By

Margareta Dipiazza and Tyler Johnson

MAT 182
Paul Cornell

INTRODUCTION

There was a time in the past, when nature and mathematics were considered
two entirely separate entities. Beyond societys manmade infrastructure, there was
very little mathematics could represent in our natural organically arranged world. That
is, until, the concept of fractal geometry came to light.
As it is relatively a new form of mathematics, fractal geometry is of course, not
as widely recognized as Euclidian geometry. Therefore, throughout the study of this
mesmerizing topic, it is essential to understand first the history of mathematics that
eventually led to the discovery of fractals, what fractals are, and what key features
they portray. As a supplement to aid in the understanding of fractals and their
importance, certain notable examples and modern day applications will also be
covered.

An image from the

largest salt flat in the
world, Salar de Uyuni,
located in southern
Bolivia. The encrusted
salt shows a
remarkably consistent
but random pattern, a
characteristic of
fractals.

HISTORICAL BACKROUND

Since the beginning of mankind our ancestors have been using mathematics to
help track, understand, and observe patterns. Numerous artifacts dated as early as
prehistoric times confirm that hunter-gatherer societies comprehended extremely
primitive mathematical concepts such as counting, magnitude, and forms. As mankind
evolved, and more complex civilized societies emerged, symbols and similar
primitive mathematics proved to be insufficient in satisfying the increasing needs of
society. The introduction of societys new demands of agricultural trade, taxation, and
architectural structures like temples and pyramids initiated the start of traditional
mathematics and arithmetic. Math continued to evolve during the 17th-century
scientific revolution led by Galileo, Newton, Desecrates; which undoubtedly propelled
mathematics as an indispensable tool for understanding scientific theorems and the
world around us. Eventually, between the 18th-century to 20th-century mathematics
moved into an even more exciting era as mathematicians began to entertain more
abstract and theoretical mathematics.
However, one fundamental key connection was not fully understood until
recently: the link between math and natural, irregular shaped forms. Organic entities,
such as cloud formations, the human body, and weather systems were thought to be
incomprehensible and in no way mathematically representable. The problem was that
mathematicians at that timerelying solely on classical mathematicscould only
explain smooth, regular geometric shapes and lines (all that mankind has created);

certainly not all the complex, erratic, natural shapes such as those found in nature.
Although there were many mathematicians that described and developed fractal-like
theories as early as the 17th century, such as; Gottfried Lebinz, Karl Weierstrass,
Pierre Fatou, Gaston Julia, Helge Von Koch, and George Cantor; due to the complex
calculations that fractal-like theories required, and the fact that computing was done all
by hand, their research ability remained limited. Without the invention of computers,
which did not occur until the mid to late 1900s, their obscure theories and research
could never be investigated and elaborated upon.
That is, until, a French mathematician named Benoit Mandelbrot (1885-2010)
decided he would revisit the work of some of historys most notable mathematicians in
an effort to complete the framework of their
theories of irregular, rough shapes.
Mandelbrots interest in their work was first
manifested in 1977 when he was consulted to
investigate a wide known issue that was
occurring with computer to phone line data
transmission at IBMs research laboratory.
The issue was that occasionally the data would
not go through, and that was particularly when the
transmission was exceptionally noisy. In an effort to

From youth, Mandelbrot exhibited a passion for

numbers. As he put it in his autobiography, The love
of his mind was mathematics.

solve this problem, Mandelbrot decided to approach

the issue from a visual aspect and first graphed the noise data. During the process, he

made a shocking discovery. He observed that regardless of the scale of time (second,
minute, or hour) the data looked almost exactly alike. It had repeating self-similar,
self-iterating characteristics - characteristics that immediately reminded him of the
research and concepts developed by various mathematics centuries prior (Specifically
the work of Gaston Julia whose work had intrigued him as a young child). The striking
similarities were impossible to ignoreMandelbrot knew he was on to something
great. He decided right then and there that he would investigate further and initiated a
project backed by IBM.
This time around, unlike the mathematicians of his past, Mandelbrot had
numerous technological advantages right at his fingertips to assist in further exploring
the unknown mathematical dimensions of rough and irregular shapes. Throughout his
years of exploration, Benoit found and proved that it is indeed possible to assign an
order to the seemingly chaotic patterns and structures such as those found in nature.
His research completely revamped the misconception that only our man-made world
of smooth, regular shapes could be mathematically represented and understood. His
progressive study of fractal properties eventually led to the compilation of his research
and theory in fractals: form, chance, and dimension. (Mandelbrot 1975) This
publication was later revised and published as The Fractal Geometry of Nature.
(Mandelbrot 1982) Yes, these publications were certainly notable crossroads as they
proved to be a formal introduction of a new form of geometry. It held the key for the
rest of the world to, for the first time, fully understand and discover our natures
organic framework in the mathematical sense.

FRACTALS-THE BASICS
Clouds are not spheres, mountains are not cones, and lightening does not travel
in a straight line. The complexity of nature's shapes differs in kind, not merely
degree, from that of the shapes of ordinary geometry, the geometry of fractal
shapes. - Mandelbrot The Fractal Geometry of Nature

The father of fractals, Benoit Mandelbrot, coined the term fractal back in 1975
based on the Latin term fractious, meaning broken, or fragmented. He defined them
as a rough or fragmented geometric shape that can be split into part, each of which is
(at least approximately) a reduced-size copy of the whole. In layman terms, fractals
can be considered as complex geometrical figures or patterns that are formed by
endless repetition of a simple rule or formula. It is a structure that can be magnified
infinitely and within each level of magnification, each small portion of it resembles its
entirety in some way - whether perfect or approximate.

FRACTALS PROPERTIES

Fractals exhibit three main properties: Iterative formation, self-similarity, and

fractional dimension. Let us review some of the main properties or characteristics of a
fractal to grasp a fuller understanding of the term.

ITERATIVE FORMATION
As mentioned in the explanation above, we know that a fractal is a complex
geometrical figure, structure, or pattern that endlessly repeats itself at different scales.
Although fractals as a whole are infinitely complex, its formation is quite a
simple concept. It boils down to: starting with a very basic shape or object, applying a
rule or formula, and then repeating that transformative step an infinite amount of times
at different scales. This process of repetition is known as iteration. Let's take a closer
look with some definitions and an example of fractal generation to better comprehend
how iteration plays a role.

-Every fractal is composed of an initiator and a generatorInitiator: An extremely basic shape or form that is the initial step in
fractal generation. It is the skeleton form of a fractal, before any iterative
or recursive process have been initiated and applied.
Generator: The scaled, possibly rearranged version of the initiator that
generates is used to produce a fractal. It is a rule that is repetitively
applied to each iteration.
Process of Fractal Generation: Take the generator and apply it to the
initiator by replacing EACH copy of the initiator with the generator. Repeat
over and over again. (Can technically be repeated an infinite amount of
times) Each step of applying the generator is known as an iteration.

Example of Iterative Formation: Sierpinski Triangle

Initiator: In this instance, the fractal is created with a basic triangle
form.
Generator: Created by the simple rule of removing the middle
triangle from the initiator.

INITIATOR

Figure 3: Sierpinski Initiator & Generator

Sierpinski Triangle Iterative Formation: For every step, we need to

replace the initiator with a copy of the generator. This results in the
fractals repetitive pattern.

GENERATOR

Figure 4: Sierpinski Triangle Progression of Scales

SELF-SIMILARITY

In geometry, figures that are proportional but that differ in scale or perhaps
degree of rotation are known to be called similar. Furthermore, a figure is said to be
self-similar if the form as a whole, is made up of smaller scaled copies of itself.

Figure 5: Similar Geometric Figures

Figure 6: Self-Similar Geometric Figures

Notice that in figure 5, both pentagons, are considered to be proportionally

similar regardless of size or degree of rotation. In figure 6, the square furthest to the
right is considered to be a self-similar square, meaning the whole figure of the square
contains smaller portions of itself.
Structures that do not display finer features when magnified are considered to
be non-fractal structures. In comparison fractals when magnified will continue to
reveal new, finer replicas of itself. They are structures that can be broken down into
small pieces, and each portion will still resemble its entirety in some way; whether
exact or approximate. This self-similar property is a direct result of a fractals infinite
iteration process.

EXACT SELF-SIMILARITY
Some fractals are exactly the same at every scale. For example, the Koch Snowflake,
depicted in figure 7, displays exact self-similarity throughout all levels of magnification or
iteration.

Figure 7: Koch Snowflake -Exact SelfSimilarity Within Iterations

APPROXIMATE SELF-SIMILARITY
While some fractals are identical at every level, others, such as the famous Mandelbrot Set [Figure
8/9], display self-similarity at an approximate level. Both examples are made of up an infinite amount
of approximately self-similar copies. The deeper the magnification, the more and more replicas or
miniature sets of the entire structure can be seen.

Figure 8/9- Mandelbrot Set: In

the process of exploring Gaston
Julias work, Mandelbrot
happened to discover perhaps
the most famous fractal of allthe Mandelbrot Set. As shown
in the figures above, no matter
how many times the Mandelbrot
Set is magnified, it exhibits
similar variations of the initial
pattern.

FRACTAL DIMENSION

When speaking of dimensions in classical geometry, the majority of society

instantly thinks of just the commonly known integer dimensions to describe how an
object occupies space. 0-3 to describe a point, line, area, or volume of a figure,
respectively.
However, some forms, which possess rough and irregular characteristics,
require more than just the basic integer dimensions to represent the space they occupy.
This is where fractal dimensions come into play.

Figure 10: Fractal Dimension typically between

dimensions 1&2 or dimensions 2&3.

Fractal dimensions are found between the standard integer dimensions, and are
in a decimal format. They allow for a roughness factor that classical dimensions
cannot represent. This measure of roughness enables us to measure the previously

"immeasurable" organic components that we see in everywhere in the natural world

around us, such as cloud formations and mountainous terrains.
For example, take a sheet of printer paper. For this purpose, the paper is
considered to occupy a two-dimensional space. Now crumple the paper up into a ball.
The flat sheet of paper is now filling up a three-dimensional space as a sphere.
However, what if one were to unravel the paper? What dimension of space would it
then be characterized as? Well, the paper, now possessing a new crinkled texture,
neither takes up space like a flat, two-dimensional sheet of paper or a spherical, threedimensional ball. Instead, the sheet of paper is now occupying space somewhere inbetween the second and third dimensions, giving it a fractional or decimal dimension
between two and three.

Figure 12
Figure 12 & 13: The rough or irregular
dimension this crinkled paper occupies
displays the same type of dimension that
geometric fractals and natural fractal forms
such as mountain terrains also exhibit
fractal dimension.

Figure 13

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EX: How to Compute Fractal Dimension for EXACT self-similar fractals:

Self-Similar Pieces = 3
Magnification Factor = 2

Self-Similar Pieces = Count number of self-similar pieces, depicted in red. For this iteration, the
spierspki triange has three minature copies of its original self. Value of N will be three.
Magnification Factor = Ask yourself, how many times does the smallest replica of the fractal need
to be magnified in order to produce the original copy? You could also take the length of smallest
copy and divide from the length of the whole fractal to find this value. For this specific iteration
of the sierpinski triangle, let us say the minature triangles have a length of one and a half inches
and that the original fractal has a length of three inches. Divide three by one and a half and you get
two. Therefore, the magnification factor, or S value for this iteration is two!

The Sierpinski Triangle has a dimension of 1.58!

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APPLICATIONS OF FRACTALS
NATURAL APPLICATIONS

If geometry and straight lines are what we used as humans to design our world,
then fractals are what Mother Nature has used to design hers. From trees, to coral, to
the hunting pattern of sharks, fractals can be found virtually everywhere in nature.

Weather Patterns: Due to their fractallike nature, weather patterns can be

defined and represented mathematically.
This capability allows us to predict the
weather accurately today!

Hunting Pattern of Sharks: According to David Sims, of the Marine Biological

Association of the United Kingdom,
in a new study, scientists found that
sharks use a complex mathematical
foraging pattern called a Lvy flight.
The pattern is fractal-like pattern that
is self-similar whether in the size of
the ocean or the size of a football
field.

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MODERN DAY APPLICATIONS

Just as Mandelbrot anticipated, the concepts and principals of fractal geometry

have endless modern applications that further allow us to better perceive and connect
our natural world with the man-made world.
Antennas, Wifi, and Cellular devices:
Fractal knowledge of self-similar shapes
allow for compact and
and represented through fractals and their
properties -such a stark contrast efficient
data transmission over an extensive range of frequencies.

Fractals in Medicine: Reading CT

scans can be time consuming. By
teaching computers to recognize the
fractal pattern of the human body it
will be possible to earlier detect
diseases such as lung cancer. The
picture shows a schematic diagram of
normal blood vessels, abnormal
tumorous blood vessels, 'renormalized'
blood vessels, and inadequately space-filling blood vessels.

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CONCLUSION

It is without question that one may conclude that fractals are an indispensable
part of modern mathematics. We now live in a world where nature can be understood
from a century ago, when such organic forms were categorized as unexplainable!
With this newfound understanding of physical entities and biological
processes, society not only has been able to represent and study these natural organic
forms, but also, unlock limitless potential for technological advancement. Already,
thousands of unbelievable, even life-changing, applications have been made and to
think we have barely even scratched the surface!

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PHOTOS CITED
Cover Page Photo: http://www.wired.com/2010/09/fractal-patterns-in-nature/
Salt Field Photo: http://www.wired.com/2010/09/fractal-patterns-in-nature/?viewall=true
Mandelbrot Photo: http://www.oxfordstrat.com/resources/ideas/mandelbrot-benoit/
Figure 3: Computer Generated
Figure 4: http://www.mathsisfun.com/sierpinski-triangle.html
Figures 5&6: Computer Generated
Figure 7: http://imgkid.com/koch-snowflake.shtml
Figures 8&9: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/fractals/set.html
Figure 10: http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimension
Figure 11: http://math.bu.edu/DYSYS/chaos-game/node6.html
Figure 12: http://whippys.deviantart.com/art/Crinkled-Paper-79779014
Figure 13: http://www.microfilmmaker.com/reviews/Issue63/Vue9Inf.html
Figure 14: http://alg.umbc.edu/usaq/archives/004802.html
Figure 15: http://phys.org/news164866159.html
Figure 16: http://fractalfoundation.org/OFC/OFC-12-2.html
Figure 17: Image courtesy of Edwin L. Steele Laboratory, Harvard.

WORKS CITED
fractalfoundation.org
http://www.wired.com/2010/09/fractal-patterns-in-nature/?viewall=true
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/fractals/set.html
http://www.slideshare.net/MILANJOSHIJI/fractal-geometry-and-its-applications-by-milan-a-joshi
http://math.bu.edu/DYSYS/chaos-game/node6.html
http://discovermagazine.com/2011/jan-feb/92
http://fractalfoundation.org/OFC/OFC-12-4.html

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http://www.vanderbilt.edu/AnS/psychology/cogsci/chaos/workshop/Fractals.html
http://www.icd.com/tsd/fractals/beginner6.htm
http://people.cst.cmich.edu/piate1kl/MTH_553_F07/Fractals.pdf
http://fractalfoundation.org/resources/fractivities/
http://fractalfoundation.org/resources/lessons/
http://fractalfoundation.org/resources/what-are-fractals
http://www.vanderbilt.edu/AnS/psychology/cogsci/chaos/workshop/Fractals.html
http://www.icd.com/tsd/fractals/beginner6.htm
http://fractalfoundation.org/fractivities/FractalPacks-EducatorsGuide.pdf
http://www.fractal.org/Bewustzijns-Besturings-Model/Fractals-Useful-Beauty.htm
http://www.shodor.org/interactivate/lessons/PropertiesOfFractals/
http://math.rice.edu/~lanius/fractals/pasc.html
http://math.rice.edu/~lanius/fractals/self.html
http://math.rice.edu/~lanius/fractals/iter.html
http://math.bu.edu/DYSYS/chaos-game/node6.html
http://math.bu.edu/DYSYS/chaosgame/node5.html#SECTION00050000000000000000

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