How Do Variable Frequency Drives (VFDS) Work - or AC Drive Troubleshooting, Repair and Applications

5/17/2014
How do variable frequency drives (VFDs) work? or AC Drive Troubleshooting, Repair and Applications
Notes on AC Drives (VFDs)

What is an AC Drive or Variable Frequency Drive?
AC Drive & VFD Theory
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AC Drives
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By James M. Shumberg
Dedicated to Jennifer.
My home brewed 4 Gig, 2.19GHZ Intel Duo Core 2 Box.
(I have always loved girls with big memories.)
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See what it costs to hold an Onsite AC Drives seminar (at your facility).
On with the AC drives article:

About AC Drive Technicians
"A good AC drive technician understands the operation of the variable
speed drive and the functions of its components.
We Are Happy To
Accept
An outstanding AC drive technician also understands the effects of the load

on the drive and the effects of the drive on the load."
...James Shumberg
Understanding AC Motor-Drive Systems
(Sometimes called Variable Frequency Drives or VFDs)
Maybe your objective is to learn how to troubleshoot variable frequency drives
or maybe you want to know how to properly set-up a drive through
programming. Maybe you just want the question answered: how does an AC
variable frequency drive work?
During this article I will definitely cover the theory of operation of the variable
frequency drive (VFD) and several typical AC drive applications including
multi-motor AC drive applications.
In any case, to gain a useful working knowledge of the drive it is mandatory

that you understand how AC induction motors produce mechanical force,
called torque, and the limitations of AC motors. Therefore, what follows
includes quite a lot of AC motor theory followed by heavy AC drive theory.
http://www.electricaltrainingusa.com/ac_drives.html
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includes quite a lot of AC motor theory followed by heavy AC drive theory.

The very first thing you need to know is that the AC drive does not produce
any torque - in fact, it does not produce even one ounce of load moving
torque. All the mechanical force that moves your machine and al of the
mechanical force that is produced by the motor & drive system is produced
by the motor. The drive itself just has to provide the motor with the proper
voltage and current necessary in a form that is usable by the motor. The drive
itself, is only an electrical power supply.
The motor is the all-important prime mover. If a particular motor does not have
the capability to produce the required torque and speed there is absolutely
nothing you can do to the drive, programmatically or otherwise, to enable the
motor to power your machine!
Therefore, when designing a motor-drive system proper motor selection is
crucial.
Above all never, never, never match a "High Efficient" design motor to
an AC drive! I am emphatic about this because I see it happen all the time
and it is the worst thing you can do. (Well, not really the worst thing you can
do, but I do want to get my point across.)
Do not buy a high-effecient motor to operate on an AC drive!
Interested?
If you have an interest in this topic you should consider registering in my AC
drive seminar and bring a co-worker (because no one else back on the job is
going to believe what I told you during the seminar.) Also, keep reading, I will
tell you things about AC drives you never before heard and never will hear
anywhere else.
Exactly what is an AC drive?
The word "drive" is used loosely in the industry. It seems that people involved
primarily in the world of gear boxes and pulleys refer to any collection of
mechanical and electro-mechanical components, which when connected
together will move a load, as a "drive". When speaking to these people, an
AC drive may be considered by them as the variable frequency inverter and
motor combination. It may even include the motor's pulley - I am not sure.
People in the electrical field and electrical suppliers usually refer to a variable
frequency inverter unit alone, or an SCR power module alone (when
discussing DC drives) as the "drive" and the motor as the "motor".
Manufacturers of variable frequency drives (VFD) used to refer to the drive as
just that, a "variable frequency drive". More manufacturers are referring to
their drive as an "adjustable speed AC drive". To make matters worse when
a motor is included in the package it may be referred to as an "adjustable
speed AC drive system".
A variable frequency drive is an adjustable speed drive. Adjustable speed
drives include all types; mechanical and electrical. Now is it clear? Don't worry
about it. It's not clear to anyone. As you read on, when I refer to the "drive" I
am referring to the variable frequency inverter alone.
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A Little About AC Drives

The main power components of an AC drive, have to be able to supply the
required level of current and voltage in a form the motor can use. The controls
have to be able to provide the user with necessary adjustments such as
minimum and maximum speed settings, so that the drive can be adapted to
the user's process. Spare parts have to be available and the repair manual
has to be readable. It's nice if the drive can shut itself down when detecting
either an internal or an external problem. It's also nice if the drive components
are all packaged in a single enclosure to aid in installation but that's about it.
The Dumb Trap

The paradox facing drive manufacturers today is that as they make their
drives easier to use, the amount of training with which they must provide their
users increases. This is because as drives become easier to use they are
purchased more and more by people of less and less technical capability. As
less technical people get involved in drive purchases the number of
misapplications goes way up. I call this phenomenon the "dumb trap". (When
manufactures discover this phenomenon they simultaneously discover how
dumb they've been. Some have not yet discovered it.)
Ambiguous Motor Theory

The real action in an AC variable frequency drive system is in the motor. This
is really where it all happens.
To be an AC drive application Wizard (which is several levels higher then
Guru) one must understand how motors use electric power. It is essential. I
cannot emphasize the importance of this.
All loads moved by electric motors are really moved by magnetism. The
purpose of every component in a motor is to help harness, control, and use
magnetic force. When applying an AC drive system it helps to remember you
are actually applying magnets to move a load. To move a load fast does not
require more magnets, you just move the magnets fast. To move a heavier
load or to decrease acceleration time (accelerate faster) more magnets
(more torque) are needed. This is the basis for all motor applications.
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Where does the real action happen in a AC drive system?
Above is a cross-sectional view a motor rotor and field magnetic core.

Looking from the side would look something like a looking at a can:
We can add magnets (and torque) to our drive system by using a motor with a
core that is either longer, larger in cross-sectional diameter, or some
combination of both.
A Side Note About Fishing, Electro-magnets, Current, and Magnetic
Conductivity
When we go fishing we put bait on a hook and throw it in water knowing that
according to generally accepted theory, a hungry fish will sooner or later, bite.
Well the truth is we don't know why the fish bite. No one to date, has talked to
a fish (well maybe a few people talk to fish). The fact the we get hungry and
therefore fish must too, seems like a safe assumption. But it doesn't really
matter because we do know that putting bait on a hook will get fish into the
boat.
Magnetism and electricity are the same way. We have some well accepted
theories that we can use to explain how magnets can move our load but no
one really knows what magnetism and electricity are (regardless of what they
say). When it comes to using magnetic force to move our load, how it works
just doesn't matter. We do know that it works. We have even noticed a few
peculiar things.
We have noticed that when you wrap a coil of wire around a piece of iron and
apply electric current the piece of iron becomes magnetic. We call this an
electro-magnet.
Schematic of Electro-Magnet
Electro-Magnet
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About Electro-Magnets (The Torque Producers Inside Every Motor)

We have noticed a lot of things about electro-magnets that are very important
to the drive application wizard (you'll see why later):
After we apply the electric current, the magnet field grows at a finite rate
to a finite size .
After voltage is applied and full current is reached, which always takes a
little time, the field quits growing and becomes a constant size. If we
increase the applied voltage the field grows and becomes stronger,
decrease the voltage and the field weakens and shrinks.
When we remove electric power to the coil the field does not just
disappear. It just decreases in size until it does disappear. It collapses
over time so to speak.
The more current our coil draws (which we can force by increasing the
applied voltage level ) the stronger and larger our magnetic field
becomes. I know I said it twice. It's that important.
When we increase voltage to our electro-magnet, current will increase
directly proportional up to a point. After that point current increases
exponentially. THIS IS IMPORTANT! Generally accepted theory says
that the iron core or any material, can only conduct a limited amount of
magnetic flux. Once that point is reached current can become very high
with a very small increase in voltage. This is called magnetic saturation
and is sometimes seen in motor applications. Motor life becomes very
short when the core reaches saturation - about 15 seconds in some
cases. We will look at this and some of the causes later.
Some energy is consumed by simply magnetizing the iron core.
Different materials consume different amounts of energy. This is usually
considered an energy loss.
Some energy is converted into heat within the iron core. Different
materials convert different amounts of energy. This is also usually
considered an energy loss.
Once a core is magnetized, demagnetization and reverse polarity remagnetization consumes more energy and takes quite a long time,
relatively speaking. (Remember, an existing field has to collapse over
time.) The amount of this loss is proportional to the frequency of
polarization reversals. This happens 120 times per second when
operating an AC motor at 60 hertz. We will touch on the importance of
this later. (Are you beginning to see where all this is going?)
The Magnets Within the Motor and Torque

The motor stator shown below is a two-pole motor meaning it is wound with with
two field coils for each phase. In the industry this would be called a "2-pole motor".
For simplicity, only one phase is shown. In reality, a 3-phase, two pole motor
requires six coils, evenly spaced around the core - a minimum of two coils is
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requires six coils, evenly spaced around the core - a minimum of two coils is
required, to generate two electro-magnetic poles, for each of the three phases.
(A 4-pole motor will have four coils per phase or 12 total coils for a 3-phase
motor.)
Motors are designed so that the
electro-magnets are made as
strong as possible with
acceptable risk of core
saturation. This will maximize the
torque capability of the motor but
also means that during normal
operation every motor may at
some point, operate close to
saturation. How close a motor
runs to saturation depends upon
the amount and type of core
material used. So naturally, this
point varies from manufacturer to
manufacturer. There really is a
difference in motors and you get
what you pay for.
When the voltage applied to a

motor is increased current to the
electro-magnets increases
resulting in higher field strength
and increased motor torque
output. This is a commonly used
technique, especially in AC drive
applications. It is a very good
way to gain torque capability
when needed.
This technique can increase motor torque it will also cause higher than normal
motor heating resulting in reduced motor life. Close monitoring of the motor is
required. Avoid saturating the core!
All Three Phases of a 2-Pole Motor

The image to the right shows all three phases
wound into a 2-pole motor.
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Note how the end connections of each phase are

connected together at the "Y" point. This allows
for three lead wires to be brought out of the
terminal box to be connected to a 3-phase power
system.
A Coil-Ectomy
If you could remove the coils from the above motor without breaking a
connection, and lay them side-by-side, this is what you would have. What is
shown are three phases: A, B, and C phase connected together (see the
arrow) at a "star" or "Y" point. There are other motor connection schemes but
this is the most typical:
AC Generator
If a magnet is passed along the coils, an electric current is generated in each
of the three phases. In fact, there is little difference between AC generator
and motor field windings.
The faster you move the magnet the higher the AC output frequency. Variable
frequency drives control the frequency electronically. We'll get to more on that
later.
When an iron core is placed so a moving magnetic field passes through it, a
magnet field is generated within the iron core. It takes time to generate a field
therefore, the new field reaches peak strength after the peak of the generating
field has passed. The bar (rotor) is "pulled" by the magnetic field thus
producing torque.
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The magnetic field has to pass through the rotor to generate a rotor field and
pull. If the rotor travels at the same speed as the magnetic field, induction into
the rotor will cease, the magnetic field will disappear and the rotor will loose
its pull and slow down. Pull (torque) is obtained when fields are passed
through the rotor in quick succession. Remember though, it takes a long time
to generate a field. If the frequency of fields passing through the rotor is too
low, effectiveness is lost. If the frequency of the generating field is held
constant, and the torque is great enough to move the rotor, the rotor will reach
an equilibrium speed, where at any higher speed induction and torque are
reduced and the rotor slows back down to equilibrium.
More About AC Induction Motors
Typical Rotor (Rotating Part)
Typical Stator (Stationary Part)
Important Motor Formula - Calculating the Synchronous Speed:
("120" is a constant in the formula - don't worry about it.)
"Synchronous RPM" is the RPM the motor would run if the rotor did not slip.
All AC induction motors slip. ("Synchronous motors", a special kind of
induction motor, do not slip- at least least they are not supposed to. More
about synchronous motors will have to be covered in another article.)
A note
about nominal RPM ratings:
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A note about nominal RPM ratings:

An AC motor referred to, in the industry, as an 1800 RPM motor will be nameplated with a speed of something less, usually around 1735 RPM. 1735 RPM
is a typical RPM rating but can be higher or lower but is always less than the
synchronous speed (1800 RPM). The difference between the synchronous
and the actual RPM is called "slip". Adjusting slip is an important technique in
AC drive applications. A lot more about slip will come later.
The following is surprisingly simple but important! Don't let it scare

you.
You do not have to memorize it - just understand it.
Calculation of Synchronous Speed
(The "Poles" are the number of electro-magnetic poles wound into the motor. Motors can
have any even number of poles wound into them but a minimum of 2 poles for each of the 3
phases are required. The most common AC motors are wound with either 2, 4, 6, or 8
poles.)
Looking at the calculation above you can see that a motor name-plated approximately 3450
RPM and 60 HZ is obviously a 2-pole motor with a synchronous speed of 3600 RPM.
Calculation of % Slip
(Typical induction motors slip anywhere from 3% to 5% when they are fully mechanically
loaded.)
Example of % Slip Calculation
Why are some motors called "induction motors" and what is

induction?
When an electric current is applied to a conductor a magnetic field builds
around that conductor. If another conductor is in close proximity so that the
building magnet field "cuts" through that conductor, a current of equal potential
is produced with flow in the opposite direction of the original current. This
conductor is called the secondary circuit and the principal is called induction.
When an electric current is
applied to a conductor a
magnetic field builds around that
conductor. If another conductor
is in close proximity so that the
building magnet field "cuts"
through that conductor, a
current of equal potential is
produced with flow in the
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produced with flow in the

opposite direction of the original
current. This conductor is called
the secondary circuit and the
principal is called induction.
If the number conductors in the

secondary is increased the
output potential is increased in
direct proportion. The inverse is
also true.
This is called transformer
action. It is because of
transformer action that a current
is created in the rotor
(secondary circuit) of an AC
induction motor and a resulting
magnetic force, within and
around the rotor, is also
created.
Note:
If the magnetic field reaches
maximum strength and quits
growing, the current flow in the
secondary returns to zero
regardless of the level of current
flow in the primary. In other
words, there is a secondary
current induced only when the
magnetic field around the
primary is either increasing or
decreasing in size.
This article will be continued on our sister web site:

www.drivesys.com
There is not much sense in having two long articles on two web sites and
causing you to wait so long for this web page regarding AC drives, to take a
long time to load into your browser. (And you may not even be interested in it.)
The continuation of this article will therefore be found, sooner or later, based
on when I have time to write, at www.drivesys.com
If you would like to drop us a note just click here. I read everyone of our
comments from readers.
Thanks for reading so far. .... James Shumberg
Contact US
Back to Training Home
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Copyright 2003-2010 James M. Shumberg & Drive Systems, Inc.
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5/17/2014

Notes on AC Drives (VFDs)

Two other hot

Arc Flash Electrical Safety

Your Place or Ours?

What Is a drive anyway.......?

James M. Shumberg Profile

On with the AC drives article:

An outstanding AC drive technician also understands the effects of the load

In any case, to gain a useful working knowledge of the drive it is mandatory

includes quite a lot of AC motor theory followed by heavy AC drive theory.

A Little About AC Drives

The Dumb Trap

Ambiguous Motor Theory

Where does the real action happen in a AC drive system?

Above is a cross-sectional view a motor rotor and field magnetic core.

About Electro-Magnets (The Torque Producers Inside Every Motor)

The Magnets Within the Motor and Torque

When the voltage applied to a

All Three Phases of a 2-Pole Motor

Note how the end connections of each phase are

Typical Stator (Stationary Part)

Important Motor Formula - Calculating the Synchronous Speed:

("120" is a constant in the formula - don't worry about it.)

about nominal RPM ratings:

A note about nominal RPM ratings:

The following is surprisingly simple but important! Don't let it scare

Example of % Slip Calculation

Why are some motors called "induction motors" and what is

produced with flow in the

If the number conductors in the

This article will be continued on our sister web site:

Back to Training Home

Copyright 2003-2010 James M. Shumberg & Drive Systems, Inc.

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