The Webster and Wind Model of Organizational Buying Behaviour

This is quite a comprehensive model. It considers four sets of variables which affect the buyingdecision making process in a firm. These are environmental, organizational, buying center, and
individual.
The environmental variables include (a) physical, (b)technological, (c) economic, (d) political,
(e) legal, (f) labour unions, (g) cultural, (h) customer demands, (i) competition, and (j) supplier
information. For example, in a recessionary economic condition, industrial firms minimize the
quantity of items purchased. The environmental factors influence the buying decisions of
individual organizations.
The organizational variables include (a) objectives, (b) goals, (c) organization structure, (d)
purchasing policies and procedures, (e) degree of centralization in purchasing, and (f) evaluation
and reward system. These variables particularly influence the composition and functioning of the
buying centre, and also, the degree of centralization or decentralization in the purchasing
function in the buying organization.
The functioning of buying centre is influenced by the organizational variables, the environmental
variables, and the individuals variables. The output of the group decision-making process of the
buying centre includes solutions to the buying problems of the organization and also the
satisfaction of personal goals of individual members of the buying centre.
The strengths of the model, developed in 1972, are that it is comprehensive, generally applicable,
analitytical, and that it identifies many key variables which could be considered while
developing marketing strategies by industrial marketers. However, the model is weak in
explaining the specific influence of the key varioables.

The Sheth Model of Industrial Buyer Behaviour

Professor Jagdish N Sheth developed the Sheth model in 1973. This model, show in Fig.3.4,
emphasizes the joint decision-making by two or more individuals, and the psychological aspects
of the decision making individuals in the industrial buying behaviour.
The model includes three components and situational factors, which determine the choice a
supplier or a brand in the buying decision making process in an organization. The differences
among the individual buyers expectations (Component 1) are caused by the factors, such as (a)
the background of individuals, (b) their information sources, (c) active search, (d) perceptual
distortion, and (e) satisfaction with past purchases.

The background of individuals depend upon their education, role in the organization, and life
style. The factor perceptual distortion means the extent to which each individual participant
modifies information to make it consistent with his existing beliefs and previous experiences. It
is difficult to measure perceptual distortion, although techniques such as factor analysis and
perceptual mapping are available for this purpose.
In component (2), show in Fig 3.4, there are six variables which determine whether the buying
decisions are autonomous (i.e.single individual) or joint (i.e.two or more individuals). According
to the Sheth Model, larger the size of the organization and higher the degree of decentralization,
more will be the possibilities of joint-decision making.
The component (3) in the model indicates the methods used for conflict resolution in jointdecision making process. Problem-solving and persuasion methods are used when there is an
agreement about the organizational objectives. If there is no such agreement, bargaining takes
place. Conflict about the style of decision making is resolved by politicking.
Situation factors can be varied like economic conditions, labour disputes, mergers ands
acquisitions. The model does not explain their influence on the buying process.
BUYING CENTRE

A buying centre is comprised of all those individuals and groups who

participate in the buying decision-making process, who share some common
goals and the risks arising from these decisions. Before identifying the
individuals and groups involved in the buying decision process, a marketer
must understand the roles of buying centre members. Understanding the
buying centre roles helps industrial marketers to develop an effective
promotion strategy.
Within any organisation, the buying centre will vary in the number and type of
participants for different classes of products.

1. Initiators:
Usually the need for a product/item and in turn a supplier arises from the
users. But there can be occasions when the top management, maintenance or
the engineering department or any such recognise or feel the need. These
people who initiate or start the buying process are called initiators.

2. Users:
Under this category come users of various products. If they are technically
sound like the R&D, engineering who can also communicate well. They play a
vital role in the buying process. They also act as initiators.

3. Buyers:
They are people who have formal authority to select the supplier and arrange
the purchase terms. They play a very important role in selecting vendors and
negotiating and sometimes help to shape the product specifications. The
major roles or responsibilities of buyers are obtaining proposals or quotes,
evaluating them and selecting the supplier, negotiating the terms and
conditions, issuing of purchase orders, follow up and keeping track of
deliveries. Many of these processes are automated now with the use of
computers to save time and money.

4. Influencers:
Technical personnel, experts and consultants and qualified engineers play the
role of influencers by drawing specifications of products. They are, simply put,
people in the organisation who influence the buying decision. It can also be
the top management when the cost involved is high and benefits long term.
Influencers provide information for strategically evaluating alternatives.

5. Deciders:
Among the members, the marketing person must be aware of the deciders in
the organisation and try to reach them and maintain contacts with them. The

organisational formal structure might be deceptive and the decision might not
even be taken in the purchasing department.
Generally, for routine purchases, the purchase executive may be the decider.
But for high value and technically complex products, senior executives are the
deciders. People who decide on product requirements/specifications and the
suppliers are deciders.

6. Approvers:
People who authorise the proposed actions of deciders or buyers are
approvers. They could also be personnel from top management or finance
department or the users.

7. Gate Keepers:
A gatekeeper is like a filter of information. He is the one the marketer has to
pass through before he reaches the decision makers. Understanding the role
of the gatekeeper is critical in the development of industrial marketing
strategies and the salespersons approach. They allow only that information
favourable to their opinion to flow to the decision makers. By being closest to
the action, purchasing managers or those persons involved in a buying centre
may act as gatekeepers. They are the people whom our industrial marketer
would first get in touch with. Hence, it so happens that information is usually
routed through them.
They have the power to prevent the sellers or information from reaching
members of the buying centre. They could be at any level and even be the
receptionists and telephone operators.

BUYING PROCESS
Unlike the consumer purchasing decision process, which is mainly a series of
mental stages, industrial purchasing decision making involves more physical
and observable stages.
There are many decision makers involved in each of the eight stages as
elaborated by the buy grid framework.

1. Phase 1: Recognition of a Problem:

The purchasing/buying process begins when someone in the company
recognises a problem or need that can be met by acquiring goods or services.
The common events that lead to this phase could be:
i. The company decides to develop a new product and needs new equipment
and materials to produce this product.
ii. It decides to diversify or expand and hence requires a multitude of new
suppliers.
iii. Purchasing Manager assesses an opportunity to obtain lower prices or
better quality.
iv. A machine breaks down and requires replacement or new parts.
v. Purchased materials turn out to be unsatisfactory and the company
searches for another supplier.

Early emolument in the new task/problem recognition phase offers the

marketer an advantage over competitive suppliers.

2. Phase 2: Description of the need:

This phase involves determination of the characteristics and quantity of the
needed item. The general characteristics could be reliability, durability, price
etc. and the marketer along with the purchasing manager, engineers and
users can describe the needs.
The questions that could be posed are:
i. What performance specifications need to be met?
ii. What types of goods and services should be considered?
iii. What are the application requirements? and
iv. What quantities would be needed?
The answers to such questions will give the marketer a general description of
the need which will be the input for the next phase.

3. Phase 3: Product Specification:

Obtaining the input from the second phase, the buying organisation has to
develop the technical specifications of the needed items. In this phase, the
product is broken down into items. The items in turn are sorted into standard
ones and new ones which need to be designed.
The specifications for both are listed. As a marketer, he must involve himself
and his technical and financial counterpart to determine the feasibility and also

to elaborate the services they can offer to develop and supply the product.
Unless it is a known supplier many companies do not encourage the supplier
participation at this stage. Customer relationship plays a vital role here.
Here is an example of how the supplier firm can help the buyer firm in this
phase.
Toyota Motor Corporation wanted to make a thinking car which could learn,
memorise and react to inputs from the human environment. They found Sony
Corporation had developed a mechanical dog displaying these features.
They involved Sony in the design of the car and evolved a pod which was
displayed at the 35th Tokyo Motor Show. It is yet to be manufactured for the
general public. Pod can exchange information with other vehicles, gauge the
drivers skill level; understand the drivers mood etc. Instead of a steering
wheel, it has a joystick.
Sony Corporation was involved with Toyoto Motor right from the design stage
and its inputs were individual components styling the portable terminal, interior
displays, joystick and development of ECU (Emotional Communication Unit)
for expressing emotions.
When LMLs Kanpur facility was designing and developing Freedom, a 100
cc bike, it employed the services of several companies for designing and
supply of many parts. Sriram supplied piston, Borg Warner of Germany
supplied the cam chain, Daclin designed and supplied the frame and MRF
was called in to develop tyres. The British firm Prodrine provided the
technological inputs for changes in the gear system.

4. Phase 4: Supplier Search:

This phase pertains to the search for the qualified suppliers among the
potential sources. The marketer has to ensure that he is in the list of potential
suppliers. For this to happen, he has to make periodic visits to all potential
companies and create awareness. Brochures have to be circulated and
advertisements placed in specific media like trade journals. This phase only
involves making a list of qualified suppliers.

5. Phase 5: Proposal Solicitation:

The lists of qualified suppliers are now further shortened based on some
critical factors. For example, if the buyer is not willing to try any new firm
which has not been in the market for more than three years, it can delist those
suppliers. Then the purchasing departments ask for proposals to be sent by
each supplier.
After evaluations, based on the specified criteria, some firms are asked to
come over for formal presentations. The proposal must include product
specification, price, delivery period, payment terms, taxes of experts and
duties applicable, transportation cost, cost of transit insurance and any other
relevant cost or free service provided. For purchase of routine products or
services, phases 4 and 5 may occur simultaneously as the buyer may contact
the qualified suppliers to get the latest information on prices and delivery
periods.
For technically complex products and services, a lot of time is spent in
analysing proposals in terms of comparison on products services, deliveries
and the landed cost.

A leading MNC which manufactures soaps requires the would be suppliers to

pass through three stages: that of a qualified supplier, an approved supplier
and a select supplier. To become qualified, the supplier has to demonstrate
technical capabilities, financial health, cost effectiveness, high quality
standards and innovativeness.
A supplier that satisfies these criteria then applies sample lot for approval.
Once approved, the supplier becomes a select supplier when it demonstrates
high product uniformity, continuous quality improvement and JIT delivery
capabilities.

6. Phase 6: Supplier Selection:

Each of the suppliers presentations are rated according to certain evaluation
models. The buying organisation may also attempt to negotiate with its
preferred suppliers for better prices and terms before making a final decision.

7. Phase 7: Order Routine Specification:

After the suppliers have been selected, the buyer negotiates the final order,
listing the technical specifications, the quantity needed, the expected time of
delivery, return policies, warranties etc. In case of maintenance, repair and
operating items, buyers are increasingly moving towards blanket contracts
rather than periodic purchase orders.
Blanket contracting leads to more single sources buying and ordering of more
items from that single source. This system brings the supplier in closer with
the buyer and makes it difficult for out-suppliers to break in unless the buyer
becomes dissatisfied with the in-suppliers prices, quality or service.

SKF India, the Swedish multinational manufacturing bearings in Pune and

Bangalore, was the single source supplier of ball bearings to TVS Motor
Company, located at Padi in Chennai.

8. Phase 8: Performance Review:

The final phase in the purchasing process consists of a formal or informal
review and feedback regarding product performance as well as vendor
performance. The buyer may contact the end user and ask for their
evaluations which are in turn given to the supplier or he may rate the supplier
on several criteria using a weighted score method or the buyer might also
aggregate the cost of poor supplier performance to come up with adjusted
costs of purchase including price.
The performance review might lead to the buyer to continue, improve or drop
a supplier. It is essential for a marketer to have a good relationship and
always follow up any customer complaints as soon as possible. More than the
defects and problems faced by the buyers in the product, it is the attitude of
the supplier which is seen more in focus.