Early Childhood Education Journal, Vol. 35, No.

1, August 2007 ( 2007)

DOI: 10.1007/s10643-007-0170-y

Peer Reviewed

Promoting Early Literacy for Diverse Learners Using Audio

and Video Technology
James R. Skouge,1,2 Kavita Rao,1 and Precille C. Boisvert1

Practical applications of multimedia technologies that support early literacy are described and
evaluated, including several variations of recorded books and stories, utilizing mainstream
audio and video recording appropriate for libraries and schools. Special emphasis is given to
the needs of children with disabilities and children who are acquiring a second language.
KEY WORDS: literacy; technologies for voice; recorded books; reading while listening; video selfmodeling; assistive technology; shared reading; language experience; podcasting.

Human Development, 2000) examined the scientic

research base on reading instruction, to identify
eective instructional reading approaches and their
application to the classroom. Under pressure from
politicians and corporations to produce a competitive
global work force, we are pressured as never before to
teach children how to read, even if it comes at the
expense of nurturing a love of reading. There is irony
in the fact that legions of writers and illustrators are
producing high quality childrens literature available
in public libraries and book stores, but we take so
little time to enjoy them in our rush to teach reading.
The intent of this article is to describe technology and media supports that promote shared
reading experiences among children and adults. Does
this sound like a contradiction in terms? We, the
authors, are very much concerned that the quiet
voices of reading are being overwhelmed by the noise
of technology and media. Even mass media purporting to promote literacy, such as Sesame Street
and Reading Rainbow, may in fact distract parents
and children from touching, sharing and exploring
books together. How then might media and technology be employed to reverse this trend?
Books do not proselytize themselves. Books are
silent on the shelf until readers give them voice. Once
that voice is found, however, worlds of value, imagination and reason are opened, like no other media
can deliver. In this paper, we explore technology

In todays world, we are avid consumers of media,

especially television, video games and the Internet.
Although literacy rates are relatively high in the
United States, time spent reading both for pleasure
and information is droppingincluding time spent
reading with children. While the lure of media is one
reason why children spend fewer hours reading or
being read to, lack of time or ability on parents parts
to read with their children also contributes to some
children not experiencing the pleasure of books and
reading at home. Many people in the United States,
including many immigrants for whom English is a
second language, lack basic literacy skills (Kutner,
Greenberg, & Baer, 2005). For these groups books
and other print materials are largely inaccessible.
In our schools, perhaps out of fear that our
children will never grow up to be readers, we introduce formal reading instruction on the rst day of
school, placing great value on measurable reading
skills. The Report of the National Reading Panel
report (National Institute of Child Health and

College of Education, Department of Special Education, University of Hawaii - Manoa, 1776 University Avenue, Wist Hall 118,
Honolulu, HI 96822, USA.
2
Correspondence should be directed to James R. Skouge, College
of Education, Department of Special Education, University of
Hawaii - Manoa, 1776 University Avenue, Wist Hall 118, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA., e-mail: jskouge@hawaii.edu

5
1082-3301/07/0800-0005/0 2007 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

6
applications that may serve to nurture reading as a
choice, making childrens storybooks central to our
discussion, so that when all is said and done, a child
may exclaim I love this book! And Id like to read
it again! (rather than I love this television show
(or video game), and I dont want to turn it o!
We will discuss audio and video recording technologies appropriate for homes, schools and libraries.
However unlike mass media, we describe inexpensive,
time ecient, culturally sensitive, consumer-level
technologies that permit parents, teachers, librarians
and children themselves to collaborate, celebrate and
construct literacy eventsbringing authors, illustrators and readers into dialogue with storybooks.
This article describes how these technological
supports can be used to address the needs of various
types of learners. We discuss strategies that can be
used by librarians and classroom teachers to engage
all students, as well as specic suggestions to address
the needs of children with disabilities and for immigrant students and their families.
BURGEONING TECHNOLOGIES
By denition, technology implies innovation and
change. As we have already expressed, we do not
assume that innovation implies improvement, especially perhaps when it comes to young children who
are just being welcomed into the world of books.
With this caveat in mind, readily-available functions
of computers that can be used to further early literacy
learning are (a) audio and (b) video.
In this article, we provide an overview of audio
and video technologies and how they can be used. To
learn the software, people often need some training.
In our experience of training teachers, the software
applications described in this article can be learned in
one or two-day workshops. The key to learning and
using the software is practice. Once teachers master
the basics, the steps described in this article become
easier and faster to do.
Recording Audio
In recent years, computers have become equipped with the capacity to easily record voice. Many
computers have built in microphones. For those that
do not, external microphones are available at a low
cost. With software that is included on the computer
or freely downloadable (see Table 1) recording ones
voice narration onto the computer is just a click
away. Once an audio track is recorded, it can be
saved as a digital le and used in dierent ways.

Skouge
Table 1. Pre-installed and freely downloadable software

Audio recording

Video recording
and editing

Apple Macintosh

Windows PC

Apple iMovie
Audacity
Garageband
Apple iMovie

Microsoft movie maker

Audacity
Microsoft movie maker

Digital audio les can be (a) played back on the

computer, (b) copied to CDs and MP3 players and (c)
uploaded to websites as podcasts.
Using the audio-recording capability of computers, adults and children can read and record
storybooks. Quite simply, this means that a teacher
or librarian can produce a growing collection of recorded stories and songs and make them available to
children and families on CDs if desired. The sheer
convenience of this technology (not to mention its
portability and economy) makes it dicult to ignore
Podcasting, too, has only recently become mainstream. A podcast is a le that is distributed over the
internet for playback on computers and mobile
devices. Listeners can download an audio podcast le
with a simple click of a button. Software, such as
Garageband on Macintosh computers, allows users to
record voice, create MP3 les and publish these les
to a website for podcasting, requiring no more time to
publish them to the Internet as to burn to CD or
export to MP3 player. Although the implications for
this may not be transformatory, they are noteworthy
in that teachers and librarians can share recorded
stories to any Internet connected computer, creating
in eect listening stations on request. One can imagine
the enthusiasm that some children (and their parents)
might show to broadcast their voices (as storytellers
and readers).
Using Video
Although consumer-level camcorders have been
on the market for more they 20 years, video recording was slow to capture the imaginations of many
educators, perhaps because the tools of production,
such as cameras, tapes, microphones, tripods, editing
equipment, were expensive, cumbersome and breakable. In recent years, however, with the introduction
of video editing software freely available for Macs
and PCs (see Table 1) school-level video production
is becoming mainstream. More recent innovations
in webcam technology suggest that video will soon
become as accessible to educators as other tools of

Promoting Early Literacy

digital expression (e.g., word processing, digital
photography). Although called webcams these tiny
cameras are not restricted to internet video conferencing; in fact, they are digital video cameras capable
of one-step video communicationsrecording, editing and sharing via CD, DVD or podcast. So, how
might such technology be utilized in the present
context?
Research has established that human beings
learn through modeling; and that self modeling
may particularly inuence human behavior (Dowrick,
1991). In short, humans learn by watching models;
and when given the opportunity, they learn by
watching themselves engage in adaptive behavior that
they are trying to master. In video self modeling,
video can be lmed and edited to show themselves
doing a skill with mastery. Recent research suggests
that video self modeling can be applied with young
children to improve their reading uency, comprehension and motivation for reading (Hitchcock,
Prater, and Dowrick, 2004). In this research, children
practiced reading storybooks and talking about them;
and then video recorded themselves decoding the
text, describing the pictures and talking about the
story. The researchers reported that the children
reviewed their video self models with enthusiasm; and
strived to improve their performance. This is
certainly promising research, suggesting that the
judicious application of digital video recording may
enrich the literacy context.
TECHNOLOGY AND SHARED READING
ENVIRONMENTS
Typically, when teachers and librarians construct
shared reading environments for young children the
central elements remain constant:
(1) Children gather for a circle time during which a storybook is read aloud, illustrations are shared and meanings
are negotiated.
(2) Children engage in a follow-up enrichment activity such
as drawing a picture, role playing or making a craft related to a theme from the story.
(3) Children participate in free reading in the library corner or at a listening center in which the storybook, along
with many others, is made available as a choice activity.
(4) Children are invited to borrow a book to enjoy at home
with their family.

This routine, or some variation, has a long and

respected tradition in education.
We choose to be cautious about adding technology to the mix. How might media technologies
support rather than distract such a nurturing context?

7
We begin with validated interventions and then
describe burgeoning technologies that can enhance
literacy activities.
Recording Books
Many childrens stories are commercially available on audio tapes and CDs. There are compelling
reasons, however, for teachers and librarians to record their own materials. It takes very little time to
record a storybook; recording devices are inexpensive
and available; recordings can be personalized to the
books and children at hand; and recordings can be
shared inexpensively on CDs or as podcasts.
Using Recorded Stories in Classrooms and Libraries
The advantages of recording a storybook is that
the teacher or librarian then has permanent products
that can be shared and employed in several ways.
During Circle Time, for example, the recording
can be played through speakers (e.g., a boom box),
thus freeing the teacher from the rather complex task
of physically manipulating the book, while reading
the text sideways or, even, upside down. Additionally, by pausing and repeating the audio tracks that
make up the story (see Table 2), the teacher is free to
interrupt the playback to engage the children in dialogue, conrm comprehension, and even replay a
page if appropriate.
A child may be invited to sit on the teachers
stool, displaying the book and turning its pages on
cue, freeing the teacher to use her hands to point,
touch and orchestrate. Is there a risk that such a
technology intervention might distract rather than
enhance a shared reading experience? The answer is
certainly yes, if the teacher sees this as an opportunity to withdraw from active engagement with her
students. We have observed, rsthand, the successful
use of the technique, however, and recommend it for
consideration. In fact, our student teachers who employ the technique report that they are more likely to
explore comprehension issues with their children once
freed from reading the text aloud.
This same permanent product can be archived at
the Listening Center, where one or several children
can revisit the book by listening through headphones.
Audio splitters are widely available in consumer
electronics stores, permitting any number of headphones to be attached to a single CD or MP3 player.
Over-the-ear headphones (rather than earphones that
go inside the ear) are recommended because of public
health considerations. Many children love to revisit

Step 5.Organize your saved les

into a playlist

Step 4. Read the text expressively

Step 1. Mark pages in the book

Step 2. Record one or two pages at a time
Step 3. Save each recording as a separate
le

Clearly mark page numbers using a bold, broad-stroke pen. Many childrens books are unnumbered.
Begin each recording by stating the page number so that a child can follow along in the book as they listen
Save each le in a format (such as .wav, .ai, .mp3). Our rationale for recording pages as separate tracks is to permit ease
of navigation. When these les are imported into an audio playback software, they will be separate tracks on the audio playlist.
Tracks can be skipped or repeated at the listeners discretion, which represents a signicant advantage over the audio tape players
where fast forwarding and rewinding is both inexact and exasperating.
Read as you would if you were reading to a child, voicing of the characters, or some other commentary. (e.g., Page 3. As the train
pulled into the station...). The text is recorded slowly, but with natural expression (averaging 80120 words per minute). This slow
rate is attained by pausing at sentence junctures, such as commas and periods, while trying not to interrupt the ow of the
authors language. This reading rate is slower than most commercially produced tapes. Our intention is not so much to entertain,
as to provide opportunities for children to read while listening when they are ready.
Once you have read all the pages of the books and have created several les, import all the les into audio playback software
(such as Apples iTunes or Windows Media Player) and create a playlist. A playlist contains the les you choose in the order
you place them. This playlist can be burned to CD or transferred to a mobile playback device (such as an MP3 player.

Skouge

Table 2. Steps for recording storybooks. Using the steps below, record directly onto a computer using Audacity and iTunes software

books at a listening center, particularly perhaps because of the privacy aorded by headphones. We
suggest that a storybook rst be introduced during
circle time, before making it available at the listening
centerbelieving that stories should rst be negotiated in social contexts before isolating them to
headphones. Children enjoy reviewing and rehearsing
their favorite storybooks. Digital recording technologies provide opportunities for children to review a
story independently.
Another advantage of recorded storybooks is
that they can be sent home to be shared with family.
CDs are inexpensive to reproduce, they t into a
homemade sleeve on an inside cover, and many
families have CD players. A singular advantage to
producing ones own recorded books is that they can
provide models for parents of how to read aloud with
their own children. In fact, teachers can also record
tracks that guide children and parents beyond the
text to discuss elements in the text or picture and
insert them on the CD. New tracks can be inserted to
respond to the needs of dierent children, including
story retellings in dierent languages (which will be
discussed later in this paper).
LITERACY ACCOMMODATIONS
FOR CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES
Children who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing
Typically, the rst language of deaf children is
sign language. It is a visual language with its own
grammar and vocabulary. In North America the Deaf
community speaks American Sign Language (ASL).
It is not a dialect of spoken English. It is a language
in its own right. Many Deaf children struggle or fail to
learn to read (Wurst, Jones, & Luckner, 2005). Because Deaf children have never heard the sounds of
spoken language; they cannot apply phonemic
awareness and phonics to the decoding of text. And
because the grammar of ASL diers from English
grammar, predictions of meaning predicated on language patterns are also dicult to make. To further
compound the problem, many Deaf children grow up
in homes and communities where families and
neighbors do not learn to speak sign language leaving
Deaf children with few, if any, models for language
development, except perhaps at school. Storybooks
remain inaccessible to them, except perhaps for the
illustrations. Researchers note that seeing literacy as a
multimodal practice for Deaf children may provide
new avenues to promote traditional reading and
writing skills (Swanwick & Watson, 2005).

Promoting Early Literacy

The authors have explored two promising
technology interventions to support early literacy for
Deaf children. The rst is modeled after the Shared
Reading Project promoted by the Gallaudet University, in which sign along videos are produced
and sent home for family reading (Delk & Weidekamp, 2001). Using a storybook, a Deaf role
model (e.g., teacher or older peer) interprets the
story to videoby modeling the vocabulary signs,
followed by a signing of the story. The video
recordings are informal in design and easy to produce in the classroom or library, especially now that
small videocameras are built-in to computers. The
teacher or older peer sits at the computer, displays
the book to the built-in videocamera and points to a
picture, puts down the book and models the signs.
The sign along videos can be burned to DVD
without any editing and sent home with the storybook to support shared family literacy. Sign-along
books are now as easy to produce as the audio
recorded books that we described earlier.
Families attend a training workshop to learn
the interactive techniques. The sign along DVD
and the book go home together in a book bag. In
this way, parents, siblings and the Deaf child can sit
in the living room viewing and pausing the DVD
(page-by-page) while reading and enjoying the print
copy. The DVD does not substitute for the printed
book; instead, it facilitates a shared book experience, by modeling the appropriate signs as needed.
Family members review the DVD, as often as
required, to facilitate memorization.
A second promising intervention involves a language experience approach with video. The Language
Experience Approach (LEA) is a strategy associated
with whole language, the philosophy that promotes
the use of authentic, experiential processes in which
students writing, speaking, reading and listening
skills are taught as a whole rather than by direct
instruction on the components that make up these
skills. Grounded in this premise of authentic, whole
language learning, LEA is considered a process
approach (Bello, 1997) to literacy learning that is
motivating and appropriate as a literacy tool for
children who are deaf or hard of hearing (Pakulsky &
Kadavarek, 2004).
Using the LEA, students tell a story which is
scribed by a teacher or peer and then read the story
back to gain oral uency. It is based on the premise
that students will able to read their work, when the
experience they are reading about is their own. In
the case of students who are deaf, the childrens

9
language experience is based on activities they engage in (such as eld trips or other activities of
interest). They take digital photographs of the activity. The photos are then imported into presentation
software (such as Microsoft PowerPoint or Apples
Keynote). The children and teacher decide on a sentence to go with each photo. Their sentence is typed
on the slide with the photo. The children then review
and record the sentence in ASL (using the built-in
videocamera). These ASL movies are placed on the
same slide with the photo and the sentence. The
outcome is a digital book that celebrates familiar
classroom experiences through photographs, text and
American Sign Language - with the children, themselves, acting as their own models.
Children who are Blind
When we rst think of recorded books, we often
associate them with recordings for the blind. In fact,
the worlds largest collection of recorded books is for
the blind, although in most cases these recordings are
for adults. Recording books for young children is different than for adults, however. It is insucient simply
to record the text of a childrens storybook. The illustrations, too, need to be interpreted. This is because
storybook illustrations typically convey as much, or
more, meaning than the text, with the author and
illustrator working in partnership to enhance and
enrich the talents of the other.
The technical term for making storybooks
accessible to blind children is descriptive narration,
which simply means that pictures are described and
characters are voiced. Recording descriptive narrations can be both challenging and fun. Descriptions
should include the scene, the characters, the action
and interesting details. Voicing may depict what
characters are thinking or doing. Voices may be pitched higher or lower, louder or softer, but in contrast
to television cartoons, they do not need to be entertaining. Descriptive narrations should be recorded as
separate tracks (as described in Table 2), so that they
can be organized as desired on software playlists.
Like anyone, blind children enjoy reading along
as they listen to recorded text. Blind children explore
text tactilely through Braille. The process of printing
Braille is called embossinga process that is typically accomplished in specialized centers, using
expensive, industrial-grade machines. Portable Braille
embossers that are compatible with standard PC
computers are now available, however, and are ideal
for translating childrens storybooks into Grade 1

10
Braille. The process simply requires that the text of
the storybook be typed into a text le; which, in turn,
is imported into specialized software that sends it to a
portable embosser. A typical childrens storybook
can be translated to Braille in less than an hour, with
the pages organized in a 3-ring binder. Then, as the
blind child listens to the storybook with her sighted
friends, she can read along just like everyone else.
Young Children with Physical and Cognitive
Disabilities
Generally speaking, we discourage using
computer-based books with young children, believing
that animations and multimedia distract children
(and adults) from shared literacy experiences. However, there are circumstances in which digital books
have no substitute. For example, some children cannot physically hold books nor turn the pages; and
because of cognitive delays may require photographic
illustrations depicting familiar people, objects and
events. In these circumstances, home made digital
books present viable alternatives to print.
Computers can be adapted inexpensively for
switches, so that a child can activate a button click
using any voluntary movement, thus turning pages,
activating voices or animations. There are numerous
authoring software programs to produce customized
switch-accessible digital books for young children
with disabilities. The software is learner friendly
for teachers, librarians, parents and volunteersresulting in switch-activated, digital books
that can be shared at school and home using
PC computers. Two software recommendations are
Intellipics Studio (IntelliTools, 2003) and My Own
BookShelf (SoftTouch, 2004).
CREATING WELCOMING LITERACY
ENVIRONMENTS FOR NEW IMMIGRANTS
Although most new immigrants to the United
States recognize that literacy and education are
important for their children, for many reasons
including culture, language, poverty and fear, they
may be unable or unwilling to take advantage of
educational resources. Because of evidence that
school-home partnerships can signicantly aect
childrens learning (Padak and Rasinski, 2006), we
suggest the following professional practices that we
have tried with many groups of children and parents.
Produce bilingual recorded books by asking
bilingual readers to record the text of a given page, in
the language in which it is written (as a track); and a

Skouge
retelling of the same text using the home language (as
a separate track). Retellings do not need to be direct
translations and, often, can be produced by bilingual
high school student volunteers. Recordings can be
burned to CD using the techniques described earlier
and packaged with the storybook. Because the
recordings are on separate tracks, families can choose
their own listening strategies. Families may prefer rst
to listen to the home language track (in order to
comprehend the storyline), before listening to the text
as it is written.
(1) Invite parents to story reading workshops in which
they can practice reading and listening to stories with
children. Parents do not need to know how to read the
text of a book in order to re-tell the story using its illustrations; or to listen to a recorded storybook with their
child. Schedule the workshops on weekends. Provide
transportation and childcare. Send home recorded books.
If possible, acquire inexpensive, paperback books of folk
tales and legends written in home languages.
(2) Send children home with a storybook to read aloud to
their parents, choosing titles that have been rehearsed at
school. Encourage parents (including those who do not
speak the language of the school) to listen and encourage
their children to read. Children benet from reading to
their parents, even if the parents do not understand the
language of the text.
(3) Invite parents to storywriting and storytelling workshops in which they can illustrate and compose stories of
their own; and record oral stories and songs from their
home cultures. Even non-literate parents can create illustrations and dictate stories, when supported by a volunteer
scribe. A software program for such an activity is Storybook Weaver Deluxe (Riverdeep, 2006), which includes
cross-cultural clip art for book illustration. One practice
is to pair a parent with a computer-savvy volunteer at a
computer to create a storybook of a legend or tale from
their homeland.

What is common to all of the above interventions is a message to parents that sharing stories and
books with their children is a precious gift that will
foster in children a love of reading and an attitude for
success in school. Every family can engage in a story
time, regardless of the language or literacy level of the
parents.
TOWARD A VISION OF SCHOOLS AND
LIBRARIES AS FAMILY LEARNING CENTERS
By tradition and training, teachers and librarians
value books and promote reading. With the advent of
digital technologies, we embrace new opportunities to
make stories accessible to children and their families.
We walk a narrow line, however. On one hand, we
see marvelous tools for voice, including audio and
video recording, word processing and graphics,

Promoting Early Literacy

accompanied by new tools of dissemination such as
CD, DVD and the Internet. On the other hand, we
see the ubiquitous, unquenchable nature of technology to distract and disengage us from the intimate
communities in which language, story and experience
are shared.
In this article, we have taken the position that
technology under qualied conditions can serve to
build literacy-rich contexts for children, in which
stories that otherwise would go untold and unread,
can be made accessible to children and families.
Additionally, we addressed the challenges and opportunities associated with extending access to literacy
to children with disabilities and to children from
immigrant families. In these particular contexts,
technology may mean the dierence between school
success and failure.
To integrate technology with literacy, educators
must take risks to learn new skills, invest in evolving
technologies, and enter into partnerships with youth
who are technology savvy and eager to serve. The
skills described in this paper are within the reach of
professional educators. We say this with condence
because we teach them to undergraduates in our
University of Hawaii College of Education. Our
suggestions may require the acquisition of new
computers and multimedia software and new skills;
however in the decade to come, all the technologies
described will be commonplace.
The applications we describedaudio and video
recording, CD and DVD burning, and podcastingare already embraced by the worlds youth
culture (albeit for purposes not typically associated
with literacy). It behooves those of us who are reading this article to form partnerships with youth to
harness their energy in celebration of books and
developing literacy.

11
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