphoid tissue in non-avian
vertebrates including human beings and it is equivalent to the Bursa of Fabricius
in birds which functions primarily as a site of B-lymphocyte maturation. The bone
marrow is labelled as such because in humans it is the primary site for B
lymphocyte maturation.
V.

References
VanPutte, Regan and Russo, Seeley's Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology 8th edition
(Chapter 14 page, 384)