12C Basic Complex Numbers

Chap 03 SM Page 95 Thursday, October 12, 2000 9:51 AM
Complex
numbers
3
VCE coverage
Area of study
Units 3 & 4 Algebra
In this chapter
3A Introduction to complex
numbers
3B Basic operations using
complex numbers
3C Conjugates and division
of complex numbers
3D Complex numbers in
polar form
3E Basic operations on
complex numbers in
polar form
3F Factorisation of
polynomials in C
3G Solving equations in C
96
Specialist Mathematics
Introduction to complex numbers

In 1545, the Italian mathematician Girolamo Cardano proposed (what was then) a
startling mathematical expression:
40 = ( 5 + 15 )( 5 15 )
This was a valid expression, yet it included the square root of a negative number,
which seemed impossible.
Eventually, however, this idea became central to the new study the study of
complex numbers. Complex numbers are now used extensively in the fields of physics
and engineering in areas such as electric circuits and electromagnetic waves. Combined
with calculus theory, complex numbers form an important part of the study of
mathematics known as complex analysis.
Square root of a negative number

The quadratic equation x2 + 1 = 0 has no solutions for x in the real number system R
because the equation yields x = 1 and there is no real number which, when
squared, gives 1 as the result. If, however, we define an imaginary number denoted
by i such that i 2 = 1, then x = 1 becomes x = i 2 = i . For the general case
x + a2 = 0, with a R, we can write:
x = a 2
= 1 a 2
= i2 a2
= ai
Powers of i will produce i or 1. We have i 2 = 1, i 3 = i 2 i = 1 i = i,
i 4 = i 2 i 2 = 1 1 = 1, i 6 = (i 2)3 = (1)3 = 1 and so on. The pattern is quite
obviously that even powers of i give 1 or 1 and odd powers of i give i or i.
Definition of a complex number

A complex number (generally denoted by the letter z) is defined as a quantity
consisting of a real number added to a multiple of the imaginary unit i. For real
numbers x and y, x + yi is a complex number.
C = {z: z = x + yi, x, y R} defines the set of complex numbers.
The real part of z is x and is written as Re z.
The imaginary part of z is y and is written as Im z.
Note: Every real number x can be written as x + 0i and so the set of real numbers is a
subset of the set of complex numbers. That is, R C.
Chapter 3
Complex numbers
WORKED Example 1
Using the imaginary number i, write down an expression for:
a
16
THINK
a
WRITE
Express the square root of 16 as the

product of the square root of 16 and the
square root of 1.
16 =
16 1
Substitute i 2 for 1.
Take the square root of 16 and i 2.
= 4i
Express the square root of 5 as the

product of the square root of 5 and the
square root of 1.
5 =
16 i 2
5 1
5 i2
Take the square root of i 2.
=i 5
WORKED Example 2
Write down the real and imaginary parts of the following complex numbers, z.
a z = 3 + 2i
b z = 1--2- i
THINK
WRITE
a Re z = 3
The real part is the non-i term.
The imaginary part is the coefficient of

the i term.
The real part is the non-i term.
1
2
The imaginary part is the coefficient of

the i term.
Im z = 2
b Re z = 0
Im z = 1--2-
WORKED Example 3
Write i 8 + i 5 in the form x + yi where x and y are real numbers.

THINK
1
Simplify i 8 and i 5.
Sum the two answers.
WRITE
i 8 = (i 2)4 = (1)4 = 1
i 5 = i 4 i = (i 2)2 i = (1)2 i = 1 i = i
i8 + i5 = 1 + i
97
98
WORKED Example 4
Simplify z = i 4 2i 2 + 1 and w = i 6 3i 4 + 3i 2 1 and show that z + w = 4.
THINK
1
WRITE
Simplify i 4 2i 2 + 1
and i 6 3i 4 + 3i 2 1.
i 4 2i 2 + 1 = (i 2)2 2 1 + 1
= (1)2 + 2 + 1
=4
6
4
i 3i + 3i 2 1 = (i 2)3 3(i 2)2 + 3 1 1
= (1)3 3(1)2 3 1
= 1 3 3 1
= 8
4
2
6
i 2i + 1 + i 3i 4 + 3i 2 1 = 4 8 = 4
Sum the two answers.
WORKED Example 5
Evaluate each of the following:
a Re (7 + 6i)
b Im (10)
c Re (2 + i 3i 3)
1 3i i 2 i 3
d Im ----------------------------------
THINK
WRITE
a The real part of the complex number

7 + 6i is 7.
b The number 10 can be expressed in
complex form as 10 + 0i and so the
imaginary part is 0.
c 1 Simplify 2 + i 3i 3.
a Re (7 + 6i) = 7
The real part is 2.
Simplify the numerator of

3i i 2 i 3
1--------------------------------- .
2
3
b Im (10) = Im (10 + 0i)

=0
c Re (2 + i 3i 3) = Re (2 + i + 3i)
= Re (2 + 4i)
=2
1 3i + 1 + i
1 3i i 2 i 3
d Im ---------------------------------- = Im -------------------------------
2
2
Simplify by dividing the numerator by 2.

The imaginary part is 1.
remember
remember
1.
2.
3.
4.
The imaginary number i has the property that i 2 = 1.

A complex number z is of the form z = x + yi, x, y R.
2 2i
= Im --------------
2
= Im (1 i)
= 1
Chapter 3
1 Using the imaginary number i, write down expressions for:

a
b
c
9
25
49
e
WORKED
Example
11
4--9-
Math
----- 36
25
WORKED
4 Simplify z = i 6 + 3i 7 2i 10 3 and w = 4i 8 3i 11 + 3 and show that z + w = 5.
Example
Example
4
WORKED
Example
Complex 1
2 Write down the real and imaginary parts, respectively, of the following complex
numbers, z.
a 9 + 5i
b 5 4i
c 3 8i
d 11i 6
e 27
f 2i
g 5 + i
h 17i
3 Write each of the following in the form x + yi, where x and y are real numbers:
a i 9 + i 10
b i 9 i 10
c i 12 + i 15
d i 7 i 11
e i 5 + i 6 i7
f i(i 13 + i 16)
g 2i i 2 + 2i 3
h 3i + i 4 5i 5
WORKED
cad
Example
99
Introduction to
complex numbers
3A
WORKED
Complex numbers
5 Evaluate each of the following.

a Re (5 + 4i)
b Re (15 8i)
d Im (1 6i)
e Im (3 + 2i)
c
f
Re (12i)
Im (8)
4i 9 5i 14 2i 7
h Im ------------------------------------
g Re (i 5 3i 4 + 6i 6)
i3 i + 2
- in the form x + yi, where x and y are real numbers.
6 Write 3 -------------------i2 i4
7 multiple choice
a The value of Re (i + i 3 + i 5) is:
A 2
B 1
C 3
b The value of Im [i(2i 4 3i 2 + 5i)] is:
A 0
B 5
C 5
The expression i + i i + i
A i
B 0
1 + i + i 2 + + i 11
d If f ( i ) = ---------------------------------------------1i
A f(i) = 2 + i
B
D f(i) = 1 i
E
c
D 1
E 0
D 10
E 4
i + i simplifies to:
C i1
D i+2
5
E i
which one of the statements below is true?

Re [f(i)] = 5
f(i) = 0
1 + i i3
8 Evaluate 3 Re --------------------- + 2 Im
C Im [f(i)] = 8
4 + 3i + 4
i----------------------- .
2i
5 i2 i4
5 i3
9 Find values for a, b R so that a + bi = 2 ------------- + 3 ----------------------- .
i
i
n
---
10 If n is an even natural number show that ( 1 ) 2 = i n .
100
Basic operations using complex

numbers
Complex numbers can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided. In general, the
solutions obtained when performing these operations should be presented in the form
x + yi.
Argand diagrams
We know that an ordered pair of real numbers (x, y) can be represented on the Cartesian
plane. Similarly, if we regard the complex number x + yi as consisting of the ordered
pair of real numbers (x, y), then the complex number z = x + yi can be plotted as a point
on the complex number plane.
This is also referred to as the Argand plane or an Argand diagram in recognition of
the work done in this area by the Swiss mathematician Jean-Robert Argand.
The horizontal axis is referred to as the Real axis and the vertical axis is referred to
as the Imaginary axis.
Imz (Imaginary axis)
The points A, B, C, D and E shown on the
5
Argand diagram at right represent the complex
C
4
3
numbers 3 + 0i, 0 + 2i, 4 + 5i, 3 4i and 2 2i
2 B
1
respectively.
A
This method of representation is a useful way of 543 1 1 2 3 4 Re z (Real axis)
2
illustrating the properties of complex numbers
E
3
D 4
under the operations of addition, subtraction and
5
multiplication.
Addition of complex numbers

Addition is performed by adding the real and imaginary parts separately.
If z = a + bi and w = c + di then z + w = (a + c) + (b + d)i.
Geometric representation
If z1 = x1 + y1i and z2 = x2 + y2i then z2 + z1 = (x2 + x1) + (y2 + y1)i. If a directed line
segment connects the origin (0 + 0i) to each of the points z1, z2 and z1 + z2, then the
addition of two complex numbers can be associated with standard methods of vector
Imz
addition.
The figure at right illustrates the situation for z2 + z1,
(y1 + y2)
z1 + z2
with, say, positive values for x1, x2, y1, y2 and x1 < x2 and
y2 z
y1 < y2.
1
z
y1
Note: The origin, z1, z2 and z2 + z1 form a parallelogram.
x1
Re z
x2 (x1 + x2)
Subtraction of complex numbers

If we write z w as z + w we can use the rule for addition of complex numbers to
obtain z + w = (a + bi) + (c + di)
= a + bi c di
= (a c) + (b d)i
If z = a + bi and w = c + di then z w = (a c) + (b d)i.
Chapter 3
101
Complex numbers
Geometric representation
If z1 = x1 + y1i and z2 = x2 + y2i then z2 z1 = (x2 x1) +
(y2 y1)i. If a directed line segment connects the origin
(0 + 0i) to each of the points z1, z2 and z2 z1 then the
subtraction of two complex numbers can also be associated with standard methods of vector addition. The figure
at right illustrates the situation for z2 z1, again with
positive values for x1, x2, y1, y2 and x1 < x2 and y1 < y2.
Imz
y2
z2
(y2 y1)
y1
z1
z2 z1
Re z
x1 (x2 x1) x2
WORKED Example 6
For z = 8 + 7i, w = 12 + 5i and u = 1 + 2i, calculate:

a z+w
b wz
c u w + z.
THINK
WRITE
a Use the addition rule for complex numbers.
a z + w = (8 + 7i) + (12 + 5i)
= (8 12) + (7 + 5)i
= 4 + 12i
b Use the subtraction rule for complex
b w z = (12 + 5i) (8 + 7i)
numbers.
= (12 8) + (5 7)i
= 20 2i
c Use both the addition rule and the
c u w + z = (1 + 2i) (12 + 5i) + (8 + 7i)
subtraction rule.
= (1 + 12 + 8) + (2 5 + 7)i
= 21 + 4i
Multiplication by a constant
If z = x + yi and kR
then kz = k(x + yi)
= kx + kyi
For k > 1, the product kz can be illustrated as shown at
right. The ratio of corresponding sides of the two triangles is k.
A similar situation exists for k < 1.
WORKED Example 7
Imz
ky
kz
kx Re z
If z = 3 + 5i, w = 4 2i and v = 6 + 10i, evaluate:

a 3z + w
b 2z v
c 4z 3w + 2v.
THINK
WRITE
a 1 Calculate 3z + w by substituting values
a 3z + w = 3(3 + 5i) + (4 2i)
for z and w.
= (9 + 15i) + (4 2i)
= (9 + 4) + (15 2)i
2 Use the rule for adding complex numbers.
= 13 + 13i
b 1 Calculate 2z v by substituting values for
b 2z v = 2(3 + 5i) (6 + 10i)
z and v.
= 6 + 10i 6 10i
= 0 + 0i
2 Use the rule for subtraction of complex numbers.
c 1 Calculate 4z 3w + 2v by substituting
c 4z 3w + 2v
values for z, w and v.
= 4(3 + 5i) 3(4 2i) + 2(6 + 10i)
= 12 + 20i 12 + 6i + 12 + 20i
= 12 + 46i
2 Use the addition rule and the subtraction
rule to simplify.
102
Multiplication of two complex numbers

The multiplication of two complex numbers also results in a complex number.
If z = a + bi and w = c + di
then z w = (a + bi)(c + di)
= ac + adi + bci + bdi 2
= (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i (since i 2 = 1)
If z = a + bi and w = c + di then z w = (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i.
WORKED Example 8
If z = 6 2i and w = 3 + 4i express zw in the form x + yi.

THINK
WRITE
zw = (6 2i)(3 + 4i)
1 Expand the brackets.
= 18 + 24i 6i 8i 2
2
= 18 + 24i 6i + 8
2 Express in the form x + yi by substituting 1 for i
and simplifying the expression using the addition
= 26 + 18i
and subtraction rules.
WORKED Example 9
Simplify (2 3i)(2 + 3i).

THINK
1 Expand the brackets.
2
2 Substitute 1 for i and simplify the expression.
WORKED Example 10
WRITE
(2 3i)(2 + 3i) = 4 + 6i 6i 9i 2
= 4 9 1
= 13
Determine Re (z2w) + Im (zw2) for z = 4 + i and w = 3 i.

THINK
WRITE
2
z2w = (4 + i)2(3 i)
1 Express z w in the form x + yi.
= (16 + 8i + i 2)(3 i)
= (16 + 8i 1)(3 i)
= (15 + 8i)(3 i)
= 45 15i + 24i 8i 2
= 53 + 9i
2
2
The
real
part,
Re
(z
w)
is
53.
Re
(z
w) = 53
2
2
2
zw = (4 + i)(3 i)2
3 Express zw in the form x + yi.
= (4 + i)(9 6i + i 2)
= (4 + i)(8 6i)
= 32 24i + 8i 6i 2
= 38 16i
2
Im (zw 2) = 16
4 The imaginary part, Im (zw ) is 16.
Re (z2w) + Im (zw 2) = 53 16
5 Calculate the value of x + y.
= 37
Chapter 3
Complex numbers
103
Equality of two complex numbers

If z = a + bi and w = c + di then z = w if and only if a = c and b = d.
The condition if and only if (sometimes written in short form as iff ) means that both
of the following situations apply.
1. If z = w then a = c and b = d.
2. If a = c and b = d then z = w.
WORKED Example 11
Find the values of x and y that satisfy (3 + 4i)(x + yi) = 29 + 22i.

THINK
WRITE
(3 + 4i)(x + yi) = 29 + 22i
1 Write the equation
3x + 3yi + 4xi + 4yi 2 = 29 + 22i
2 Expand the left-hand side of the equation.
(3x 4y) + (4x + 3y)i = 29 + 22i
3 Express the left-hand side in the form a + bi.
3x 4y = 29
[1]
4 Equate the real parts and imaginary parts to
create a pair of simultaneous equations.
4x + 3y = 22
[2]
Multiply
equation
[1]
by
3
and
equation
[2]
or
9x
12y
=
87
[3]
5
by 4 so that y can be eliminated.
16x + 12y = 88
[4]
Adding equations [3] and [4]:
6 Add the two new equations and solve for x.
25x = 175
x=7
Substitute
x
=
7
into
equation
[1]
and
solve
Substitute
x
= 7 into equation [1]:
7
for y.
3(7) 4y = 29
21 4y = 29
4y = 8
y = 2
State
the
solution.
Therefore
x = 7 and y = 2.
8
Multiplication by i
Let us examine the effect on z = x + yi after multiplication by

Imz
iz x
i, i 2, i 3 and i 4.
z or i 4z
z = x + yi
iz = i(x + yi) = y + xi
x y
y x Re z
i 2z = 1z = x yi = z
i 2z
i 3z = i(i 2z) = y xi = iz
i 3z
i 4z = i(i 3z) = x + yi = z
The five points are shown on the complex plane at right.
It is observed that multiplying z by i n, n N produces an anticlockwise rotation
of 90n degrees.
remember
remember
If z = a + bi and w = c + di for a, b, c, dR then:

1. z + w = (a + c) + (b + d)i
2. z w = (a c) + (b d)i
3. kz = ka + kbi, for kR
4. z w = (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i
5. z = w iff a = c and b = d.
104
3B
Basic operations using

complex numbers
1 Represent each of the following complex numbers on an Argand diagram.

a 3+i
b 4 5i
c 2 6i
d 3i + 7
e
f 8+i 3
5 2i
Mat
d
hca
Complex 2
WORKED
Example
6
WORKED
Example
7
WORKED
Example
8
WORKED
Example
2 For z = 5 + 3i, w = 1 4i, u = 6 11i and v = 2i 3 calculate:

a z+w
b uz
c w+v
d uv
e wzu
f v+wz
3 If z = 3 + 2i, w = 4 + i and u = 8 5i, evaluate:
a 3w
b 2u + z
d 3z + u + 2w
e 2z 7w + 9u
c
f
4z 3u
3(z + 2u) 4w
4 Using z, w, u and v from question 2 express each of the following in the form x + yi.
a zw
b uv
c wu
f u(wv)
d zu
e u2
5 Simplify the following.
a (10 + 7i)(9 3i)
d (5 + 6i)(5 6i)
b (3 4i)(5 + 4i)
e (2i 7)(2i + 7)
c
f
(8 2i)(4 5i)
(9 7i)2
6 For z = 1 3i and w = 2 5i calculate z 2w.

WORKED
Example
10
WORKED
Example
11
7 Determine Re (z 2) Im (zw) for z = 1 + i and w = 4 i.

8 For z = 3 + 5i, w = 2 3i and u = 1 4i determine:
a Im (u 2)
b Re (w 2)
c Re (uw) + Im (zw)
d Re (zu) Im (w 2)
2
e Re (z ) Re (zw) Im (uz)
f Re (u2w) + Im (zw 2)
9 Find the values of x and y that satisfy each of the following.
a (2 + 3i)(x + yi) = 16 + 11i
b (5 4i)(x + yi) = 1 4i
c (3i 8)(x + yi) = 23 37i
d (7 + 6i)(x + yi) = 4 33i
10 multiple choice
If z = 8 7i and w = 3 + 4i, then:
a Re (zw) is equal to:
A 4
B 4
b Im (w 2) + Re (z2) is equal to:
A 76
B 39
c 3z 2w is equal to:
A 30 13i
B 30 29i
C 5
D 11
E 52
C 105
D 56
E 32
C 18 29i
D 24 13i
E 18
11 If z = 2 + i and w = 4 3i then represent each of the following on an Argand diagram.

b zw
c z+w
d wz
a z2
2
e 3z + w
f 2w 4z
h (w z)3
g (z + w)
3 i 1 + 3i
12 Simplify --------------- + -------------- .
1+i
1i
13 If z = 3 + 2i represent each of the following on the same Argand diagram.
z, iz, i 2z, i 3z, i 4z, i 5z, iz, i 2z
Chapter 3
Complex numbers
105
Conjugates and division of

complex numbers
The conjugate of a complex number
The conjugate of a complex number is obtained by simply changing the sign of the
imaginary component.
If z = x + yi the conjugate z of z is defined as z = x yi.
Conjugates are useful since the multiplication (or addition) of a complex number and
its conjugate results in a real number:
zz = ( x + yi ) ( x yi ) ,
= x2 + y2, x, y R,
where x yi and x + yi are conjugates.
Note: Compare this expression with the formula for the difference of two squares
(a b)(a + b) = a 2 b 2.
z + z = x + yi + x yi
= 2x
Also,
WORKED Example 12
Write down the conjugate of each of the following complex numbers.
a 8 + 5i
b 2 3i
c 4+i 5
THINK
WRITE
a Change the sign of the imaginary

component.
b Change the sign of the imaginary
component.
a 8 5i
c Change the sign of the imaginary

component.
b 2 + 3i
c 4i 5
WORKED Example 13
If z = 5 2i and w = 7 i show that z + w = z + w .

THINK
WRITE
Add the conjugates z and w .
z + w = ( 5 + 2i ) + ( 7 + i ) = 12 + 3i
Add z to w.
z + w = ( 5 2i ) + ( 7 i ) = 12 3i
Write down the conjugate of z + w.
z + w = 12 + 3i
The conjugate of z + w equals z + w .
z+w = z+w
106
Division of complex numbers

The application of conjugates to division of complex numbers will now be investigated.
z
Consider the complex numbers z = a + bi and w = c + di. To find ---- in the form x + yi
w
we must multiply both the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of w to make
the denominator a real number only.
z
a + bi
---- = -------------w c + di
a + bi c di
= -------------- ------------Multiply by the conjugate of c + di.
c + di c di
( ac + bd ) + ( bc ad )i
= -----------------------------------------------------c2 + d 2
ac + bd ( bc ad )i
+ -----------------------= -----------------c2 + d 2
c2 + d 2
Thus we can state:
Simplify the expressions in the numerator

and in the denominator.
Express in the form x + yi.
z
If z and w are complex numbers in the form x + yi, then ---- can also be expressed
w
in the form x + yi by simplifying:
zw
-------------ww
WORKED Example 14
2+i
Express ----------- in the form x + yi.
2i
THINK
1
Multiply both the numerator and

denominator by the conjugate of 2 i
to make the denominator real.
Expand the expressions obtained in the

numerator and in the denominator.
Substitute for i 2 and simplify the

expression.
WRITE
2+i 2+i 2+i
---------- = ----------- ---------2i
2i 2+i
4 + 4i + i 2
= ----------------------4 i2
4 + 4i 1
= ----------------------4+1
3 + 4i
= -------------5
3 4i
= --- + ----5 5
Multiplicative inverse of a complex number

Given a non-zero complex number z, there exists a complex number w such that
1
zw = 1, with w being the multiplicative inverse of z denoted by w = z 1 = --- .
z
Chapter 3
Complex numbers
WORKED Example 15
If z = 3 + 4i, determine z1.

THINK
1
2
1
z 1 = --z
Multiply both the numerator and
denominator by the conjugate of 3 + 4i.
Write the expression in the form x + yi.
WRITE
1
1
z1 = --- = -------------z
3 + 4i
1
3 4i
= -------------- -------------3 + 4i 3 4i
3 4i
= -------------25
3 4i
= ------ -----25 25
a bi
-.
This example shows that if z = a + bi then z 1 = ---------------a2 + b2
WORKED Example 16
2
If z = 3 + i, and w = ---------- determine Im (4z w).
4i
THINK
WRITE
1
Express 4z w with a common

denominator.
Remove i from the denominator by

multiplying the numerator and
denominator by the conjugate of 4 i.
Simplify the expression so that it is in

the form x + yi.
remember
remember
2
4z w = 4 ( 3 + i ) ---------4i
4(3 + i)(4 i) 2
= -------------------------------------------4i
4 ( 13 + i ) 2
= ------------------------------4i
50 + 4i
= ----------------4i
50 + 4i 4 + i
= ----------------- ---------4i
4+i
196 + 66i
= ----------------------17
196 66i
= --------- + -------17
17
66
Im (4z w) = -----17
If z = a + bi and w = c + di, for a, b, c, d R, then:

1. The conjugate z of z is z = a bi.
z
ac + bd ( bc ad )i
-.
+ -----------------------2. ---- = -----------------w
c2 + d 2
c2 + d 2
b
a
-i .
3. The multiplicative inverse of z is ---------------- ---------------2
2
2
a + b a + b2
107
108
3C
d
hca
WORKED
Mat
Example
Complex 2
12
WORKED
Example
13
WORKED
Example
14
1 Write down the conjugate of each of the following complex numbers.

a 7 + 10i
b 5 9i
c 3 + 12i
7 3i
d
e 2i + 5
f 6 i 11
2 If z = 6 + 3i and w = 3 4i, show that z w = z w .
2+i
3 Express ---------- in the form x + yi.
3i
4 Express each of the following in the form x + yi.
1i
3 2i
a ---------b -------------1+i
2 + 3i
4 3i
d -------------5 + 2i
WORKED
Example
15
Conjugates and division

of complex numbers
4 5i
-------------2 7i
5 Determine z1 if z is equal to:

a 2i
b 3+i
d 5 + 4i
e 2i 3
2 + 5i
-------------4 3i
2+i 3
---------------------5i 2
c
f
4 3i
3i 2
6 If 676z = 10 24i, express z1 in the form x + yi.

WORKED
Example
16
1
7 If z = 2 i and w = ---------- determine each of the following:
3+i
a Re (z + w)
b Im (w z)
c Re (z1 + w1)
d Im (3z + 2w)
e Re (4w 2z)
2 + i 9 2i 7 + i
8 Write ---------- + -------------- + ---------- in the form x + yi.
1+i 2i 1i
( 2 + 5i ) 2 ( 5i 2 )
9 Simplify --------------------------------------------------- .
3 ( 4 + 7i ) 2 ( 5 + 8i )
10 Determine the conjugate of (5 6i)(3 8i).
11 multiple choice
If z = 5 12i, w = 9 i and u = 15 6i, then:
a Re (z1) is:
12
A 5
B 12
C --------169
b Im ( zw ) is equal to:
A 33
B 103
C 113
c
The expression 2z w + 3u is equal to:

A 26 7i
B 64 + 41i
C 46 29i
5
D --------169
12i
E --------169
D 70
E 0
D 34 41i
E 64 19i
12 If z = 6 + 8i and w = 10 3i:
a show that zw = z w
b generalise the result by letting z = a + bi and w = c + di.
Chapter 3
Complex numbers
109
13 Use the result zw = z w to prove that z n = ( z ) n .

14 If z = 4 + i and w = 1 + 3i
z
z
a show that ---- = --- w
w
b generalise the result by letting z = a + bi and w = c + di.
15 If z = 5 4i and w = 2i, calculate Re ( zw + zw ) .
16 If z1 = 2 + 3i, z2 = 4 i and z3 = 5 i find:
a 2z1 z2 4z3
b z1 z2 + z2 z3
z1 z2 z3 z1 z2 z3
17 If z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di show that (z1z2)1 = z11z21.

18 a If z = 1 + i find z4, z8 and z12.
b Deduce from your results in a that z4n = (2i)2n, n N.
z1
19 If z = x + yi find the values of x and y such that ----------- = z + 2 .
z+1
z+i
20 Find values for a and b so that z = a + bi satisfies ----------- = i .
z+2
21 If z = x + yi, determine the values of x and y such that z =
3 + 4i .
Graphics Calculator tip! Simple algebra of complex numbers

1. To select complex number mode, press MODE and
select Radian mode; scroll down to a + bi and press
ENTER .
2. To perform simple algebra on complex numbers, use
standard HOME screen operations.
3. To find the real part, imaginary part and conjugate

of a complex number, press MATH , select CPX and
the menu item required then type in the complex
number, close brackets and press ENTER .
4. For a simple complex number, these menu items

should not be needed. However, they can be useful
in more complicated questions.
110
Complex numbers in polar form

The modulus of z
Imz
The magnitude (or modulus or absolute value) of the

complex number z = x + yi is the length of the line segment
joining the origin to the point z. It is denoted by
z, x + yi or mod z.
The modulus of z is calculated using Pythagoras theorem.
z = x 2 + y 2 so that we have zz = z 2 .
WORKED Example 17
y
z =
P(x, y)
z = x + yi
x2 + y2
Re z
Find the modulus of the complex number z = 8 6i.

THINK
WRITE
Calculate the modulus by rule.
z = 8 2 + ( 6 ) 2
= 100
= 10
WORKED Example 18
If z = 4 + 2i and w = 7 + 6i, represent the position of w z on an Argand diagram and

calculate w z.
THINK
WRITE
Imz
w z = 7 + 6i (4 + 2i)
w
1 Calculate w z.
6
= 3 + 4i
wz
5
P
4
2 Represent it on an Argand diagram
3
as a directed line segment OP.
2
Use Pythagoras theorem to

determine the length of OP.
z
1
O
0 1 23 4567
Re z
OP = 3 2 + 4 2 = 25
OP = 5
So w z = 5
WORKED Example 19
Represent z1 = 2 + 3i, z2 = 5 2i and z3 = 4 2i on the complex number plane and calculate

the area of the shape formed when the three points are connected by straight line segments.
Imz
THINK
WRITE
1 Show the connected points on the
4
z1
3
complex number plane.
2
1
432 1 1 2 3 4 5
z3
z2
2
3
2
Calculate the area of the triangle obtained. Area of triangle =
1
--2
Re z
9 5 = 22.5 square units.
Chapter 3
Complex numbers
The argument of z
111
Imz
P(x, y)
The argument of z, arg z, is the angle measurement anti- y
2
2
z = x + yi
z = x + y
clockwise of the positive Real axis.
In the figure at right, arg z = , where
y
y
x
y
sin = -------- and cos = -------- or tan = -z
z
x
For non-zero z an infinite number of arguments of z exist

Re z
x
0
x
since, for a given z
{ : = 2n, n N}
also represents the position of point P in the figure above because a clockwise or anticlockwise rotation consisting of multiples of 2 radians (or 360) merely moves P to its
original position.
To ensure that there is only one value of corresponding to z we refer to the principal
value of and denote it by Arg z.
Arg z is the angle in the range < .
WORKED Example 20
Find the argument of z for each of the following in the interval [0, 2 ].
a z = 4 + 4i
b z = 1 3i
THINK
WRITE
a 1 The angle is in the first quadrant.
a If arg z =
y
4
tan = --2 Use tan = -- .
x
4
=1
3 Find arg z.
= --4
b 1 The angle is in the fourth quadrant.
b If arg z =
2
y
Use tan = -- .
x
Find arg z, the angle associated with

tan =
3 in the fourth quadrant.
3
tan = ---------1
= 3
arg z = 2 tan1 ( 3 )
= 2 --5 3
= -----3
WORKED Example 21
7
Convert each of the following into Arguments.
a -----4
THINK
WRITE
a Since the given angle is positive, subtract
multiples of 2 until it lies in the range
(, ].
b Since the given angle is negative, add
multiples of 2 until it lies in the range
(, ].
7
a Arg z = ------ 2
4
= --4
5
b Arg z = ------ + 2
2
= --2
5
b -----2
112
WORKED Example 22
Find the modulus and Argument for each of the following complex numbers.
3+i
a
THINK
a
b 1 2i
WRITE
Calculate the modulus by rule.
y
Find using the rule tan = -- .
x
State the Argument of z.
Calculate the modulus of z by rule.
( 3)2 + 12
a z =
= 4
=2
1
tan = ------3
= --6
Arg z = --6
( 1 )2 + ( 2 )2
b z =
=
2
tan = ---------1
Find tan by rule.
=
3
Calculate , which is in the third

quadrant, correct to three decimal
places.
Determine Arg z by subtracting 2 from
since is not in the range (, ].
= + tan1( 2 )
= + 0.955
= 4.097
Arg z = 4.097 2
= 2.187
Complex numbers expressed in polar

form
Suppose z = x + yi is represented by the point P(x, y) on the
complex plane using Cartesian coordinates.
Using the trigonometric properties of a right-angled
triangle, z can also be expressed in polar coordinates as
follows. We have:
x = r cos
y = r sin
where z = r =
x 2 + y 2 and = Arg z.
Imz
P(x, y)
y
r = z
Re z
x
Imz
y
P(r cos , r sin )
The point P(x, y) in polar form is shown at right.

r
Now z = x + yi in Cartesian form becomes
z = r cos + r sin i (after substitution of x = r cos , y = r sin )
O
= r (cos + i sin )
0
r cos
= r cis , where cis is the abbreviated form of cos + i sin .
r sin
Rez
Chapter 3
Some useful triangles

1
1
cos --- = -------, sin --- = -------,

4
4
2
2
tan --- = 1
4
cos --- = ---,

3
2
sin --- = -------,

3
2
tan --- =
3
cos --- = -------,

6
2
sin --- = ---,

6
2
tan --- = ------6

3
113
Complex numbers
2
1
WORKED Example 23
Express each of the following in polar form, r cis , where = Arg z.

a z=1+i
b z = 1 3i
THINK
WRITE
a
Find the value of r using

r = z = x2 + y2 .
a r=
=
y
Determine tan from tan = -- and
x
hence find .
Substitute the values of r and in

z = r cos + r sin i = r cis .
z is in the fourth quadrant.
Calculate the value of r.
Determine the appropriate value of .
1
tan = --1
=1
= --4
The angle is in the range (, ],

which is required.
12 + 12
z=
=
b
2 cos --- + 2 sin --- i

4
4
2 cis --4
r = 1 + ( 3)2
=2
3
tan = ------1
= 3
Substitute for r and in

z = r cos + r sin i and write in the
form r cis .
= 0 tan1 ( 3 )
= --3
z = 2 cos --- + 2 sin --- i

3
3
Imz
= 2 cis ---
3
This complex number 0
3 1
is represented
2
at right.
3
Re z
z = 1 3i
114
WORKED Example 24
Express 3 cis --- in Cartesian form.

4
THINK
1
Express 3 cis --- in Cartesian form.

4
Simplify.
WRITE
3 cis --- = 3 cos --- + 3 sin --- i

4
4
4
3
3
= ------- + ------- i
2
2
3
= ------- ( 1 + i )
2
History of mathematics
ABRAHAM DE MOIVRE (26 May 1667 - 27 November 1754)
During his lifetime...

Christopher Wren finishes St Pauls Cathedral.
Blackbeard the pirate is killed.
The first successful appendectomy is performed.
People are put to death, as witches, in Salem.
Abraham De Moivre was born in the French town of
Vitry but from the age of eighteen he lived in
England. The son of a doctor, he was educated at the
Protestant Academy at Sedan and then attended
college in Paris. In 1685 his family emigrated to
England to escape the growing tensions between
Catholics and Protestants in France.
De Moivre contributed to the development of
analytic geometry and to the theory of probability.
One of his most famous books, The Doctrine of
Chances, was published in 1718 and contained major
advances in probability theory. In 1725, after
investigating mortality statistics, he published
Annuities on Lives. Insurance companies of the day
used his work to calculate the probabilities of various
events. He is best known to students for his formula
(rcis)n = r ncisn which can be used to work out the

powers of complex numbers.
It is said that De Moivre was inspired to further
research by reading Isaac Newtons book Principia.
He had little spare time so he tore out pages and
carried them around with him, studying them in any
free moment. Later in life he became involved in the
controversy about whether Newton or Leibniz had
been the first to discover calculus. He was appointed
by the Royal Society to the commission set up to
investigate the rival claims.
De Moivre always had difficulty earning money,
but was able to eke out a living by working as a
private tutor and by writing books. Unlike many
other mathematicians of the time, he could not find a
rich patron to support him because he was a
foreigner. Even though he was made a fellow of the
Royal Society in 1697 and had famous friends such
as Newton and Halley, he was always poor and
eventually died in poverty.
Apparently, De Moivre predicted the time of his
own death. Near the end of his life he noticed that he
needed to sleep for an extra 15 minutes each night.
He calculated the date when the cumulative result of
this would mean that he was asleep for 24 hours. He
died in his sleep on that day.
Questions
1. What was the subject of De Moivres book The
Doctrine of Chances?
2. Why couldnt De Moivre find a patron?
3. How did De Moivre make a living?
4. Which famous mathematician played a major role
in his life?
5. What was unusual about the date he died?
Research
Investigate how insurance companies use probability
to work out how much each insurance policy costs
you.
Chapter 3
Complex numbers
115
remember
remember
1. The magnitude (or modulus or absolute value) of z = x + yi is the length of the
line segment from (0, 0) to z and is denoted by z, x + yi or mod z.
x 2 + y 2 and zz = z 2 .
y
arg z = where tan = -- .
x
n
z i , n N produces an anticlockwise rotation of 90n degrees.
z = r cos + r sin i = r cis in polar form.
2. z =
3.
4.
5.
6.
Complex numbers
in polar form
3D
Complex 1
1 a Represent z = 4 + 8i on an Argand diagram.

b Calculate the exact distance of z from the origin.
WORKED
Example
17
2 Find the modulus of each of the following.

a z = 5 + 12i
b z = 5 2i
d z = 3 6i
WORKED
Example
18
WORKED
Example
19
e z=
3 + 2i
z = 4 + 7i
z = (2 + i)2
3 If z = 3 + i, w = 4 3i and u = 2 + 5i then:
i represent each of the following on an Argand diagram
ii calculate the magnitude in each case.
a zw
b u+z
c
d w+z
e z+wu
f
wu
z2
4 a Show the points z1 = 3 + 0i, z2 = 2 + 5i, z3 = 7 + 5i and z4 = 9 + 0i on the complex

number plane.
b Calculate the area of the shape formed when the four points are connected by
straight line segments in the order z1 to z2 to z3 to z4.
5 a Show the points z = 1 + 3i, u = 3 and w = 3 + 12i on the complex number plane.
b Calculate the area of the triangle produced by joining the three points with straight
line segments.
WORKED
Example
20
6 Find the argument of z for each of the following in the interval [0, 2 ]. (Give exact
answers where possible.)
a z = 3 + 2i
b z=
e z = 2 2 3i
i z = 6i
z = 6 10i
z = 55
3+i
z = 5 5i
g z = 3i
d z = 4 + 8i
h z= 7
Math
cad
In the following exercise give arg z or Arg z correct to three decimal places where it is not
easily expressed as a multiple of .
116
WORKED
Example
21
WORKED
Example
22
7 Convert each of the following into Arguments.

11
15
3
a -----b --------c --------2
6
8
20
18
19
e --------f --------g --------6
7
5
8 Find the modulus and Argument of each of the following complex numbers.
a 3 3i
b 5 + 5i
c 1 3i
d 4 3 + 4i
e 7 10i
WORKED
Example
23
5
d -----4
13
h --------12
6i 2
g ( 3 + i )2
9 Express each of the following in polar form r = cis where = Arg z.

a z = 1 + i
b z = 6 + 2i
c z = 5 5i d z =
3
1
e z = --- ------- i
2
2
5 15i
1 1
z = --- + --- i
4 4
10 Express each of the following complex numbers in Cartesian form.

5
2
24
5 cis -----a 2 cis -----b 3 cis --c
d 4 cis --3
4
6
3
7
7 cis -----e
f 8 cis --3 cis
g
4
2
WORKED
Example
11 multiple choice
If z = 3 50i and w = 5 + 65i the value of z + w is:
A 64
B 15
C 17
D 225
E 289
12 multiple choice
The perimeter of the triangle formed by the line segments connecting the points
2 4i, 14 4i and 2 + i is:
A 13
B 30
C 10
D 17
E 25
13 multiple choice
The Argument of 4
A --B
6
3 4i is:
--3
14 multiple choice
In polar form, 5i is:
B cis 5
A cis --2
5
C -----6
D --6
E --3
5
C cis -----2
D 5 cis 5
E 5 cis --2
3
3
D ------ + ------- i
2
2
3 1
E ---------- --- i
2
2
15 multiple choice
Work
ET
SHE
3.1
The Cartesian form of

1
3
A --- + ------- i
2 2
7
3 cis ------ is:
6
1
3
B ------ + ------- i
2
2
3 1
C ---------- + --- i
2
2
Chapter 3
Complex numbers
117
Basic operations on complex numbers

in polar form
Addition and subtraction
In general there is no simple way to add or subtract complex numbers given in the polar
form r cis . For addition or subtraction the complex numbers need to be expressed in
Cartesian form first.
Multiplication in polar form

Finding the product and quotient of two complex numbers is made easier if the complex
numbers are first expressed in polar form.
[Equation 1]
If z1 = r1 cis 1 and z2 = r2 cis 2 then z1z2 = r1r2 cis(1 + 2).
Proof
z1 = r1(cos 1 + sin 1i) and z2 = r2(cos 2 + sin 2i)
Then z1z2 = r1(cos 1 + sin 1i) r2(cos 2 + sin 2i)
= r1r2(cos 1 cos 2 + cos 1 sin 2i + sin 1 cos 2i + sin 1 sin 2i 2), expanding
brackets
= r1r2[(cos 1 cos 2 sin 1 sin 2) + (cos 1 sin 2 + sin 1 cos 2)i]
= r1r2[cos(1 + 2) + i sin(1 + 2)],
(Since cos( + ) = cos cos sin sin and
sin( + ) = sin cos + cos sin .)
= r1r2 cos(1 + 2) + r1r2 sin(1 + 2)i
= r1r2 cis(1 + 2)
Corollary
If zn = rn cis n, n N then z1z2 . . . zn = r1r2 . . . rn cis (1 + 2 + . . . + n). [Equation 2]
Proof
z1z2 . . . zn = r1 cis 1 r2 cis 2 . . . rn cis n
= (r1 cis 1 r2 cis 2) r3 cis 3 . . . rn cis n
= r1r2 cis(1 + 2) r3 cis 3 . . . rn cis n, using equation [1]
= r1r2r3 cis(1 + 2 + 3) r4 cis 4 . . . rn cis n, using equation [1]
and so on for the n complex numbers.
WORKED Example 25
Express 5 cis --- 2 cis ------ in the form r cis where (, ].

4
6
THINK
WRITE
1
Simplify using the multiplication rule,

equation [1].
5
5 cis --- 2 cis ------ = ( 5 2 ) cis --- + ------
4 6
4
6
13
= 10 cis ---------
12
Subtract 2 from to express the

answer in the required form.
11
= 10 cis ---------
12
118
WORKED Example 26
Express z1z2 in Cartesian form if z 1 =
THINK
1
Use z1z2 = r1r2 cis (1 + 2).
5
2 cis ------ and z 2 =
6
WRITE
Write the result in Cartesian form.
2 cis ------ 6 cis ---

3
6
z1z2 =
=
6 cis --- .
3
5
2 6 ) cis ------ ---
6 3
= 2 3 cis --2
= 2 3 cos --- + 2 3i sin --2

2
= 2 3 0 + 2 3i 1
= 2 3i
WORKED Example 27
If z = 5 3 + 5i and w = 3 + 3 3i express the product zw in polar form.
THINK
1
Write z in polar form.
WRITE
Let z = r 1cis 1.
Then r 1 =
Write w in polar form.
(5 3)2 + 52
5
1
tan 1 = ---------- = ------- , so take 1 = --- .

6
5 3
3
Therefore z = 10 cis --- .

6
Let w = r2 cis 2.
Then r 2 =
32 + (3 3)2 = 6 .
3 , so take 2 = --- .
3
Therefore w = 6 cis --- .

3
zw = 10 cis --- 6 cis --6

3
3 3
tan 2 = ---------- =
3
Determine zw using
z1z2 = r1r2 cis (1 + 2).
= 10 .

= 60 cis --- + ---
6 3
= 60 cis --2
Chapter 3
Complex numbers
119
Division in polar form

z1
r1
If z1 = r1 cis 1 and z2 = r2 cis 2 then ---- = ---- cis(1 2).
z2
r2
Proof
The proof again involves application of addition formulas.
r 1 ( cos 1 + sin 1 i )
z
---1- = ---------------------------------------------z 2 r 2 ( cos 2 + sin 2 i )
r 1 ( cos 1 + sin 1 i ) cos 2 sin 2 i
= ----------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------r 2 ( cos 2 + sin 2 i ) cos 2 sin 2 i
Multiply by the conjugate of the denominator.
r 1 ( cos 1 cos 2 + sin 1 sin 2 ) + ( sin 1 cos 2 cos 1 sin 2 )i
= ---- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2
2
r2
cos + sin
2
r1
= ---- [ cos ( 1 2 ) + i sin ( 1 2 ) ] ,
r2
(using the properties that cos( ) = cos cos + sin sin ,
sin( ) = sin cos cos sin
2
and cos 2 + sin22 = 1)
r1
= ---- cis(1 2)
r2
1
cis 0
Notice also that if z = r cis then z1 = --- = ----------z
cis
1
= --- cis ( 0 )
r
1
= --- cis ( )
r
WORKED Example 28
Express 10 cis --- 5 cis ------ in the form r cis where (, ].

3
6
THINK
WRITE
1
Simplify using the division rule.
5
10 cis --- 5 cis ------ = 2 cis --- ------
3
3 6
6
7
= 2 cis ------
6
Add 2 to to express the answer in

the required form.
7
= 2 cis ------ + 2
6
5
= 2 cis -----6
120
The complex conjugate in polar form
Since sin ( ) = sin and cos ( ) = cos , it follows that

r cis ( ) = r[cos ( ) + sin ( ) i]
= r[cos sin i]
= z , where z = r cis
If z = r cis , then z = r cis ( ).
de Moivres theorem
Powers of z can be readily calculated if z is first expressed in polar form. Consider
equation [2] presented earlier:
If zn = rn cis n, then z1z2 . . . zn = r1r2 . . . rn cis(1 + 2 + . . . + n), n N.
Now if r1 = r2 = . . . = rn (= r, say) and 1 = 2 = . . . = n, then z1 = z2 = z3 = . . . = zn (= z, say).
Equation [2] becomes:
z n = r n cis n, n N
It can be shown that this equation is also valid for n < 0.
Let
n = m, m N
Then:
zn = r n[(cos + i sin )m]1
= r n(cos m + i sin m )1, using the previous result.
= r n(cis m )1
= r n cis (m ), using the fact that (cis )1 = cis()
= r n cis (n ), substituting for m.
de Moivres theorem can now be stated as:
If z = r cis then z n = r n cis(n ), n J.
In fact, de Moivres theorem is applicable for n C. However, the proof is beyond
the scope of this course.
WORKED Example 29
5
If z = 2 cis ------ , express z3 :
6
a in polar form
b in Cartesian form.
THINK
a
Use de Moivres theorem to calculate z3.
WRITE
5
a z3 = 23 cis 3 ------
6
5
= 8 cis ------
2
Express (, ].
b Write the result in Cartesian form.
= 8 cis ---
2
b z3 = 8 cos --- + 8 sin --- i

2
2
= 8(0) + 8(1)i
= 8i
Chapter 3
Complex numbers
121
WORKED Example 30
If z = 1 + i, write z4 in Cartesian form.

THINK
1 Express z in polar form.
Use de Moivres theorem to calculate z4.
WRITE
z=1+i
r = 12 + 12
= 2
1
tan = --1
=1
= --4
z = 2 cis --4
4
z4 = ( 2 cis --- )
4
4
= ( 2 ) cis (4 --- )
4
= 1--4- cis ()
=
1
--4
cis
z4 =
1
--4
cos +
1
--4
sin i
= 1--4-
WORKED Example 31
Determine (1 i)4 ( 3 + i)5 in Cartesian form.

THINK
WRITE
3
+
i
Express
1
i
and
in
polar
form.
For 1 i,
1
r=
=
1 2 + ( 1 )2
2
1
tan = --- = 1
1
= --4
1 i = 2 cis ---
4
For
3 + i,
r = ( 3)2 + 12
=2
1
tan = ------3
= --6
3 + i = 2 cis --- Continued over page

6
122
THINK
2
Use de Moivres theorem to calculate

(1 i)4 and ( 3 + i ) 5 .
WRITE
(1 i)4 =
2 4 cis 4 ---
= 4 cis ()
= 4 cis
( 3 + i ) 5 = 25 cis 5 ---
6
5
= 32 cis -----6
3
Calculate the product in polar form.
5
(1 i)4 ( 3 + i ) 5 = (4 cis ) 32 cis -----6
5
= 128 cis + ------
11
= 128 cis --------6
11
11
= 128 (cos --------- + sin --------- i)
6
6
3 1
= 128 ------- --- i
2 2
= 64 3 64i
WORKED Example 32
z2
If z = 4 3 cis --- and w = 2 cis --- , state the modulus and the Argument of -----3- .
3
4
w
THINK
WRITE
1
Use de Moivres theorem to find z2

and w 3.
3
2
z2 = ( 4 3 ) 2 cis ------ and w3 = 23 cis ----- 3
4
3
2
z2 = 48 cis ------ and w3 = 8 cis ----- 3
4
z2
Calculate -----3- using the fact that
w
r
z
---1- = ----1 cis(1 2).
z2
r2
Ensure that < 1 2 .
r1
The modulus is ---- and the Argument is
r2
1 2.
z2
3
2
-----3- = 48 cis ------ 8 cis -----
4
3
w
17
= 6 cis ---------
12
7
= 6 cis -----12
7
The modulus is 6 and the Argument is ------ .
12
Chapter 3
Complex numbers
123
WORKED Example 33
By finding z3 if z = cis show that cos 3 = cos3 3 cos sin2 and

sin 3 = 3 cos2 sin sin3.
THINK
WRITE
Let z = cis and use de Moivres

theorem to find z3.
Expand (cos + i sin )3.
Equate the real and imaginary parts.
z = cis so z3 = cis 3 = cos 3 + i sin 3.

Also z3 = (cis )3 = (cos + i sin )3
(cos + i sin )3
= cos3 + 3i cos2 sin
+ 3i 2 cos sin2 + i 3 sin3
= (cos3 3 cos sin2)
+ (3 cos2 sin sin3 )i
cos 3 = cos3 3 cos sin2 and
sin 3 = 3 cos2 sin sin3
remember
remember
1. If z1 = r1 cis 1 and z2 = r2 cis 2, then:

z1 z2 = r1r2 cis (1 + 2)
r
z
---1- = ----1 cis (1 2).
z2
r2
2. If z = r cis then zn = rn cis n , n J (de Moivres theorem).

3. If z = r cis then z = r cis ().
3E
WORKED
25
WORKED
Example
1 Express each of the following in the form r cis where (, ].

2
b 5 cis ------ 4 cis ---

3
3
a 2 cis --- 3 cis --4

2
c
3 cis ------ 2 cis ---

6
2
5
7
7 cis ------ 2 cis ----- 12
12
3
d 6 cis ------ 5 cis
4
2 Express the resultant complex numbers in question 1 in Cartesian form.
26
WORKED
Example
27
3 Express the following products in polar form.

a (2 + 2i)( 3 + i)
b ( 3 3i)(2 3 2i)
(4 + 4 3 i)(1 i)
GC pro
gram
Example
Basic operations on complex

numbers in polar form
Power of
a complex
number
124
WORKED
Example
28
4 Express each of the following in the form r cis where (, ].

5
a 12 cis ------ 4 cis --b 36 cis ------ 9 cis ---

6
6
3
4
11
4
20 cis --- 5 cis ---
c
d 4 3 cis ------ 6 cis -------- 2
5
7
14
e
WORKED
Example
29
WORKED
Example
30
WORKED
Example
31
5
7
3 5 cis ------ 2 10 cis ----- 12
6
3 cis ------ and w = 2 cis --- then express each of the following in:
4
4
i polar form
ii Cartesian form.
b w4
c z4
d w5
a z3
5 If
3 =
6 If z = 1 i and w = 3 + i , write the following in Cartesian form.

z3
a z4
b w3
c z3
d w5
e -----4w
z2w3
7 Determine ( 2 + 2i ) 2 ( 1 3i ) 4 in Cartesian form.

( 3 i )6
8 Write ----------------------------3 in the form x + yi.
( 2 2 3i )
9 multiple choice
a
5 cis --- 8 cis --- is equal to:

3
6
A 6 2i
B 2 10i
C 6 3
b If z =
A 1+i
6 + 2 ) + ( 6 2 ) i then
B
E 6 6
E 1 2i
2z 3 is:
C 1i
2i
D 6i
2+i
w4
c If z = 1 3i and w = 2 + 2i then -----3- is equal to:
z
A 4 + 4i
C 2
D 4i
B 2 3
E 8
z6
3 cis --- , find the modulus and the argument of -----4- .
Example
6
w
32
9
11 If z = 4 + i and w = 3 2i, determine (z + w) .
WORKED
10 If z =
3
2 cis ------ and w =
4
12 Find z6 + w4, if z =
13 If z 1 =
2 2i and w = 2 2i.
3
2
5 cis ------ , z 2 = 2 cis------ and z 3 =
5
8
10 cis ------ , find the modulus and the

12
z 12 z 23
argument of ------------------.
4
z3
14 By finding z4 if z = cis , show that cos 4 = cos4 6 cos2 sin2 + sin4 and that
sin 4 = 4 cos3 sin 4 cos sin3.
33
15 Using z = r cis , verify that zz = z 2 .
WORKED
Example
16 If z = (1 + i)n, determine the smallest value of n N so that z n is equal to:

a
( 2 )n
b ( 2 )
( 2 )n i
d ( 2 ) i .
Chapter 3
Complex numbers
125
Factorisation of polynomials in C
A polynomial in z is an expression of the form
P(z) = an zn + an 1 zn 1 + an 2 zn 2 + . . . + a1z + a0,
where n N is the degree (highest power) of P(z) and an (with an 0) are the
coefficients.
If an R, that is, all the coefficients are real, then P(z) is said to be a polynomial
over R. Similarly, if at least one of the an is complex, P(z) is said to be a polynomial
over C.
For example, P(z) = 3z4 5z2 + 6 is a polynomial of degree 4 over R and
P(z) = 2iz3 + 3z2 8i is a polynomial of degree 3 over C.
The fundamental theorem of algebra

Firstly recall that R C and the factor theorem, which states:
If (x a) is a factor of the polynomial P(x), then P(a) = 0.
In 1799 the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss proved that every polynomial
over C has a solution that is a complex number.
That is, if Pn(z) is a polynomial of degree n over C, then there exists a z0 C such
that Pn(z0) = 0. This important result can be used to show that a polynomial of degree
n, with n N, has n solutions.
The proof relies on a repeated application of the fundamental theorem of algebra and
the factor theorem.
Firstly, the fundamental theorem of algebra guarantees that there is a z0 C such
that Pn(z0) = 0. The factor theorem states that if Pn(z0) = 0 for some z0 then (z z0) is a
factor of Pn(z) so that Pn(z) = (z z0)Pn 1(z), where Pn 1(z) is a polynomial of degree
n 1.
Now by applying the fundamental theorem of algebra to Pn 1(z) there is a z1 C
such that Pn 1(z1) = 0 and the factor theorem ensures that Pn 1(z) = (z z1)Pn 2(z).
Hence Pn(z) = (z z1)(z z0)Pn 2(z). By applying this method to each successive
polynomial we can state the following:
There are n linear factors for all Pn(z) over C and therefore n solutions for
Pn(z) = 0. So
Pn(z) = (z zn)(z zn 1)(z zn 2) . . . (z z2)(z z1)P0(z),
where P0(z) is a constant.
Note: Although n solutions are obtained, the fundamental theorem of algebra does not
prescribe that they are necessarily distinct.
WORKED Example 34
Factorise z2 + 4z + 13 over C.
THINK
1
Use the complete the square method.
Express as the difference of squares.
WRITE
z2 + 4z + 13 = (z2 + 4z + 4) 4 + 13
= (z + 2)2 + 9
= (z + 2)2 9i 2
= (z + 2)2 (3i)2
= (z + 2 3i)(z + 2 + 3i)
126
WORKED Example 35
Factorise 6z4 + z2 1 over C.

THINK
WRITE
Express the polynomial as a quadratic.
Let w = z2 so 6z4 + z2 1 becomes 6w2 + w 1.
Factorise the quadratic.
6w2 + w 1
= (3w 1)(2w + 1)
Write the expression in brackets as a

quadratic.
= (3z2 1)(2z2 + 1)
= (3z2 1)(2z2 i 2)
Factorise each quadratic by writing it as

the difference of squares.
= ( 3z 1 ) ( 3z + 1 ) ( 2z i ) ( 2z + i )
WORKED Example 36
If f(z) = z3 + 7z2 + 16z + 10, find all factors of f (z) over C.

THINK
1
WRITE
Find z = z0 so that f(z0) = 0.
f(1) = (1)3 + 7(1)2 + 16(1) + 10 = 0,

so (z + 1) is a factor of f(z).
Use the factor theorem.

f(z) = (z + 1)Q(z), where Q(z) is a
polynomial of degree 2.
To find Q(z) divide (z + 1) into f(z).
z2 + 6z + 10
z + 1)z3 + 7z2 + 16z + 10
z3 + z2
6z2 + 16z
6z2 + 6z
10z + 10
10z + 10
0z + 0
So f(z) = (z + 1)(z2 + 6z + 10)
Factorise the quadratic equation by

completing the square.
State all factors of f(z).
= (z + 1)[(z + 3)2 + 1]
= (z + 1)(z + 3 i)(z + 3 + i)
The three factors of f(z) are z + 1, z + 3 i and
z + 3 + i.
Conjugate root theorem

In the previous three examples the polynomials contained only real coefficients and the
complex factors occurred in conjugate pairs.
The conjugate root theorem states that:
If a polynomial has real coefficients, its roots are either real numbers or occur as pairs
of conjugate complex numbers.
Chapter 3
Complex numbers
127
To prove the theorem we aim to show that for some z, if P(z) = 0, then P ( z ) = 0 .
First, by the fundamental theorem of algebra, P(z) = 0 for some z so P ( z ) = 0 . Now,
if P(z) = an zn + an 1 zn - 1 + an 2 zn - 2 + . . . + a1z + a0, then
P ( z ) = an z n + an 1 z n 1 + an 2 z n 2 + . . . + a1 z + a0
(using the property that z + w = z + w ).
= a n z n + a n 1 z n 1 + a n 2 z n 2 + . . . + a 1 z + a 0 (using the property that zw = z w )
= a n z n + a n 1 z n 1 + a n 2 z n 2 + . . . + a 1 z + a 0 (since an, n N are real coefficients)
= a n z n + a n 1 z n 1 + a n 2 z n 2 + . . . + a 1 z + a 0 (since z n = z n )
= P(z) .
Since we assumed P(z) = 0 then P ( z ) = 0 so z is also a solution.
The conjugate root theorem provides an immediate way of determining zeros (roots)
of the polynomial if at least one zero (root) is known.
WORKED Example 37
If 5 + 5 2i is a zero of P(z) = z3 8z2 + 55z + 150, find the other two zeros over C.
THINK
1
Since all the coefficients of the

polynomial are real, use the conjugate
root theorem to find one of the other
roots.
Expand the two brackets containing the
two zeros.
WRITE
Let z1 = 5 + 5 2i .
Then z2 = 5 5 2i is another zero.
Let z3 be the third zero. Then
P(z) = (z z1)(z z2)(z z3)
= ( z 5 5 2i ) ( z 5 + 5 2i ) ( z z 3 )
= [(z 5)2 + 50](z z3)
= (z2 10z + 75)(z z3)
Divide the result into P(z) to find the

third root.
P(z)
z z3 = ------------------------------z 2 10z + 75
z+2
z 10z + 75) z 8z + 55z + 150
2
z3 10z2 + 75z
2z2 20z + 150
2z2 20z + 150
0z2 + 0z + 0
Hence z z3 = z + 2.
Therefore z3 = 2 and the three zeros are
2, 5 + 5 2i , 5 5 2i .
128
WORKED Example 38
Find the values of a and b (a, b R) if 3 and 4 are zeros of P(z) = az4 + 28z3 + 49z2 + 7 + b.
THINK
WRITE
Obtain expressions for P(3) and P(4).
Write down the pair of simultaneous

equations in a and b.
Solve the simultaneous equations for a

by subtracting equation [1] from
equation [2].
Substitute a = 4 into equation [1] to
find b.
State the values of a and b.
P(3) = a(3)4 + 28(3)3 + 49(3)2 + 7 + b

= 81a + b 308
P(4) = a(4)4 + 28(4)3 + 49(4)2 + 7 + b
= 256a + b 1001
Since P(3) = 0 and P(4) = 0 we have the two
equations
81a + b 308 = 0
[1]
256a + b 1001 = 0
[2]
175a 693 = 0
a = 3.96
Substituting a = 3.96 into equation [1]:
320.76 + b 308 = 0
b = 12.76
So a = 3.96, b = 12.76.
WORKED Example 39
Find the values of a and b (a, b R) if z 2 is a factor of P(z) = iz3 + a(1 i)z2 (4 + i)z + bi.
THINK
1
2
3
4
WRITE
Obtain an expression for P(2) in the

form x + yi.
Since P(2) = 0, equate P(2) to 0 + 0i.
Equate the real parts of P(2) and solve
for a.
Equate the imaginary parts of P(2) and
solve for b.
State the solution for a and b.
P(2) = i(2)3 + a(1 i)(2)2 (4 + i)(2) + bi

= 8i + 4a 4ai 8 2i + bi
= (4a 8) + (6 4a + b)i
P(2) = (4a 8) + (6 4a + b) = 0 + 0i
4a 8 = 0
a=2
6 4a + b = 0
68+b=0
b=2
Solving for a and b gives a = 2 and b = 2.
remember
remember
1. Every polynomial over C has a solution that is a complex number (fundamental
theorem of algebra).
2. A polynomial of degree n has n solutions.
3. A polynomial with real coefficients has solutions that are real numbers or that
occur as pairs of conjugate complex numbers (conjugate root theorem).
Chapter 3
3F
WORKED
Example
34
WORKED
Example
35
WORKED
Example
36
WORKED
Example
37
Complex numbers
129
Factorisation of
polynomials in C
1 Factorise each of the following over C.

a z2 + 4
b z2 + 7
d z2 3z + 4
e 4z2 4z + 17
2 Factorise each of the following over C.
a z4 81
b z4 2z2 3
c
f
z2 + 8z + 25
9z2 + 24z 32
z4 + 20z2 + 64
d z4 + 3z2 10
3 Find all of the factors f(z) over C for each of the following.
b f(z) = z 3 + z 2 + 2z 4
a f(z) = z 3 4z 2 + 2z + 28
c f(z) = z 3 z 2 z + 10
d f(z) = 2z 3 + 3z 2 14z 15
e f(z) = z 4 2z 2 16z 15
f f(z) = z 6 1
4 For each of the following polynomials, find the other two zeros of P(z) if:
a 1 + i is a zero of P(z) = z3 + 4z2 10z + 12
b 2 + i is a zero of P(z) = 2z3 + 9z2 + 14z + 5
c 4 i is a root of P(z) = z3 10z2 + 33z 34.
5 If z 3i is a factor of 2z4 4z3 + 21z2 36z + 27, find the remaining factors.
6 multiple choice
The zeros of P(z) = z 2 + (3 + 2i)z + 6i are:
A 2i, 3
B 3i, 2
C 3i, 2
D 3, 2
E 2i, 3
7 multiple choice
If P(z) = z3 (1 + 2i)z2 + 2(1 + i)z 2 and P(z) = (z 1)Q(z), where Q(z) is a polynomial,
then Q(i) is:
A 4
B 2
C 0
D 3
E 1
8 multiple choice
If P(z) is a polynomial of degree 4 with all of its coefficients real with ai, bi(a, b R)
as two of its zeros, then the term that does not contain z is:
A ab
B ab
C a+b
D a3b3
E a2b2
9 multiple choice
If P(z) = z3 + 2z2 6z + a and P(1 i) = 0, then a is equal to:
A 4
B 6
C 8
D 6
10 Find the value of a in each of the following given that:
a (z + 2) is a factor of z3 + 3z2 + az + 8
b (z + i) is a factor of z3 + az2 + z 4
c (z + 1 2i) is a factor of 2z3 + 3z2 + 8z + a
d 2i is a root of z3 2z2i + az 32i.
11 Find the values of a and b (a, b R) given that:
a 3 and 2 are zeros of z3 + az2 + 8z + b
38
b 4 and 1 are zeros of z4 + az3 + bz2 7z + 12
c 2i and 3i are roots of P(z) = z3 + aiz2 + bz 12i.
WORKED
Example
E 5
130
12 Find the values of a and b (a, b R) if:

a (z + 1) is a factor of z3 2iz2 + aiz + b
39
b (z i) is a factor of az3 3z2 + biz + 12i
c (z + 2i) is a factor of z3 + aiz2 + 2iz + (1 + i)b.
WORKED
Example
13 Explain why at least one of the zeros of a polynomial of degree n (where n is an odd
natural number) is a real number.
14 Write down a polynomial of degree 3, whose coefficients are all real, that has 4i and
2 as two of its zeros.
15 Find the values of a, (a R) for which ai is a solution to:
b P(z) = z3 + 6iz2 11z 6i.
a P(z) = z3 + 3z2 + 36z + 108
16 Factorise z3 + i over C.
17 a Show that P(1) = 0 for P(z) = z4 (1 + 3i)z3 + 3(i 1)z2 + (7 + i)z 4 i.
b Find the polynomial Q(z) if P(z) = (z 1)Q(z).
c Determine the values of a C, b R if Q(z) is of the form Q(z) = (z a)3 + b.
18 Factorise z4 + 2z3 + 8z2 + 10z + 15 over C given that z +
5 i is a factor.
19 Factorise P(z) = 9z3 + (9i 12)z2 + (5 12i)z + 5i over C if P(i) = 0.

a 11
-.
20 Determine the value of a R if 3i is to be a zero of a + z 2 = -------------z2
Graphics Calculator tip! Roots of complex numbers

1. To select complex number mode, press MODE and select Radian mode; scroll down
and select a+bi and press ENTER .
2. To find the cube roots of z = 2 2i, start by finding one of the roots as follows. Press
MATH , select 4:
, enter (2 2i) and press ENTER . So one cube root is z1 = 1 i.
2
3. Since cube roots occur at angles of ------ , the second cube root can be found by multi3
2
plying z1 by cis ------ . Scrolling shows that this root is 0.366 + 1.366i.
3
4
4. The third cube root is found by multiplying z1 by cis ------ . Scrolling shows that this root
3
is 1.366 0.366i. Note that the cube root was recalled using 2nd [ENTRY] twice;
2
4
cis ------ was also recalled using 2nd [ENTRY] twice and then edited to make it cis ------ .
3
3
Chapter 3
Complex numbers
131
Solving equations in C
Solving polynomial equations using factorisation
A polynomial equation P(z) = 0 can be solved by first factorising P(z) so that:
if P(z) = (z z1)(z z2) . . . (z zn) = 0
then z = z1, z2, . . ., zn.
Solution to quadratic equations

A quadratic equation of the form az2 + bz + c = 0, where a, b, c R, can be solved
b b 2 4ac
using the quadratic formula: z = ------------------------------------- .
2a
WORKED Example 40
Solve the quadratic equation x2 2x + 2 = 0 over C.

THINK
WRITE
1
Use either the completing the square

method or the quadratic formula
b b 2 4ac
x = ------------------------------------- .
2a
x2 2x + 2 = 0
(x 1)2 12 + 2 = 0
(x 1)2 + 1 = 0
(x 1)2 = 1
x1=
x=1 i
=1i
or
a = 1, b = 2, c = 2
3
4
Simplify the expression.

State the solutions for x.
( 2 ) ( 2 )2 4 1 2
x = -----------------------------------------------------------------21
2 4
x = ------------------2
2 4i 2
x = -------------------2
2 2i
x = -------------2
x=1i
The two solutions for x are x = 1 + i, x = 1 i.
Solving cubic equations
WORKED Example 41
Solve the equation z3 + 3z2 + 8z 12 = 0 over C.

THINK
WRITE
P(1) = (1)3 + 3(1)2 + 8(1) 12 = 0
1 Use the factor theorem to find a
z = 1 is a solution.
solution to the cubic equation.
z 1 is a factor.
2 Express the first solution as a factor of
Continued over page
the cubic.
132
.
THINK
3
4
WRITE
By long division or otherwise determine

the quadratic factor.
Solve the quadratic expression using the
quadratic formula.
z3 + 3z2 + 8z 12 = (z 1)(z2 + 4z + 12)

If z2 + 4z + 12 = 0
4 4 2 4 ( 1 ) ( 12 )
z = -------------------------------------------------21
4 32
= ------------------------2
4 4 2
= -------------------------2
= 2 2 2
= 2 2 2i 2
= 2 2 2i
State the three solutions to the cubic

equation.
The three solutions are 1, 2 + 2 2i and

2 2 2i .
WORKED Example 42
Solve the equation x4 + 13x2 + 36 = 0 over C.

THINK
1
2
3
4
WRITE
Obtain a quadratic equation by putting

y = x2.
Factorise the quadratic equation.
Substitute for y.
Solve for x using each expression
contained in brackets.
x4 + 13x2 + 36 = 0
y2 + 13y + 36 = 0, with y = x2
(y + 4)(y + 9) = 0
(x2 + 4)(x2 + 9) = 0
x2 + 4 = 0,
x2 + 9 = 0
2
x = 4,
x2 = 9
x = 4 ,
x = 9
x=
x = 9i 2
x = 2i,
x = 3i
The four solutions for x are x = 2i, 2i, 3i, 3i.
4i 2 ,
Square root of z
Given z2 = a + bi with z = x + yi and a, b, x, y R, we seek values for x and y so that
x + yi = a + bi
Then
(x + yi)2 = a + bi
By expanding (x + yi)2 we obtain (x2 y2) + 2xyi = a + bi.
Equating real and imaginary parts yields two equations:
x2 y2 = a and 2xy = b.
Chapter 3
Complex numbers
133
a + a2 + b2
Solving this pair of simultaneous equations gives x 2 = ------------------------------ . (Verify this.)
2
(Notice the requirement to take the positive square root since x is real.)
The value of y can now be determined by substituting for x2 in y2 = x2 a.
WORKED Example 43
Find 3 + 4i in Cartesian form.
THINK
1
WRITE
Determine the values of a and b in the

expression z2 = a + bi.
z=
a + a2 + b2
Substitute a and b in x 2 = -----------------------------2
to find x.
3 + 32 + 42
x2 = -----------------------------2
2
x =4
x = 2
y2 = 4 3
y2 = 1
y = 1
Therefore the two roots z1, z2 are z1 = 2 + i and
z2 = 2 i.
Use y2 = x2 a to find y.
So
3 + 4i so z2 = 3 + 4i. Take a = 3 and b = 4.
3 + 4i is 2 + i or 2 i.
Notes
Imz
1. The line segment connecting z1 to z2 halves the com2
plex number plane.
z1
1 5
2. The root z2 can be obtained by rotating z1 through an
0
Re z
angle of 180 corresponding to multiplication by i 2.
2
2
1
That is, z2 = i 2z1.
z2
2
3. The modulus of z1 and z2 is 5 and z1 and z2 lie on
the circle of radius 5 units.
An alternative method to finding the square root and the cube root of z involves
expressing z in polar form. This is outlined below.
Solving equations of the form zn = w, where w C
Values of z that satisfy zn = w, where z, w C and n N, can be found using

de Moivres theorem. We seek solutions to zn = w for n = 2 and n = 3 and for the
particular case w = a where a R. The steps involved are outlined as follows.
If zn = w,
1. Express w in polar form r cis .
2. Express r cis = r cis( + 2k ), k J (since the solution repeats every 2 ).
1
---
3. Therefore, z = [ r cis ( + 2k ) ] n , k J, (by de Moivres theorem).

4. Hence z =
1
--rn
+ 2k
cis ------------------- , k J, using k until n solutions are found (that is, until
n
the solutions start repeating).
134
Cube root of z
WORKED Example 44
Use de Moivres theorem to solve z3 = 2 2i, in polar form.

THINK
WRITE
If w = 2 2i = r cis :
1 Express w = 2 2i in polar form.
r = ( 2 )2 + ( 2 )2
=
Let z3 = w.
Determine z using de Moivres theorem.
2
tan = ------ = 1
2
= + tan1 1 (3rd quadrant)
= + --4
5
= -----4
5
So w = 8 cis ------ + 2k
4
5
Let z3 = 8 cis ------ + 2k
4
(
(
z=
=
Evaluate the solutions by rule.
k = 0,
k = 1,
1
---
5
8 cis ------ + 2k 3
4
5 2k
2 cis ------ + ---------
12
3
5
z = 2 cis -----12
5 2
z = 2 cis ------ + ------
12 3
13
= 2 cis --------12
11
= 2 cis ---------
12
k = 2, z =
=
=
=
5
State the solutions.
)
)
5 4
2 cis ------ + ------
12 3
21
2 cis --------12
3
2 cis ------
12
2 cis ---
4
The three cube roots of 2 2i in polar form

5
11
are 2 cis ------ , 2 cis --------- and
12
12
2 cis --- .
4
Chapter 3
135
Complex numbers
Notes
Imz
z2
1. On the complex number plane, z1, z2 and z3 are equidis2

tant from the origin and are equally spaced ------ or 120
3
on the circle of radius
120
z3
2 units.
120
Re z
120
z1
2. The three solutions should be converted to Cartesian

form if required.
Solving zn = a, where a R
Since 1 = 1 + 0i = cis 0, it follows that:

a = a 1 = a cis 0
= a cis(0 + 2k ), k J
n
n
Therefore solving z = a becomes z = a cis 2k , k J, and using de Moivres theorem
as outlined previously it follows that:
If zn = a, a R,
1
--2k
z = a n cis ---------n
where k J until n solutions are found.
then
WORKED Example 45
Find the solutions to z4 = 9 in Cartesian form.

THINK
WRITE
Express the equation in polar form.
z4 = 9
= 9 cis 2k
Use de Moivres theorem to find z in

polar form.
z = ( 9 cis 2k ) 4
Substitute k = 0, 1, 2 and 3 to find the

four solutions.
k = 0, z =
1
---
--2k
= 9 4 cis --------4
k
= 3 cis -----2
k = 1, z =
3 cis 0
3 cis --2
3 cis
3
k = 3, z = 3 cis -----2
The four solutions in Cartesian form are
k = 2, z =
Express the solutions in Cartesian form.
3,
3 i , 3 , and 3 i .
136
The exact values of cos
2-------
5
and sin
2-------
5
Consider the values of z for which z5 = 1.

1 Substitute z = x + yi in z5 = 1 and expand the left-hand side.
2 Equate the real parts to obtain an equation in x and y.
3 By expressing z in terms of x and y obtain an equation for y2 in terms of x2.
4 Combine the equations from parts 2 and 3 to obtain an equation involving
powers of x only.
5 Using a computer package or otherwise solve the equation to get two exact
positive solutions for x.
2k
6 We know that the five solutions for z5 = 1 are given by cis --------- , k N. Use this
5
51
2
information with the appropriate answer from 5 to obtain cos ------ = ---------------- .
5
4
2
7 Use Pythagoras theorem together with your answer for cos ------ to show that
5
2 5+ 5
2
sin ------ = ---------------------------- .
5
4
remember
remember
1. A polynomial P(z) = (z z1)(z z2) . . . (z zn) has solutions z = z1, z2, . . . zn.
b b 2 4ac
2. Use the complete the square method or ------------------------------------- to solve equations in
2a
z that can be expressed in quadratic form.
3. Substitute i 2 for 1 to change expressions of the form a2 + b2 to the difference
of two squares: a2 + b2 = (a + bi)(a bi).
4. If zn = r cis , then:
1
-- + 2k
z = r n cis ------------------- , k J, using k until n solutions are found (that is, until
n

5. If zn = a, a R, then:
1
--2k
z = a n cis --------- , where k J until n solutions are found.
n
Chapter 3
3G
WORKED
Example
40
Example
41
137
1 Solve the following quadratic equations over C.

b x2 8x + 25 = 0
a x2 + 2x + 5 = 0
d 4x2 12x + 13 = 0
WORKED
Complex numbers
e 4x2
x2 14x + 149 = 0
32 x + 4 = 0
2 Solve the following equations over C.

b z3 2z2 + 3z 2 = 0
c
a z3 z2 z + 10 = 0
3
2
3
2
d 3z 13z + 5z 4 = 0 e 4z 20z + 34z 20 = 0
2z3 7z2 + 10z 8 = 0
3 For f(z) = z 4, g(z) = z2 z + 1 and h(z) = z3 5z2 + 5z 4 show that

f(z) g(z) = h(z) and hence determine the values of z such that h(z) = 0.
WORKED
Example
42
4 Solve these equations over C.

a x4 + 25x2 + 144 = 0
c
9z4 + 35z2 4 = 0
b z4 3z2 4 = 0
d 4x4 + 12x2 + 9 = 0
5 multiple choice
The solutions to the equation (z 3)2 + 4 = 0 are:
A z = 2 + 3i, z = 2 3i
B z = 3 2i, z = 3 + 2i
C z = 3 + 4i, z = 3 4i
D z = 4 3i, z = 4 + 3i
E z = 9 + 16i, z = 9 16i
WORKED
43
6 Find the square roots of each of the following in Cartesian form.

a 1+
7 Find
b 11 + 60i
3i
16 + 63i
i in Cartesian form.
8 multiple choice
If one of the roots of a(1 + i) is
A
D
WORKED
Example
44
7
a cis -----8
9
a cis -----8
a cis --- , the other root is:

8
7
C
B a cis -----8
9
E a cis -----8
7
a cis -----8
9 Use de Moivres theorem to solve the following equations, in polar form.

b z2 = 4 + 4i
c z3 = 4 + 4 3 i
a z2 = 3 i
3
3
d z =i
e z = 1 i
10 Find
1
--( 125i ) 3
and determine the value of the sum of the roots.
11 a Find the cube root of 64.

b Show the results on an Argand diagram.
12 Solve the following equations in Cartesian form.
b z4 = 25
c z6 = 64
d z6 = 27
a z4 = 16
45
13 Find all z satisfying z5 = 1. Express your answers in polar form.
WORKED
Example
GC pro
gram
Example
Roots of
a complex
number
138
summary
Introduction to complex numbers
We define the imaginary number i as having the property that i 2 = 1.

A complex number z = x + yi with x, y R and C = {z: z = x + yi, x, y R} defines
the set of complex numbers.
Basic operations using complex numbers
If z and w are two complex numbers such that z = a + bi and w = c + di for a, b, c,

d R then:
1. z = w iff a = c and b = d
2. z + w = (a + c) + (b + d)i
3. z w = (a c) + (b d)i
4. kz = ka + kbi, for k R
5. z w = (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i.
The product of z i n, n N produces an anticlockwise rotation of the point z of
90n degrees.
Conjugates and division of complex numbers

If z = a + bi and w = c + di, then:
1. The conjugate z of z is z = a bi .
z
ac + bd ( bc ad )i
+ ------------------------.
2. ---- = -----------------w
c2 + d 2
c2 + d 2
b
a
- ---------------- i.
3. The multiplicative inverse of z is ---------------2
2
2
a + b a + b2
The polar form of complex numbers
The magnitude (modulus or absolute value) of z = x + yi is the length of the line

segment from (0, 0) to z. It is denoted by z, x + yi or mod z.
z = x 2 + y 2 and zz = z 2 .
The argument of z, arg z, is the angle measurement anticlockwise of the positive
y
Real axis and arg z = where tan = -- .
x
z = x + yi can be expressed in polar form as z = r cos + r sin i = r cis .
Basic operations on complex numbers in polar form

If z1 = r1 cis 1 and z2 = r2 cis 2, then:
1. z1 z2 = r1r2 cis(1 + 2)
r
z
2. ---1- = ----1 cis(1 2)
z2
r2
De Moivres theorem: For z = r cis , zn = rn cis n , n J.
If z = r cis , then z = r cis ( ).
Chapter 3
Complex numbers
139
Factorisation of polynomials in C
The fundamental theorem of algebra states that each polynomial over C has a
solution that is a complex number.
A polynomial of degree n has n solutions.
The conjugate root theorem states that polynomials with real coefficients have
solutions that are real numbers or that occur as pairs of conjugate complex
numbers.
A polynomial P(z) = (z z1)(z z2) . . . (z zn) has solutions z = z1, z2, . . ., zn.
b b 2 4ac
Use the complete the square method or -------------------------------------- to solve equations
2a
in z that can be expressed in quadratic form.
Substitute i 2 for 1 to change expressions of the form a2 + b2 to the
difference of two squares: a2 + b2 = (a + bi)(a bi).
If zn = r cis , then:
1
-- + 2k
z = r n cis ------------------- , k J, using k until n solutions are found (that is, until
n

If zn = a, a R, then:
1
--2k
z = a n cis --------- , where k J until n solutions are found.
n
140
CHAPTER
review
Multiple choice
Questions 1 and 2 refer to complex number z = 2 5 4i .
3A
1 The real and imaginary parts of z respectively are:

A 2 5 and 4 B 2 5 and 4 C 4 and 2 5
3A
2 The Argand diagram which correctly represents z is:

A
B
Imz
Imz
2 5 Re z
D 4 and 2 5
Re z
4
2 5 Imz
E 2 5 and 4i
Re z
2 5 Re z
2 5 Imz
Imz
2 5
Re z
Questions 3 and 4 refer to the complex numbers u = 5 i and v = 4 + 3i.
3B
3 The expression 2u v is equal to:

A 1 4i
B 3 7i
C 6 5i
D 5 + 8i
E 14 + i
3B
4 The expression uv is equal to:

A 9 + 2i
B 20 3i
C 20 + 3i
D 15 4i
E 23 + 11i
3B
5 If z = 5 12i, decide which statement is true concerning iz.

A iz = 13
B iz = 12 5i
C The point z is rotated 90 clockwise.
D Re(iz) = 0
E Im(iz) = i
3C
1 + 2i
6 Im -------------- is equal to:
1i
A 2
B 1--2-
3C
7 If z = 3i and w = 4 i then z w is equal to:

A 12 + 3i
B 12 i
C 7 + 3i
3C
3
--2
2i
3
8 The expresion ----------- ---------- simplifies to:
1+i 2i
1 2
1 3
A --- + --- i
C --- --- i
B 3 + 7i
5 5
4 4
2
--3
E 2
D 12 3i
E z = 4 2i
D 4 2i
E 3i
Chapter 3
9 Arg(2 2i) is equal to:
A
B --4
10 The polar form of 3 + 3i is:
3
A 3 2 cis --B 3 2 cis -----4
4
Complex numbers
3
C -----4
D --4
E 2
3
C 3 cis -----4
D 3 cis ---
4
5
E 3 2 cis -----4
141
11 If z1 = 10 cis --- and z2 = 5 cis --- then z1z2 in polar form is:
6
4
A 50 cis -----12
5
B 15 cis -----12
C 2 cis -----12
D 15 cis ------
12
5
E 2 cis ------
12
E 36 36i
13 When factorised over C, x + 6x + 1 is equal to:

2
(x + 3 + 2
(x 3 2
(x + 3 + 2
C
E
2 )(x + 3 2 2 )
2 i )(x 3 + 2 2 i)
(x + 6 + 2 )(x + 6 + 2 )
(x + 3 + 2 2 i )(x 3 2 2 i )
E 3i and 3
5 5 3i in Cartesian form is:

A ( 5 5 3i )
3F
2 cis ------ ,
18
13
2 cis--------- ,
18
2 cis --- ,
3
2
2 cis ------
3
11
2 cis ---------
18
2 cis --- ,
6
5
2 cis ------ ,
6
3F
3G
C ( 5 + 5 3 i )
B 5 3 5i
10
30
D ---------- ---------- i
E
15 5i
2
2
16 The solutions to z3 = 3 + i in polar form are:
5
3
A 2 cis --- , 2 cis ------ , 2 cis -----6

6
2
C
3E
2 i )(x + 3 2 2 i )
14 If 2i is a zero of z3 3z2 + 4z 12, then the other two zeros are:

A 2i and 3
B 2i and 3
C i and 3
D i and 3
15
3D
3E
12 In Cartesian form, 12 2 cis ------ 3 cis --- is equal to:
4
2
A 4 + 4i
B 4 4i
C 4 4i
D 4 + 4i
A
3D
2 cis ---
2
3G
D 4 cis --6
17 How many degrees apart are two consecutive roots of z8 = 1 on the unit circle?
A 180
B 90
C 135
D 225
E 45
Short answer
1 Simplify i 6 i 3 (i 2 1).
2 If z = 3 8i, then find:
a Im (z2)
3A
3B
b a and b if z3 = a + bi.
3 If z = 2 5i, u = 3 + i and w = 1 + 2i evaluate:

a z 2u + 3w
b z
uz + w
z
4 If z = 6 2i and w = 5 + 3i, express ---- in the form a + bi, a, b R.
w
3B,C
3C
142
3D
3D
3E
5 If z = 7 7i, express z in polar form.

6 Represent z1 = 5i, z2 = 4 and z3 = 3 on the complex number plane and calculate the area of
the shape formed when the points are connected by straight line segments.
cis 2------ cis ---
3
4
7 a Find Arg ----------------------------------- .
3
cis --- cis ---- 6
4
b Calculate (3 3i)12.
z6
c Find -----4- for z = 1 +
w
3i and w = 1 + i.
3
d Find Arg 2 2 cis --- cis ------ .
4
3
3F
3F
3G
8 Factorise each of the following polynomials over C.

b P(z) = 2z3 + 6z2 7z + 4
a P(z) = z2 16z + 89
9 Find the value a R if P(3i) = 0 for P(z) = z4 + z3 + az2 + 9z 9.
10 Solve each of these equations over C.
a x 2 2 5x + 13 = 0
b z2 = 8 + 15i
z3 + 8 = 0
Analysis
1 Let z = 2 cis --- and w = 2 cis --- .

3
4
z
a Express ---- in the form r cos + r sin i.
w
b Express z and w in Cartesian form.
z
c Express ---- in Cartesian form.
w
d Using the results of parts a and c, find the exact values for:
i cos -----12
ii sin -----12
iii tan ------ .

12
z
e By letting z = 2 cis --- and w = 2 cis --- and following parts a to c for zw instead of ---- ,
4
6
w
5
deduce that tan ------ = 2 + 3 .
12
CHAPTER
test
yyourself
ourself
2 a Factorise z2 + 64 over C.
b Express z4 + 64 as a pair of quadratic factors in C.
c Show that:
i (2 + 2i)2 = 8i
ii (2 2i)2 = 8i
d Hence factorise z4 + 64 into linear factors over C.
e Factorise z4 + 64 over R.

12C Basic Complex Numbers

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12C Basic Complex Numbers

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Chap 03 SM Page 95 Thursday, October 12, 2000 9:51 AM

Chap 03 SM Page 96 Thursday, October 12, 2000 9:51 AM

Introduction to complex numbers

Square root of a negative number

Definition of a complex number

Chap 03 SM Page 97 Thursday, October 12, 2000 9:51 AM

Express the square root of 16 as the

Take the square root of 16 and i 2.

Express the square root of 5 as the

Take the square root of i 2.

The real part is the non-i term.

The imaginary part is the coefficient of

The imaginary part is the coefficient of

Write i 8 + i 5 in the form x + yi where x and y are real numbers.

Sum the two answers.

Chap 03 SM Page 98 Thursday, October 12, 2000 9:51 AM

Sum the two answers.

a The real part of the complex number

The real part is 2.

Simplify the numerator of

b Im (10) = Im (10 + 0i)

Simplify by dividing the numerator by 2.

The imaginary number i has the property that i 2 = 1.

Chap 03 SM Page 99 Thursday, October 12, 2000 9:51 AM

1 Using the imaginary number i, write down expressions for:

4 Simplify z = i 6 + 3i 7 2i 10 3 and w = 4i 8 3i 11 + 3 and show that z + w = 5.

5 Evaluate each of the following.

which one of the statements below is true?

10 If n is an even natural number show that ( 1 ) 2 = i n .

Chap 03 SM Page 100 Thursday, October 12, 2000 9:51 AM

Basic operations using complex

Addition of complex numbers

Note: The origin, z1, z2 and z2 + z1 form a parallelogram.

Subtraction of complex numbers

Chap 03 SM Page 101 Thursday, October 12, 2000 9:51 AM

For z = 8 + 7i, w = 12 + 5i and u = 1 + 2i, calculate:

If z = 3 + 5i, w = 4 2i and v = 6 + 10i, evaluate:

Chap 03 SM Page 102 Thursday, October 12, 2000 9:51 AM

Multiplication of two complex numbers

If z = 6 2i and w = 3 + 4i express zw in the form x + yi.

Simplify (2 3i)(2 + 3i).

Determine Re (z2w) + Im (zw2) for z = 4 + i and w = 3 i.

Chap 03 SM Page 103 Thursday, October 12, 2000 9:51 AM

Equality of two complex numbers

Find the values of x and y that satisfy (3 + 4i)(x + yi) = 29 + 22i.

Let us examine the effect on z = x + yi after multiplication by

If z = a + bi and w = c + di for a, b, c, dR then:

Chap 03 SM Page 104 Thursday, October 12, 2000 9:51 AM

Basic operations using

1 Represent each of the following complex numbers on an Argand diagram.

2 For z = 5 + 3i, w = 1 4i, u = 6 11i and v = 2i 3 calculate:

6 For z = 1 3i and w = 2 5i calculate z 2w.

7 Determine Re (z 2) Im (zw) for z = 1 + i and w = 4 i.

11 If z = 2 + i and w = 4 3i then represent each of the following on an Argand diagram.

Chap 03 SM Page 105 Thursday, October 12, 2000 9:51 AM

Conjugates and division of

a Change the sign of the imaginary

c Change the sign of the imaginary

If z = 5 2i and w = 7 i show that z + w = z + w .

Add the conjugates z and w .

Write down the conjugate of z + w.

The conjugate of z + w equals z + w .

Chap 03 SM Page 106 Thursday, October 12, 2000 9:51 AM

Division of complex numbers