An Imperial Capital-Vijayanagara

The Discovery of Hampi( How was the city Hampi/

Vijayanagardiscovered?)
1. Colonel Colin Mackenzie, an employee of the English East
IndiaCompanyprepared the first survey map of thesite of Hampi.
2. Much of the initial information he received wasbased on the memories of
priests of the Virupakshatemple and the shrine of Pampadevi.
3. Subsequently,from 1856, photographers began to record themonuments
which enabled scholars to study them.
4. As early as 1836 epigraphists began collectingseveral dozen
inscriptions found at this site and othertemples at Hampi.
5. In an effort to reconstruct thehistory of the city and the empire, historians
collatedinformation from these sources with accounts offoreign travellers
and other literature written inTelugu, Kannada, Tamil and Sanskrit.

Rayas,the rulers of Vijayanagara Empire

1. According to tradition and epigraphic evidence twobrothers, Harihara and
Bukka, founded theVijayanagara Empire in 1336. This empire included
territories from Karnataka,Andhrapradesh,Tamilnadu and Kerala.
2. The first dynasty, known as theSangama dynasty, exercised control till
1485.They were supplanted by the Saluvas, militarycommanders, who
remained in power till 1503. They were replaced by the Tuluvas and
Aravidudynasty rulers.

3. ( Explain the contributions of Krishnadeva Raya to the

Vijayanagara Empire)
a. Krishnadeva Raya belonged to the Tuluva dynasty.
b. Krishnadeva Rayas rule was characterised by expansion and
consolidation.
c. This was the time when the land between the Tungabhadra and Krishna
rivers was acquired.
d. He subdued the rulers of Orissa (1514) andsevere defeats were inflicted on
the Sultan of Bijapur.
e. Krishnadeva Raya is credited with building somefine temples and adding
impressive gopuramstomany important south Indian temples.
f. He alsofounded a suburban township near Vijayanagaracalled Nagalapuram
after his mother.
g. Some of themost detailed descriptions of Vijayanagara come fromhis time or
just after.
4. On their northern frontier, the Vijayanagara kingscompeted with
contemporary rulers including theSultans of the Deccan and the
Gajapati rulers ofOrissa. Some of the areas that were incorporated
withinthe empire had witnessed the development ofpowerful states such as
those of the Cholas in TamilNadu and the Hoysalas in Karnataka.
5. As warfare during these times depended uponeffective cavalry, the import of
horses from Arabiaand Central Asia was very important. Local communities

6.

7.

8.

9.

of merchants known askudiraichettisor horse merchants provided horses to

Vijayanagara rulers.
In fact, Vijayanagara was also noted for itsmarkets dealing in spices,
textiles and preciousstones. Trade was often regarded as a status
symbolfor such cities, which boasted of a wealthy populationthat demanded
high-value exotic goods, especially precious stones and jewellery.
Krishnadeva Rayas successors were troubled by rebellious
nayakasormilitary chiefs. By 1542 control at the centre hadshifted to
another ruling lineage, that of the Aravidu,which remained in power till the
end of theseventeenth century.
During this period, as indeedearlier, the military ambitions of the rulersof
Vijayanagara as well as those of the DeccanSultanates resulted in shifting
alignments.Eventually this led to an alliance of the Sultanatesagainst
Vijayanagara. It was the adventurous policy of Rama Raya who tried to
play off one Sultanagainst another that led the Sultans to combinetogether
and wage war on Rama Raya.
In 1565 Rama Raya, the chiefminister of Vijayanagara, led the army into
battleat Rakshasi-Tangadi (also known as Talikota), wherehis forces were
routed by the combined armiesof Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda. The
victoriousarmies sacked the city of Vijayanagara. The city wastotally
abandoned within a few years.

Amaranayaka System
1. The amara-nayakasystem was a major politicalinnovation of the
Vijayanagara Empire. It is likelythat many features of this system were
derived from the iqtasystem of the Delhi Sultanate
2. Among those who exercised power in the VijayanagarEmpire weremilitary
chiefs who usually controlled forts and hadarmed supporters. These
chiefs often moved fromone area to another, and in many cases
wereaccompanied by peasants looking for fertile land on which to settle.
3. The amara-nayakaswere military commanderswho were given territories
to govern by the rayas.
4. They collected taxes and other dues from peasants,craftspersons and
traders in the area.
5. They retainedpart of the revenue for personal use and formaintaining a
stipulated contingent of horsesand elephants. These contingents provided
theVijayanagara kings with an effective fighting forcewith which they brought
the entire southernpeninsula under their control.
6. Some of the revenuewas also used for the maintenance of temples
andirrigation works.
7. The amara-nayakassent tribute to the kingannually and personally
appeared in the royal courtwith gifts to express their loyalty.
8. Kings occasionallyasserted their control over them by transferring
themfrom one place to another.
9. However, during the courseof the seventeenth century, many of these
nayakasestablished independent kingdoms. This hastenedthe collapse
of the central imperial structure.

Vijayanagara-the Capital and itsPhysical Environment

1. Water resources
a) The most striking feature about the location ofVijayanagara is the natural
basin formed by theriver Tungabhadra which flows in a northeasterlydirection.
b) A number of streams flow down tothe river from these rocky outcrops.In
almost all cases embankments were built alongthese streams to create
reservoirs of varying sizes.
c) Elaborate arrangements had to be made to storerainwater and conduct
it to the city. The mostimportant such tank was Kamalapuram tank.
d) Water from this tank not onlyirrigated fields nearby but was also
conductedthrough a channel to the royal centre.One of the most prominent
waterworks to be seenamong the ruins is the Hiriya canal.
2. Fortifications (Explain the descriptions about the forts observed by
AbdurRazzaq and Paes)
a.

b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

g.

AbdurRazzaq, an ambassadorsent by the ruler of Persia was

greatlyimpressed by the fortifications, and mentionedseven lines of forts.
These encircled not only thecity but also its agricultural hinterland and
forests.
The outermost wall linked the hills surroundingthe city. The massive
masonry construction wasslightly tapered.
No mortar or cementing agent wasemployed anywhere in the
construction. The stoneblocks were wedge shaped, which held them inplace,
and the inner portion of the walls was ofearth packed with rubble.
What was most significant about this fortificationis that it enclosed
agricultural tracts.
AbdurRazzaqnoted thatbetween the first, second and the thirdwalls
there are cultivated fields, gardens and houses.
Paes observed that from this first fort until youenter the city there is a
great distance, withfields, many gardensand two lakes. These statements
have been corroborated bypresent-day archaeologists, who have also
foundevidence of an agricultural tract between the sacredcentre and the
urban core.
Why do you think agricultural tracts wereincorporated within the
fortified area?

i)

Theobjective of medieval sieges was to starve thedefenders into

submission. These sieges could lastfor several months and sometimes even
years.
ii)
Normally rulers tried to be prepared for suchsituations by building large
granaries withinfortified areas.
iii)
The rulers of Vijayanagara adopteda more expensive and elaborate
strategy of protectingthe agricultural belt itself.
h. A second line of fortification went round theinner core of the urban complex,
and a third linesurrounded the royal centre, within which each setof major
buildings was surrounded by its ownhigh walls.
3. Roads in Vijayanagara Empire

a.

The fort was entered through well-guarded gates,which linked the city to the
major roads. Archaeologists have studied roads within the cityand those
leading out from it.
b. These roads have beenidentified by tracing paths through gateways, as
wellas by finds of pavements.
c. Roads generally woundaround through the valleys, avoiding rocky
terrain.Some of the most important roads extended fromtemple gateways,
and were lined by bazaars.
4.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

The urban core

There is relatively little archaeological evidence ofthe houses of ordinary
people. Archaeologists havefound fine Chinese porcelain in some areas,
which suggest that these areas may have beenoccupied by rich traders.
Tombs and mosques locatedhere have distinctive functions, yet their
architectureresembles that of the mandapasfound in the templesof Hampi.
The housesof ordinary people are thatched, but nonetheless well-builtand
arranged according to occupations, in longstreets with many open places.
Field surveys indicate that the entire area wasdotted with numerous shrines
and small temples,pointing to the prevalence of a variety of cults,perhaps
supported by different communities.
Thesurveys also indicate that wells, rainwater tanks aswell as temple tanks
may have served as sources ofwater to the ordinary town dwellers.

The Royal Centre in the Vijayanagara

1. The royal centre was located in the south-westernpart of the
settlement.About 30 building complexes have beenidentified as
palaces. These are relatively largestructures that do not seem to have been
associatedwith ritual functions.
2. One difference betweenthese structures and temples is that thetemples
wereconstructed entirely of masonry, while the secular buildings were
madeof perishable materials.
3. One of the more distinctive structures in the area was
thekingspalacewhich is the largest of the enclosures but has notyielded
definitive evidence of being a royal residence.
4. The kings palace has two most impressive platforms, usuallycalled the
audience hall and the mahanavamidibba. The entire complex is
surrounded by highdouble walls with a street running between them.
5. The audience hall is a high platform with slots forwooden pillars at
close and regular intervals. It hada staircase going up to the second floor.It is
not very clear what the hall was used for.
6. Mahanavamidibbais a massive platform risingfrom a base of about 11,000
sq. ft to a height of40 ft. There is evidence that it supported a
woodenstructure. The base of the platform is covered withrelief carvings.
7. Rituals associated with the structure or the ceremonies performed
in mahanavamidibbaon the occasion
a. worship of the image,
b. worship of the state horse,
c. Sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals.

d. Dances,wrestling matches, and processions of caparisonedhorses,

elephants and chariots and soldiers,
e. Ritual presentations before the king and hisguests by the chief
nayakasand subordinate kingsmarked the occasion.
f. On the last day of thefestival the king inspected his army and the
armiesof the nayakasin a grand ceremony in an open field.On this
occasion the nayakasbrought rich gifts forthe king as well as the
stipulated tribute.
8. One of the most beautiful buildings in the royalcentre is the Lotus Mahal, so
named by Britishtravellers in the nineteenth century. While the nameis
certainly romantic, historians are not quite surewhat the building was used
for. According to Mackenzie this may have been a council chamber, a place
wherethe king met his advisers.
9. Another important building in the Royal centre was the Elephant Stables.
This building has eleven rooms and beautiful structures over them. This may
have been used for keeping special elephants which were used for kings
family.
10. One of the most spectacular temples in the royal centre is the Hazara
Rama temple. This was probably meantto be used only by the king and his
family. The imagesin the central shrine are missing; however, sculptedpanels
on the walls have scenesfrom the Ramayana sculpted on the inner walls
ofthe shrine.
While many of the structures at Vijayanagarawere destroyed when the city
was sacked, traditionsof building palatial structures were continued bythe
nayakas. Many of these buildings have survived.

The Sacred Centre in the Vijayanagara

1.
2.
3.

4.

5.

6.

According to localtradition, the hills near the sacred centresheltered the

monkey kingdomof Vali and Sugriva mentioned in the Ramayana.
Other traditions suggest that Pampadevi, the localmother goddess, did
penance in these hills in orderto marry Virupaksha, the guardian deity of
thekingdom, who isrecognised as a form of Shiva.
Among these hills are foundJaina temples of the pre-Vijayanagara
period as well.In other words, this area was associated with severalsacred
traditions such as the Pallavas,Chalukyas, Hoysalas and Cholas. Rulers very
oftenencouraged temple building as a means ofassociating themselves with
the divine.
Temples also functioned as centres of learning. Rulers granted land andother
resources for the maintenance of temples. Temples developed as
significantreligious, social, cultural and economic centres. Fromthe
point of view of the rulers, constructing, repairingand maintaining temples
were important meansof winning support and recognition for their
power,wealth and piety.
The Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf ofthe god Virupaksha.
All royal orders were signedShriVirupaksha, usually in the Kannada
script.Rulers also indicated their close links with the godsby using the title
Hindu Suratrana this meant Hindu Sultan.
The rayagopuramsor royal gatewaysthat often dwarfed the towers on the
gate ways,whichsignalled the presence of the temple from a greatdistance.

They were also probably meant asreminders of the power of kings, able to
commandthe resources, techniques and skills needed toconstruct these
towering gateways.
7. Other distinctivefeatures include mandapasor pavilions andlong,
pillared corridors that often ran around theshrines within the temple
complex.
8. A characteristic feature of the temple complexesis the chariot streets that
extended from the temple gopuramin a straight line. These streets
were pavedwith stone slabs and lined with pillared pavilions inwhich
merchants set up their shops.
9. The Virupaksha templea. The Virupaksha temple was built in the ninth-tenth centuries.
b. The hall in front ofthe main shrine was built by Krishnadeva Raya tomark his
accession.
c. He is also credited withthe construction of the eastern gopuram, whichmade
the central small.
d. The halls in the temple were used for a variety ofpurposes. Some were
spaces in which the images ofgods were placed to witness special
programmes ofmusic, dance, drama, etc.
e. Others were used tocelebrate the marriages of deities, and yet otherswere
meant for the deities to swing in.
10. The Vitthala temple
a.

In the Vitthala temple, the principal deity was Vitthala, aform of Vishnu
generally worshipped in Maharashtra.
b. The introduction of the worship of the deity inKarnataka is another indication
of the ways in whichthe rulers of Vijayanagaraaccepted different traditions.
c. As in the case of othertemples, this temple too has several halls.
d. This temple has aunique feature that the main shrine is designed like a
chariot.

Plotting or locating Palaces, Templesand Bazaars in

Vijayanagar
1. After the initial surveys by Colin Mackenzie,information was pieced together
from travellersaccounts and inscriptions.
2. Through the twentiethcentury, the site of Vijayanagara was preserved by
the ArchaeologicalSurvey of India and the Karnataka Department
ofArchaeology and Museums.
3. In 1976, Hampi wasrecognised as a site of national importance.
4. In 1980s, an important project waslaunched to document the material
remains atVijayanagara in detail, through extensive andintensive surveys, by
using a variety of recording techniques.
5. One of such techniques was mapping
a)The first step of mapping was to divide the entirearea into a set of
25squares, each designated bya letter of the alphabet
b)Then,each of the small squareswas subdivided into a setof even smaller
squares.

c) Each ofthese smaller squares wasfurther subdivided into yetsmaller

units.
6. Thesedetailed surveys havebeen extremely painstaking,and have recovered
anddocumented traces ofthousands of structures from tiny shrines
andresidences to elaboratetemples.
7. It is worth rememberingthat John M. Fritz,George Michell and M.S.
NagarajaRao, who worked for years at thesite to discover many important
aspects of Vijayanagara.

Assignment
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

What have been the methods used to study the ruins of Hampi over the last two
centuries? In what way do you think they would have complemented the information
provided by the priests of the Virupaksha temple?
How was the water requirements of Vijayanagara met?
What do you think were the advantages and disadvantages of enclosing agricultural
land with in the fortified area of the city?
What do you think was the significance of the rituals associated with the
mahanavamidibba?
Discuss whether the term royal centre is an appropriate description for the part of
the city for which it is used.
What does the architecture of buildings like the Lotus Mahal and elephant stables
tell us about the rulers who commissioned them?
What are the architectural traditions that inspired the architects of Vijayanagara?
How did they transform these traditions?
What impression of the lives of the ordinary people of Vijayanagara can you cull
from the various descriptions in the chapter?

9. What were the sources to understand the history of vijayanagara or Hampi?

10. Explain the relationship between Rayas of vijayanagara and traders.
11. What were the dynasties ruled vijayanagara? Explain the role of important
rulers for the success and failure of vijayanagara?
12. Explain the relationship between Rayas of vijayanagara and Sultans of
Deccan.
13. Explain the relationship between Rayas of vijayanagara and Amaranayakas.
14. Explain the structure of fort and roads in vijayanagara.
15. Discuss whether the term sacred centre is an appropriate description for
the part of the city for which it is used.
16. How was plotting of palaces, temples and markets done?( Mapping of
Vijayanagara or Hampi)